developing land for the current needs of the population without affecting the needs of the future generations is very important

1. Contents of competence
Lo1. Determine land management/production
objectives
Lo2. Estimating costs and advantages for
management units
Lo3. Defining the performance criteria for each
land management/production
Lo4. Selecting management options
Lo5. Negotiating possible actions with relevant
stakeholders
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2. Definition of some key terms
Land; is a delineable area of the earth’s
terrestrial surface, encompassing all
attributes of the biosphere immediately above
or below this surface, including those of the
near-surface climate, the soil and terrain
forms, the surface hydrology (including
shallow lakes, rivers and wetlands) the near-
surface sedimentary layers and associated
ground water reserve, the plant and animal
populations, the human settlement pattern
and physical results of past (FAO 1976).
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3.  “Land is the source of all material wealth.
From it we get everything that we use or
value, whether it be food, clothing, fuel,
shelter, metal, or precious stones. We live on
the land and from the land, and to the land
our bodies or our ashes are committed when
we die. The availability of land is the key to
human existence, and its distribution and use
are of vital importance”( S Rowton Simpson
1976 ).
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4.  Land administration is the regulatory
framework, institutional arrangements,
systems and processes that encompass the
determination, allocation, administration, and
information concerning land.
It includes the determination and conditions
of approved uses of land, the adjudication of
rights and their registration via titling, the
recording of land transaction, and the
estimation of value and taxes based on land
and property. The term, land includes the
structures and improvements thereon (Lyons
& Chandra 2001).
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5.  Rural land administration means a process
whereby rural land holding security is provided,
land use planning is implemented, dispute
between rural land holders are resolved, and the
rights and obligations of any rural landholder are
enforced, as well as information on farm plots
and grazing land of holders are gathered,
analyzed and supplied to users. (Source: Proc.
456/2005/)
 Land administration system
It is a process of determining, recording and
disseminating information about the ownership,
value and use of land and its associated
resources when implementing land management
policies.
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6. Such processes include the determination
(sometimes known as the adjudication) of rights
and other attributes of the land. It is also
considered to include land registration, cadastral
surveying and mapping, fiscal, legal and multi-
purpose cadastres and land information systems.
(Source: UN/FIG; 1998)
 Land Management is activities that associated
with the management of land as a resource,
from both an environmental /physical/,economic
and Social perspective, towards sustainable
development (Source: UN/FIG; 1999).
 A land unit; is an area of land possessing
specified land quality and land characteristics,
which can be demarcated on a map.
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7.  Present land use; is the activity of human beings
on land to fulfil their needs in a given period of
time.
 Land use; is the way in which land is used by
people in an area to produce what is needed by
people through involvement of labour, capital
and available technology.
-is the activity of human being on land for
different uses.
 Land cover; is the observed physical cover of the
earth’s surface”. Hence the land cover concept
includes cultivated land, vegetation, man-made
features, rock-outcrops, bare soil and exposed
sand surface.
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8. 1.1 consulting Land users' and other stakeholders
 During we determine land management/land use plan preparation we
should consulting land users and other stakeholder about what going
to done.
 Preparing land use planning is one way of land management for
better production through sustainable land resource utilization.
 land-use planning means the systematic assessment of physical,
social and economic factors in such a way as to encourage and
assist land users in selecting options that increase their
productivity that are sustainable and meet the needs of society
 Its purpose is to select and put into practice those land uses that will
best meet the needs of the people while safeguarding resources for
the future.
 Land use planning can be at different levels (national, regional, zone,
woreda, watershed or village or farm level). The process involves the
participation of the land users and other stakeholders.
 Land-use planning/land management involves getting many different
people to work together towards common goals.
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9. Three groups of people are directly involved in
land use plan preparation
 Land users
 The planning team(from different disciplines
like a soil surveyor, a land evaluation
specialist, an agronomist, a forester, a range
and livestock specialist, an engineer, an
economist and a sociologist
 Decision-makers like regional land
management bodies, local regulatory
authorities and Land Administration
committees.
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10. The benefits of a good land administration
system.
 Guarantee ownership and security of tenure;
 Protect State lands;
 Support land and property taxation;
 Provide security for credit;
 Develop and monitor land markets;
 Reduce land disputes;
 Improve urban planning and infrastructure
development;
 Support environmental management;
 Facilitate land reform;
 Produce statistical data.
