1) A study found that participants who gave more intuitive responses on a Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT), reporting answers that came to mind quickly rather than through reflection, reported stronger beliefs in God.
2) When controlling for demographics and other variables, intuitive cognitive style on the CRT still predicted stronger belief in God. It also predicted greater reported changes in belief in God since childhood.
3) A second study replicated these findings while also controlling for measures of cognitive ability and personality traits, suggesting the link between intuitive thinking and belief in God is independent of these factors.
The relationship between entrepreneurial role model influence andHubeloVirtincubator
South Africa has a number of barriers to total entrepreneurial activity which produce the lowest rate of total entrepreneurship activity of any comparator developing economy measured. The study provides a base to create high growth entrepreneurship by using an enhanced understanding of role modelling and entrepreneurial self-efficacy.
The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between entrepreneurial role model influence and entrepreneurial self-efficacy.
The qualitative research study approach was utilised with unstructured interviews with entrepreneurs who had or continued to have entrepreneurial mentors.
The research results suggested a relationship between entrepreneurial role model influence and all but one entrepreneurial self-efficacy dimensions. Therefore, it is strongly suggested the concept of action learning with an entrepreneurial self-efficacy dimensions approach should be applied in teaching entrepreneurship. Also, focusing on first and second order level elements of entrepreneurial self-efficacy which don’t transfer easily. Mentoring and coaching using entrepreneurial self-efficacy dimensions is also required. All stakeholders must act together to create and propagate entrepreneurs as social role models to legitimise entrepreneurship as a valid career choice in South African society. For the nascent entrepreneur, an understanding the basis for entrepreneurial success is a firm grounding in the entrepreneurial self-efficacy building blocks and the lower level activities.
The Role of Spirituality in Sexual Minority IdentityA. Jor.docxkathleen23456789
The Role of Spirituality in Sexual Minority Identity
A. Jordan Wright and Suzanne Stern
Empire State College, State University of New York
Spirituality has been widely associated with positive well-being within the general population. Although
there is limited research on the impact of spirituality on sexual minority individuals, some evidence
suggests it is associated with positive psychological outcomes and contributes to the development of a
positive lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) identity. The present study aimed to elucidate the relationship
between spirituality, gender normative beliefs, and LGB identity development. It was hypothesized that
spirituality would be negatively associated with both heteronormative beliefs and attitudes and negative
sexual minority identity, and that heteronormativity would mediate the relationship between spirituality
and negative identity. Contrary to expectations, spirituality predicted greater heteronormativity and
greater negative identity. The association between spirituality and negative identity was fully mediated
by heteronormativity. Limitations and implications are discussed.
Keywords: homosexuality, bisexuality, spirituality, heteronormativity, gay identity
Within the general public, spirituality has been reliably con-
nected to numerous positive outcomes (Garfield, Isacco, & Sahker,
2013; Paranjape & Kaslow, 2010; Thoresen, 1999). It has been
found to promote resiliency and self-esteem (Haight, 1998; Kash-
dan & Nezlek, 2012), and predicts a greater ability to adapt and
cope with stressful situations (Gnanaprakash, 2013; Salas-Wright,
Olate, & Vaughn, 2013), including illness (Lo et al., 2010; Nelson
et al., 2009; Pagnini et al., 2011; Visser, Garssen, & Vingerhoets,
2010), exposure to violence (Benavides, 2012; Schneider & Feltey,
2009; E. A. Walker, 2000), psychological aggression (Austin &
Falconier, 2013), and substance abuse (Turner-Musa & Lipscomb,
2007). Further, spirituality is associated with personality traits that
are health-protective (Labbé & Fobes, 2010); it is also significantly
protective against adverse mental health outcomes, such as depres-
sion and anxiety (Bennett & Shepherd, 2013; Hourani et al., 2012;
Hsiao et al., 2012; Sorajjakool, Aja, Chilson, Ramirez-Johnson, &
Earll, 2008), and suicidal ideation (Henley, 2014; Kyle, 2013;
Meadows, Kaslow, Thompson, & Jurkovic, 2005).
While the research on the impact of spirituality on sexual
minorities is more limited, there is evidence that spiritual well-
being functions as a protective factor and a predictor of adjust-
ment. Greater spirituality has been associated with positive out-
comes such as increased self-esteem and identity affirmation,
lower internalized homophobia, and fewer feelings of alienation
(Lease, Horne, & Noffsinger-Frazier, 2005; Moleiro, Pinto, &
Freire, 2013; Tan, 2005), and with greater positive affect and
satisfaction with life (Harari, Glenwick, & Cecero, 2014). How-
ever, awareness within this popu.
