The document discusses Japan's security relations with the United States from 1951 to the present. It analyzes how the structure of international relations, the agency of political leaders, and norms have shaped the relationship over time. During the Cold War, structure constrained Japan but it learned to use institutions to pursue its interests. Post-Cold War, the relationship strengthened with expanded Japanese security roles, though tensions remain over US bases in Okinawa. Conservative leaders have pushed greater cooperation while anti-militarist norms have weakened compared to bilateral and internationalist norms.

1. Last Week: Japan-US Economic Relations
• Structure: the international structure (e.g.,
alliance with the US) has constrained Japan’s
ability to instrumentalize its economic power.
• Agency: In the Post-Cold War period, Japanese
policy makers and negotiators have learned to
use multilateral institutions to seek a solution
more favorable to national interests.
• Norms: pursued developmentalism and
economism to change from a devastated
economy through a second-tier economy, to a
challenger to the US economic dominance.

2. Unit 6
Japan’s Security Relations
with the United States
Prof. Glenn Hook

3. Aim
To apply the theoretical approach introduced to
Japan’s security relations with the United States.

4. Objectives
1) to identify the relative importance of structure, agency
and norms in explaining the bilateral security
relationship;
2) to demonstrate how structure, agency and norms can be
used to explain different aspects of the security
relationship with the US;
3) to illustrate how structure, agency and norms can be
used to explain case studies, such as: Japan’s signing
of the US-Japan Security Treaty in 1951 and its renewal
in 1960, revision of the US-Japan Guidelines for
Defense Cooperation in the 1990s, and Japan’s
responses to post-9/11 US-led wars;

5. Interpreting the US-Japan Security Treaty
• History of the US-Japan security relationship: US-Japan
Security Treaty (1951) and its inequality is shown in:
i. US did not give Japan a written defence commitment in this treaty;
ii. US had the right to intervene in Japan’s domestic affairs through the use
of force;
iii. US had the exclusive rights to administer Okinawa and base its military
troops. The US did not need to consult Japan on the use of the bases.

6. Futenma base in Okinawa

7. Renewal of the Security Treaty
• US-Japan Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security (1960):
i. US could not intervene in Japanese domestic affairs –
reflecting Japan’s independence as a sovereign nation;
ii. Announced a clear commitment to defend Japan;
iii. Placed some restrictions on the use of US military bases in
Japan.

8. Protest against the 1960
US-Japan Security Treaty revision

9. What is the purpose of the Security Treaty?
i. Keep Japan down;
ii. As the guarantor of peace and security;
iii.Conduit to pressure Japan to build the military up.

10. Impact of the US-Japan Security Treaty (1960):
• The role of the treaty has linked Japan firmly to US security
interests and norms
• The US-Japan security relationship has been at the core of
Japan’s security policy since the end of WWII;
• Bilateralism and anti-militarism - have always worked together
depending on the structure, agency and norms relevant to the
particular context.

11. Structure, Agency and Norms:
US-Japan security relationship (Cold War)
• Structure:
i. Japan’s close association with the US;
ii. Japan was highly vulnerable to US pressure;
iii. Constant pressure from U.S. on Japan to
contribute further to regional security within
the context of US-Japan security relationship;

12. Structure, Agency and Norms:
US-Japan security relationship (Cold War)
• Agency:
i. Yoshida (1946-54)
ii. Kishi (1957-60);
iii. Ikeda (1960-4) and Sato (1964-72) administrations;
iv. Miki Takeo (1974-6);
v. Fukuda Takeo (1976-8), Ohira Masayoshi (1978-80), and
Suzuki Zenko (1980-2);
vi. Nakasone Yasuhiro (1982-7).

13. Prime Minister Yoshida vs. Prime Minister Nakasone

14. Structure, Agency and Norms:
US-Japan security relationship (Cold War)
• Norms:
i) Anti-militarist norm remained important in mitigating
the conservatives and checking the US pressure;
ii) Competing pressures of bilateralism and anti-
militarism varied depending on the administrations in
Japan.

15. US-Japan security relationship
in the post-Cold War era
Japan-US security relationship has been strengthened (NDPO 2010,
1996 Japan-US Joint Declaration on Security, and 1978 Guidelines for
Japan-US Defence Cooperation):
• Expansion of Japan’s security role:
i. Increased interoperability and joint weapons development combined
with a more proactive role after 9/11 (ATSML);
ii. Japan’s security role has expanded to providing support to US military
during emergencies in ‘situations in areas surrounding Japan’ as well
as support for the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq;
iii. Tension over US bases in Okinawa – representative of the combined
influences of domestic and external agency, continuing to be informed
by norms of bilateralism and anti-militarism.

16. US-Japan security relationship
in the post-9/11 era
1. US-Japan bilateral mutual cooperation was augmented (Theatre
Missile Defence (TMD) project);
2. Japan actively participated in US-led war on terror but no
warriors sent; support for wars in Afghanistan and Iraq;
3. Japan’s cooperation with the US was reinforced by the
restructuring of the US military presence in Japan  to enhance
interoperability of the two militaries;
4. US bases on mainland Japan and Okinawa – assurances from
the US to protect Japan’s administration of the Senkaku/Diaoyu
Islands (December 2012) if challenged militarily (e.g., by China).

17. Japan cooperating with the US militarily

18. Structure, Agency and Norms:
US-Japan security relationship (Post-Cold War)
• Structure:
i. End of bipolarity and an onset of multi-polarity;
ii. More pressure on states to contribute to global security;
iii. International events raised the level of threat to Japan and the
need for US to maintain a military presence in Asia.

19. Structure, Agency and Norms:
US-Japan security relationship (Post-Cold War)
• Agency:
I. The left has weakened within the Japanese political system;
II. A conservative brand of revisionists from the Kishi faction (e.g.
Koizumi, Abe, Asō), interrupted only briefly during the switch
to Hosokawa and DPJ (Hatoyama, Kan, Noda)
administrations;
III.A generational change within Japanese society and politics
which has weakened the culture of anti-militarism.

20. Prime Minister Abe vs. Prime Minister Koizumi

21. Structure, Agency and Norms:
US-Japan security relationship (Post-Cold War)
• Norms:
i. New post-Cold War environment introduced
internationalism norm;
ii. Internationalist norm along with bilateralism are challenging
the anti-militarist norms.

22. Conclusion
• The general trend has been for a weakening of the
constraints on the Self-Defence Forces;
• The US pressure has decreased and Japan has shown
greater willingness to boost cooperation with the US
military;
• A weakening of the anti-militarism norm in shaping the
US-Japan bilateral security relationship;
• Reaffirmation of bilateralism despite Japan’s increased
tendency towards independence.