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11.  The objectives we set to land administration/
land management should address/ solve the
impacts that will happen on anything due to
change in land administration.
Major Causes of Land-Use Change
The causes of land-use change can be divided
into two categories: proximate (direct, or local)
and underlying (indirect or root). The proximate
causes of land-use change explain how and why
local land cover and ecosystem processes are
modified directly by humans, while underlying
causes explain the broader context and
fundamental forces underpinning these local
actions.
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12.  In general, proximate causes operate at the
local level (individual farms, households, or
communities) and underlying causes
originate from regional (districts, provinces,
or country) or even global levels. As a result,
underlying causes also tend to be complex,
formed by interactions of social, political,
economic, demographic, technological,
cultural, and biophysical variables. In general,
underlying causes tend to operate more
diffusely (i.e., from a distance), often by
altering one or more proximate causes. The
following are some of the main causes of land
use change
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13. Natural Variability: Natural environmental
changes interact with the human decision
making processes that cause land-use
change. Highly variable ecosystem
conditions driven by climatic variations
amplify the pressures arising from high
demands on land resources, especially under
resource-limiting conditions, such as dry to
sub-humid climatic conditions. Though
natural and socioeconomic changes may
operate independently, natural variability may
also lead to socioeconomic unsustainability:
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14.  Economic and Technological Factors: Economic factors and
policies influence land use decision making by
altering prices, taxes, and subsidies on land use
inputs and products, changing the costs of
production and transportation, and by altering
capital flows and investments, credit access, trade
, and technology.
 Economic changes are increasingly mediated by
institutional factors, markets and policies, such as
agricultural subsidies, that are influenced by global
factors driving a trend toward intensive commercial
agriculture and away from subsistence croplands.
For example, giving farmers better access to credit
and markets (by road building and other
infrastructure changes), combined with improved
agricultural technology and secure land tenure can
encourage land user to change land use.
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15.  Demographic Factors: Both increases and
decreases in local populations have large
impacts on land use. Demographic changes
include not only shifts in fertility and
mortality (e.g. the demographic transition),
but also changes in household structure and
dynamics, including labor availability,
migration, urbanization, and the breakdown
of extended families into multiple nuclear
families.
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16.  Institutional Factors: Land-use changes are
influenced directly by political, legal, economic, and
traditional institutions and by their interactions with
individual decision making. Access to land, labor,
capital, technology, and information are structured by
local and national policies and institutions, including:
property-rights; environmental policies; decision-
making systems for resource management (e.g.,
decentralized, democratized, state-controlled, local
communal, legal) and social networks concerning
distribution and access to resources Having or
lacking strong institutional setup is the main factors
for good or poor land administration and other
consequences. Therefore it is critical that institutions
that influence land management decisions are built
around participation by local land managers and
concern for the environment.
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17.  Cultural Factors: The motivations, collective
memories, personal histories, attitudes,
values, beliefs, and individual perceptions of
land managers influence land-use decisions.
The intended and unintended ecological
consequences of land-use decisions all
depend on the knowledge, information, and
management skills available to land
managers. The cultural factors influence on
management of resources, setting strategies,
compliance or resistance to policies, social
learning, and social resilience in the face of
land-use change.
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18.  Globalization: Globalization processes can
increase or attenuate existing driving forces
for land use change by removing regional
barriers to change, weakening national
connections, and increasing the
interdependency among people and between
nations.
 globalization can also improve environmental
conditions through green certification and
eco-labeling, wider and more rapid spread of
technologies, better media coverage allowing
international pressure on states that degrade
their resources, and free circulation of
people, which provides better educational
and employment opportunities.
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19. some of the limitation observed due to
inappropriate land use change process
 Loss of land productivity on sensitive areas
 Deforestation
 The transition from communal to private land
ownership in developing regions .
 Ecological marginalization of the poor by land
expropriation for large-scale agriculture , dams,
forestry projects, tourism, and wildlife
conservation.
 Land use intensification in per-urban and market
-accessible areas
 The breakdown of traditional extended families
and its impacts on resource use efficiency.
 Delayed and ineffective social responses to
deteriorating environmental situations,
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20.  Any objectives settled to improve land
administration must related to the defined
problems in the area.
 Any objectives settled to manage land or to land
use planning should be consider the national,
regional and local legislation and regulations.