Implicit Theories of Relationships Orientations TowardEvaluMalikPinckney86
Implicit Theories of Relationships: Orientations Toward
Evaluation and Cultivation
C. Raymond Knee, Heather Patrick, and Cynthia Lonsbary
Department of Psychology
University of Houston
Implicit theories of relationships (ITRs) influence goals, motivations, attributions,
and behavior in romantic relationships. We developed a model of ITRs that draws
from social cognition, motivation, and achievement literatures, and derived concep-
tual parallels and hypotheses with regard to relationships. It is proposed that ITRs re-
flect the belief component of a larger system of motivations and goals that can influ-
ence the degree to which people are oriented toward the evaluation and cultivation of
relationships. Research on ITRs is reviewed with regard to how they moderate
well-documented associations between relationship perceptions and outcomes. Dif-
ferences between ITRs and implicit theories in other domains are also discussed.
Individuals have different beliefs about what makes
for a good relationship. These beliefs or implicit theo-
ries determine, in part, one’s goals and motivations in
relationships (Knee, 1998; Knee, Nanayakkara, Vietor,
Neighbors, & Patrick, 2001), much as implicit theories
in other domains have been shown to determine goals
and motivations in those contexts (see Dweck, Chiu, &
Hong, 1995, for review). Implicit theories of relation-
ships (ITRs), as defined here, are characterized by a
belief in romantic destiny and a belief in relationship
growth. Destiny belief is defined as the belief that po-
tential relationship partners are either compatible or
they are not. Growth belief is defined as the belief that
relationship challenges can be overcome. Theo-
retically, those who believe more (relative to less)
strongly in destiny attempt to determine the compati-
bility of their partner and the viability of the relation-
ship based on minimal information. They place a high
value on determining whether a relationship is meant
to be, and tend to diagnose the potential of the relation-
ship based on specific events. Those who believe more
(relative to less) strongly in growth are primarily inter-
ested in developing the relationship, and believe that
relationships grow not despite obstacles but rather be-
cause of them. Destiny belief is linked to attempts to
diagnose the status and potential success of the rela-
tionship, and growth belief is linked to attempts to
maintain the relationship.
Implicit Theories of Attributes
Implicit theories were first studied with regard to
traits such as personality, intelligence, and morality
(Dweck, 1996; Dweck et al., 1995; Dweck, Hong, &
Chiu, 1993). Research on ITRs grew out of Dweck and
colleagues’ research on implicit theories in these other
domains. Research has shown that implicit theories are
relatively domain-specific such that the particular the-
ories within a given domain (e.g., intelligence) most
strongly predict behavior within that domain (e.g., giv-
ing up on a challenging te ...
IntelligenceNew Findings and Theoretical DevelopmentsRic.docxbagotjesusa
Intelligence
New Findings and Theoretical Developments
Richard E. Nisbett University of Michigan
Joshua Aronson and Clancy Blair New York University
William Dickens Northeastern University
James Flynn University of Otago
Diane F. Halpern Claremont McKenna College
Eric Turkheimer University of Virginia
We review new findings and new theoretical developments
in the field of intelligence. New findings include the follow-
ing: (a) Heritability of IQ varies significantly by social
class. (b) Almost no genetic polymorphisms have been
discovered that are consistently associated with variation
in IQ in the normal range. (c) Much has been learned
about the biological underpinnings of intelligence. (d)
“Crystallized” and “fluid” IQ are quite different aspects of
intelligence at both the behavioral and biological levels.
(e) The importance of the environment for IQ is established
by the 12-point to 18-point increase in IQ when children
are adopted from working-class to middle-class homes. (f)
Even when improvements in IQ produced by the most
effective early childhood interventions fail to persist, there
can be very marked effects on academic achievement and
life outcomes. (g) In most developed countries studied,
gains on IQ tests have continued, and they are beginning in
the developing world. (h) Sex differences in aspects of
intelligence are due partly to identifiable biological factors
and partly to socialization factors. (i) The IQ gap between
Blacks and Whites has been reduced by 0.33 SD in recent
years. We report theorizing concerning (a) the relationship
between working memory and intelligence, (b) the appar-
ent contradiction between strong heritability effects on IQ
and strong secular effects on IQ, (c) whether a general
intelligence factor could arise from initially largely inde-
pendent cognitive skills, (d) the relation between self-reg-
ulation and cognitive skills, and (e) the effects of stress on
intelligence.