 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE);
and Proclamation No. 456/2005, FDRE Rural
Land Administration and Land Use Proclamation.
 Oromia Rural Land Use and Administration
Proclamation No. 130/ 2007
 Urban land lease holding proclamation No.
721/2011
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21.  During we plan to improve land management
through different measurement option the
selected management option and techniques
planned to apply should support strategies
settled for land management.
 To manage land resource effectively for the sake
of address sustainable development, the Land
characteristics like terrain, slope, and formation,
depth, texture, moisture, and infiltration rate and
soil capability are studied and analyzed carefully
since they are the major determinants of land
management activities in a watershed. The broad
category of land management interventions can
be as follows; Structural Measures, Vegetative
Measures, Production Measures, and Protection
Measures
QUIZ
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22. Defining the diversity of land management and
production values
Land units and land-use systems
 To analyze the present situation it will be
necessary to break the area down into land units,
areas that are relatively homogeneous with
respect to climate, landforms, soils and
vegetation. Each land unit presents similar
problems and opportunities and will respond in
similar ways to management.
 Appropriate land units at the national level might
be agro climatic regions; at the district level, land
use systems; and, at the local level, land facets,
soil series or other soil mapping units.
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23.  Land-use systems are frequently defined in
terms of dominant crops, e.g. a
maize/tobacco system. Other common
criteria for differentiating land-use systems
within a land unit are large and small farms
or those with and without livestock.
 The land management units depends on
different things like types of land use; Forest,
farm land, grazing land, aquatic, residential
industrial commercial/large agricultural and
holding types like private, communal, and
state/public.
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24.  The land management units should be prioritized
based on the changes it will bring from the three
pillar of sustainable development and costs it
incurred to change land use/ land management
Land-use planning aims to make the best use of
limited resources by:
• assessing present and future needs and
systematically evaluating the land's ability to supply
them;
• identifying and resolving conflicts between
competing uses, between the needs of individuals
and those of the community, and between the needs
of the present generation and those of future
generations;
• seeking sustainable options and choosing those that
best meet identified needs;
• planning to bring about desired changes;
• learning from experience.
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25.  Before we change land use types from one to other
we should have to analysis the cost it need to invest
and the benefit returned then after evaluated from
the sustainable development point of view.
Cost Benefit Analysis
 Cost-benefit analysis is a tool for assessing whether
or not the input costs of an activity can be justified by
the outputs and outcomes.
 Cost-benefit analysis is a technique that attempts to
assess the economic and social costs of any project
and to compare these with the financial and social
benefits of the investment. It extends the processes
of investment appraisal into wider considerations
such as the creation of a ‘better” environment.
 The evaluation of costs and benefits of alternative
land uses is made easier if both costs and benefits
can be expressed in monetary terms
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26.  The concept of land value is useful when land is regarded as a
consumption good that is traded or exchanged in the market.
 Land value is an abstract word with many acceptable definitions.
 value can be defined as the present worth of future benefits
arising from the ownership of real property.
 Land value is affected by the production, accessibility, topography,
soil, and existing use of the area, historical and other factors.
Advantages of CBA: SEC-5
 Makes explicit the economic assumptions that might overlooked at
the design stage.
 Useful for convincing policy-makers and funders that the benefits
justify the activity
 Good quality approach for estimating the efficiency of programs
and projects.
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27. Disadvantages:
 Difficulty to get reasonable technical expert,
 requiring adequate financial and human
resources.
 Requisite data for cost-benefit calculations
may not be available, and projected results
may be highly dependent on assumptions
made.
 Results must be interpreted with care,
particularly in projects where benefits are
difficult to quantify.
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28. Comparing costs with impacts and losses of
land use change
 In developing land administration/ action
plan for land management the costs paid and
its impact/change come then after land use
in the area changed should be compared with
the losses occurred if land use is not changed
or if land use changed. consideration is
given to assessing the costs and benefits of
existing as well as new systems of land
administration.
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29. In seeking to assess benefits and to determine “value
for money” as a result of new investment in a land
administrative system, it is useful to carry out a user
requirements analysis. This should: -
 Identify who the existing and potential users are; -
Document what information is already available;
 -Identify potential new data sets that should be
helpful to land managers, tax gatherers, the general
public, etc.;
 -Determine any legal requirements to provide data
or that might restrict their use (this is especially so
in the case of central and local government data sets
where any data protection act may inhibit the use of
data for purposes other than that for which they
were collected);
 -Evaluate each data set in terms of its costs to
acquire, to store and to update; and -Evaluate the
benefits that should come from each data set.
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30. Defining performance criteria in accordance with
sustainable land use principles.
 Sustainable land management (SLM) is crucial to
minimizing land degradation, rehabilitating
degraded areas and ensuring the optimal use of land
resources for the benefit of present and future
generations. SLM is based on four common
principles:
• land-user-driven and participatory approaches;
• integrated use of natural resources at ecosystem
and farming systems levels;
• multilevel and multi stakeholder involvement; and
• targeted policy and institutional support, including
development of incentive mechanisms for SLM
adoption and income generation at the local level.
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31.  Sustainable land management is a
knowledge-based procedure that helps
integrate land, water, biodiversity, and
environmental management (including input
and output externalities) to meet rising food
and fiber demands while sustaining
ecosystem services and livelihoods.
 SLM is necessary to meet the requirements of
a growing population. Improper land
management can lead to land degradation
and a significant reduction in the productive
and service functions (World Bank 2006).
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32. Sustainable land management combines technologies, policies,
and activities aimed at integrating socioeconomic principles
with environmental concerns, so as to simultaneously:
 maintain and enhance production (productivity)
 reduce the level of production risk, and enhance soil capacity
 protect the potential of natural resources and prevent
degradation
 be economically viable (viability)
 be socially acceptable, and assure access to the benefits from
improved land management (acceptability/equity)
 Preserving and enhancing the productive capabilities of
cropland, forestland, and grazing land (such as upland areas,
down-slope areas, flatlands, and bottomlands)
 Maintaining the ability of aquifers to serve the needs of farm
and other productive activities.
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33. Four basic strategies for SLM will be
considered:
• Mechanical soil conservation (construction of
terraces, bunds, grass strips etc.).
• Improved tillage regimes.
• Intensification, meaning increasing inputs in
order to increase the sustained value of the
land’s output. These inputs include water.
• Conservation of on-farm biodiversity.
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34. Principles for best SLM practices
 Increased land productivity
◦ Water use efficiency
◦ Soil fertility
◦ Plants and their management
◦ Micro-climate
 Improved livelihoods
◦ Costs and benefits
◦ Input challenges for land users
 Improved ecosystems: being environmentally
friendly
◦ Prevent, mitigate and rehabilitate land degradation
◦ Improve biodiversity
◦ Climate change: a fresh challenge – a new
opportunity?
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35.  Land use planning aims at sustainability balancing social, economic and environ- mental needs;
 Land use planning results in a legally binding land use plan and/or legally binding land use rules.
 Land use planning is integrated into state institutions having the official mandate for inter-sector
planning.
 Land use planning is a dialogue.
 Land use planning is an all-inclusive process.
 Land use planning is based on stakeholder differentiation and gender sensitivity.
 Land use planning promotes civic engagement.
 Land use planning is realistic and oriented to local conditions.
 Land use planning in terms of methodology and content differs
 Land use planning considers and valorizes local knowledge.
 Land use planning takes into account traditional strategies for solving problems and conflicts.
 Land use planning integrates bottom-up aspects with top-down aspects (“vertical integration”).
 Land use planning is based on inter-disciplinary cooperation and requires sector coordination
(“horizontal integration”).
 Land use planning is a process leading to an improvement in the capacity of stakeholders.
 Land use planning requires transparency
 Land use planning is future-oriented (“visionary”).
 Land use planning is implementation oriented.
 Land use planning is linked to financial planning.
 Land use planning relates to spaces and places (“spatial orientation”).
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36.  Land-use planning can be applied at three broad levels: national,
district and local levels. These are not necessarily sequential but
correspond to the levels of government at which decisions about
land use are taken.
 The greater the interaction between the three levels of planning,
the better the results will be. The flow of information should be in
both directions.