Keywords: intelligence, fluid and crystallized intelligence,
environmental and genetic influences, heritability, race and
sex differences
In 1994, a controversial book about intelligence byRichard Herrnstein and Charles Murray called The BellCurve was published. The book argued that IQ tests are
an accurate measure of intelligence; that IQ is a strong
predictor of school and career achievement; that IQ is
highly heritable; that IQ is little influenced by environmen-
tal factors; that racial differences in IQ are likely due at
least in part, and perhaps in large part, to genetics; that
environmental effects of all kinds have only a modest effect
on IQ; and that educational and other interventions have
little impact on IQ and little effect on racial differences in
IQ. The authors were skeptical about the ability of public
policy initiatives to have much impact on IQ or IQ-related
outcomes.
The Bell Curve sold more than 300,000 copies and
was given enormous attention by the press, which was
largely uncritical of the methods and .
IntelligenceNew Findings and Theoretical DevelopmentsRic.docxvrickens
Intelligence
New Findings and Theoretical Developments
Richard E. Nisbett University of Michigan
Joshua Aronson and Clancy Blair New York University
William Dickens Northeastern University
James Flynn University of Otago
Diane F. Halpern Claremont McKenna College
Eric Turkheimer University of Virginia
We review new findings and new theoretical developments
in the field of intelligence. New findings include the follow-
ing: (a) Heritability of IQ varies significantly by social
class. (b) Almost no genetic polymorphisms have been
discovered that are consistently associated with variation
in IQ in the normal range. (c) Much has been learned
about the biological underpinnings of intelligence. (d)
“Crystallized” and “fluid” IQ are quite different aspects of
intelligence at both the behavioral and biological levels.
(e) The importance of the environment for IQ is established
by the 12-point to 18-point increase in IQ when children
are adopted from working-class to middle-class homes. (f)
Even when improvements in IQ produced by the most
effective early childhood interventions fail to persist, there
can be very marked effects on academic achievement and
life outcomes. (g) In most developed countries studied,
gains on IQ tests have continued, and they are beginning in
the developing world. (h) Sex differences in aspects of
intelligence are due partly to identifiable biological factors
and partly to socialization factors. (i) The IQ gap between
Blacks and Whites has been reduced by 0.33 SD in recent
years. We report theorizing concerning (a) the relationship
between working memory and intelligence, (b) the appar-
ent contradiction between strong heritability effects on IQ
and strong secular effects on IQ, (c) whether a general
intelligence factor could arise from initially largely inde-
pendent cognitive skills, (d) the relation between self-reg-
ulation and cognitive skills, and (e) the effects of stress on
intelligence.
Keywords: intelligence, fluid and crystallized intelligence,
environmental and genetic influences, heritability, race and
sex differences
In 1994, a controversial book about intelligence byRichard Herrnstein and Charles Murray called The BellCurve was published. The book argued that IQ tests are
an accurate measure of intelligence; that IQ is a strong
predictor of school and career achievement; that IQ is
highly heritable; that IQ is little influenced by environmen-
tal factors; that racial differences in IQ are likely due at
least in part, and perhaps in large part, to genetics; that
environmental effects of all kinds have only a modest effect
on IQ; and that educational and other interventions have
little impact on IQ and little effect on racial differences in
IQ. The authors were skeptical about the ability of public
policy initiatives to have much impact on IQ or IQ-related
outcomes.
The Bell Curve sold more than 300,000 copies and
was given enormous attention by the press, which was
largely uncritical of the methods and ...
A presentation created to look at whether there is any truth to the idea that religion, in particular Biblical Inerrancy (Christian Fundamentalism), is a barrier to the Public's Acceptance of Scientific Knowledge.
The relationship between entrepreneurial role model influence andHubeloVirtincubator
South Africa has a number of barriers to total entrepreneurial activity which produce the lowest rate of total entrepreneurship activity of any comparator developing economy measured. The study provides a base to create high growth entrepreneurship by using an enhanced understanding of role modelling and entrepreneurial self-efficacy.
The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between entrepreneurial role model influence and entrepreneurial self-efficacy.
The qualitative research study approach was utilised with unstructured interviews with entrepreneurs who had or continued to have entrepreneurial mentors.