National level
 At the national level- planning is concerned with national goals
and the allocation of resources. In many cases, national land-use
planning does not involve the actual allocation of land for different
uses, but a national land-use plan may cover:
◦ Land-use policy - balancing the competing demands for land among
different sectors of the economy - food production, export crops,
tourism, wildlife conservation, housing and public amenities, roads,
industry;
◦ National development plans and budget - project identification and the
allocation of resources for development;
◦ Coordination - of sectoral agencies involved in land use
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37. District level
 The kinds of issues tackled at this district level
include:
◦ The sitting of developments- such as new settlements,
forest plantations and irrigation schemes;
◦ The need for improved infrastructure- such as water
supply, roads and marketing facilities;
◦ The development of management guidelines- for
improved kinds of land use on each type of land.
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38. Local level
 The local planning unit may be the village, a group
of villages or a small water catchment.
 At this level, it is easiest to fit the plan to the
people, making use of local people's knowledge
and contributions.
 Alternatively, this may be the first level of
planning, with its priorities drawn up by the local
people.
 Local-level planning is about getting things done
on particular areas of land - what shall be done
where and when, and who will be responsible.
 Area wide Land Use Plan
 Community wide land use plan
 Small/Specific Area Plan types of land use plan
 Development Management Plan
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39.  Good LUP study requires:
◦ Clearly defined scope and limitations of the work
to be done.
◦ The process should be clearly explained so that it
can be reproduced and verified by other planners.
◦ Highly ethical standards to be applied.
◦ Documentation of all limitations is vital.
◦ Adequately analyzed and explained data.
◦ All findings be presented unambiguously and all
conclusions be justified by sufficient evidence.
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40.  Steps in Land-Use Planning
 Step 1. Establish goals and terms of reference
 Step 2. Organize the work
 Step 3. Analyze the problems
 Step 4. Identify opportunities for change
 Step 5. Evaluate land suitability
 Step 6. Appraise the alternatives:
environmental, economic and social analysis
 Step 7. Choose the best option
 Step 8. Prepare the land-use plan
 Step 9. Implement the plan
 Step 10. Monitor and revise the plan
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41. Contents of a Land Use Plan
 Any land use plan should have at least the
following contents/elements:
 Clearly defined objectives
 Description and presentation of the situations
and economic analysis
 Intervention costs and effects
 Who does what? Who benefits from the plan?
 The overall responsibility of the actors
 Identification of the participant authorities, and
the way of the participation?
 The used mechanisms?
 Agreed land use compensation restrictions
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42.  Checklist of activities in the planning process:
1. Data collection and review
◦ Review reports and data related to the project
◦ Assess target population in terms of social and
demographic characteristics, employment needs
and capacity to pay new accommodations
◦ Review existing policies and programmes in
transportation, health, education, industrial
development, leisure, social services, etc
◦ Review of existing standards and costs
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43. 2. Preparation of site analysis
◦ Review of potential sites(ownership and land availability,
transportation network, proximity to working place and
services, topography analysis, drainage, vegetation,
climate, environment, expansion, etc)
◦ Map for constraints and opportunities
3. Set goals and objectives: defining standard and
criteria
◦ Review of policy guidelines of relevant authorities
◦ Goal and specific objectives setting supported by
implementing authority
◦ Need assessment based on household interview
◦ Search for standards(construction , social environment,
economy, etc)
◦ Need of community facilities and standards of provision
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44. 4. Preparation of alternative plans and
program
◦ Developing alternative concepts (on location, land
use, infrastructure, transportation, etc.
◦ Developing landscape concepts for conservation,
climate, wind exposure, planting, land form, rain,
etc
5. Evaluation of alternatives: costs comparison
◦ Development of evaluation system and criteria for
selection of plans
◦ Evaluation of plans in socio-economic physical
planning, cost, administrative and financial visibility
◦ Selection of preferred set of options with best
response to criteria and best use of resources
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45. 6. Environmental impact assessments/EIA of proposals
◦ Description of the present conditions
◦ Description of the proposed action
◦ Consideration of the impact on natural systems including
hydrology, climate, vegetation, wild life
◦ Description of the unavoidable and irreversible impact of the
project in short or long term
◦ Review of alternatives with which to avoid the impacts
◦ Proposition of techniques which help minimize damage
7. Economic and financial analysis of selected alternative
◦ Establishment of socio-economic development programs
and costs
◦ Determination of total project costs
◦ Preparation of projections of cash flow, phasing
programmes, source and terms of financing mortgage
actors and cross-subsidy
◦ Conduct of sensitivity analysis
◦ Identification of sources and extent of public and private
funds
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46. 8. Preparation of detailed project
◦ Preparation of a phasing program based on projection of
population, employment and levels of investment
◦ Preparation of detailed engineering and architectural designs(
for the first phase)
◦ Identification of projects in the first phase based on land and
finance availability
◦ Preparing technical specifications, project by project, bill of
quantities, if any
9. Implementation
◦ Supervision of ongoing development , monitoring the socio-
economic factors
◦ Recommending institutional arrangement for the construction
◦ Co-ordination of support program(health care, vocational
training, education, recreation, management
◦ Monitoring of construction capacity (labour, skills,
management, investment)
◦ Finding housing management ( client selection, tenure, cost
recovery)
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47. Plan making stages
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48. Assessing Options for changing land management or
production practices
 Any options we select for changing land management
must consider the following factors that influence the
final goals;
 economic factors
 technical difficulty
 practical feasibility
 social and/ or environmental acceptability
 Consider alternative land-use strategies
 - No change
 - Maximum production
 - Minimum public investment.
 - Maximum conservation.
 - Maximum equity.
Economical, social and environmental impact,
Production types, land use types, conservation types,
technology types, budget are some of factors
influence the selection management option
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49. To choose the best option the planning team, and decision makers have
the following responsibility.
 Responsibility of planning team
 Set out a series of options for the allocation or recommendation of
land-use types to land units. Also state their evaluation in terms of
land suitability and environmental, economic and social analysis.
 Set out the consequences of these options in terms of the goals and
planning objectives.
 Present the options and their consequences in a way that is
appropriate for review.
 Responsibility of planning team and decision-makers
 Make arrangements for consultations with the communities affected
as well as with the implementing agencies; obtain views about
feasibility and acceptability.
 Assemble and review the comments received. In the light of these,
make any necessary changes to the options.
 Responsibility of decision-makers
 Decide if the response to comments is adequate.
 Consider the options in terms of goals and policy criteria.
 Choose the best option.
 Authorize preparation of the plan.
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50. measurable action based on the defined problems
and impacts.
 Based on the identified problems and
management options measurement action should
be defined and put into practice through the
negotiation of stakeholders
 Main Principles followed during negotiation with
stakeholders;
◦ Participatory
◦ Gender sensitive
◦ Building upon local experience and strength
◦ Realistic, Productive, Manageable,
◦ Integrated, Multidisciplinary, Holistic, Comprehensive
◦ Watershed logic respected – Ridge to valley
◦ Cost sharing/empowerment/ownership building
◦ Complementary to food security and rural development
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51. Documenting/archiving the prepared
document.
 Documentation of
◦ the problem,
◦ the objectives,
◦ the stakeholders,
◦ the prioritized management units,
◦ the performance criteria, and
◦ the most suitable management options is the key
activity because it is the evidence for future. The
reliability of the data that we used as input for the
preparation of our action plan.
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52.  generally when you are going to develop an action
Plan for the Land administration and land use, you
have to;
◦ determine/set appropriate land use objectives,
◦ estimate costs and advantages,
◦ define performance criteria for each land use,
◦ select management options, and
◦ negotiate strategies with relevant stakeholders.
 Developing an action plan for the management of
target area requires knowledge of
◦ relevant national strategies,
◦ community facilitation process,
◦ local land management process,
◦ relevant legislative and regulatory requirements,
◦ environmental protection legislation, and
◦ sustainable land use principles.
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53.  stakeholders may include:
◦ land users,
◦ regional land management bodies,
◦ local regulatory authorities and Land Administration
committees.
 relevant land uses may include:
◦ Local agricultural production,
◦ local forestry industry,
◦ local nature and wildlife reserves,
◦ local heritage areas and local recreation areas.
 Federal/Regional legislation and local regulations
may be;
◦ Land administration and use proclamation and
regulations,
◦ Environmental protection, activities in nature reserves
and heritage areas.
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54.  relevant strategies may be;
◦ Local, regional, and National strategies
 forms of production value
◦ Economic and environmental value
 management options may include:
◦ Commercial management,
◦ crisis management,
◦ local eradication and strategic management (sustained,
targeted and one-off).
 Types and Sources of Information may include:
◦ Organizational rules, regulation and guidelines
◦ Internet, related books and related materials
◦ Technical manuals
◦ Sharing best practice
◦ Virtual library
◦ Workplace guidelines
◦ Recorded documents/logo/history
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55. 55
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