The research results suggested a relationship between entrepreneurial role model influence and all but one entrepreneurial self-efficacy dimensions. Therefore, it is strongly suggested the concept of action learning with an entrepreneurial self-efficacy dimensions approach should be applied in teaching entrepreneurship. Also, focusing on first and second order level elements of entrepreneurial self-efficacy which don’t transfer easily. Mentoring and coaching using entrepreneurial self-efficacy dimensions is also required. All stakeholders must act together to create and propagate entrepreneurs as social role models to legitimise entrepreneurship as a valid career choice in South African society. For the nascent entrepreneur, an understanding the basis for entrepreneurial success is a firm grounding in the entrepreneurial self-efficacy building blocks and the lower level activities.
The Role of Spirituality in Sexual Minority IdentityA. Jor.docxkathleen23456789
The Role of Spirituality in Sexual Minority Identity
A. Jordan Wright and Suzanne Stern
Empire State College, State University of New York
Spirituality has been widely associated with positive well-being within the general population. Although
there is limited research on the impact of spirituality on sexual minority individuals, some evidence
suggests it is associated with positive psychological outcomes and contributes to the development of a
positive lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) identity. The present study aimed to elucidate the relationship
between spirituality, gender normative beliefs, and LGB identity development. It was hypothesized that
spirituality would be negatively associated with both heteronormative beliefs and attitudes and negative
sexual minority identity, and that heteronormativity would mediate the relationship between spirituality
and negative identity. Contrary to expectations, spirituality predicted greater heteronormativity and
greater negative identity. The association between spirituality and negative identity was fully mediated
by heteronormativity. Limitations and implications are discussed.
Keywords: homosexuality, bisexuality, spirituality, heteronormativity, gay identity
Within the general public, spirituality has been reliably con-
nected to numerous positive outcomes (Garfield, Isacco, & Sahker,
2013; Paranjape & Kaslow, 2010; Thoresen, 1999). It has been
found to promote resiliency and self-esteem (Haight, 1998; Kash-
dan & Nezlek, 2012), and predicts a greater ability to adapt and
cope with stressful situations (Gnanaprakash, 2013; Salas-Wright,
Olate, & Vaughn, 2013), including illness (Lo et al., 2010; Nelson
et al., 2009; Pagnini et al., 2011; Visser, Garssen, & Vingerhoets,
2010), exposure to violence (Benavides, 2012; Schneider & Feltey,
2009; E. A. Walker, 2000), psychological aggression (Austin &
Falconier, 2013), and substance abuse (Turner-Musa & Lipscomb,
2007). Further, spirituality is associated with personality traits that
are health-protective (Labbé & Fobes, 2010); it is also significantly
protective against adverse mental health outcomes, such as depres-
sion and anxiety (Bennett & Shepherd, 2013; Hourani et al., 2012;
Hsiao et al., 2012; Sorajjakool, Aja, Chilson, Ramirez-Johnson, &
Earll, 2008), and suicidal ideation (Henley, 2014; Kyle, 2013;
Meadows, Kaslow, Thompson, & Jurkovic, 2005).
While the research on the impact of spirituality on sexual
minorities is more limited, there is evidence that spiritual well-
being functions as a protective factor and a predictor of adjust-
ment. Greater spirituality has been associated with positive out-
comes such as increased self-esteem and identity affirmation,
lower internalized homophobia, and fewer feelings of alienation
(Lease, Horne, & Noffsinger-Frazier, 2005; Moleiro, Pinto, &
Freire, 2013; Tan, 2005), and with greater positive affect and
satisfaction with life (Harari, Glenwick, & Cecero, 2014). How-
ever, awareness within this popu.
Implicit Theories of Relationships Orientations TowardEvaluMalikPinckney86
Implicit Theories of Relationships: Orientations Toward
Evaluation and Cultivation
C. Raymond Knee, Heather Patrick, and Cynthia Lonsbary
Department of Psychology
University of Houston
Implicit theories of relationships (ITRs) influence goals, motivations, attributions,
and behavior in romantic relationships. We developed a model of ITRs that draws
from social cognition, motivation, and achievement literatures, and derived concep-
tual parallels and hypotheses with regard to relationships. It is proposed that ITRs re-
flect the belief component of a larger system of motivations and goals that can influ-
ence the degree to which people are oriented toward the evaluation and cultivation of
relationships. Research on ITRs is reviewed with regard to how they moderate
well-documented associations between relationship perceptions and outcomes. Dif-
ferences between ITRs and implicit theories in other domains are also discussed.
Individuals have different beliefs about what makes
for a good relationship. These beliefs or implicit theo-
ries determine, in part, one’s goals and motivations in
relationships (Knee, 1998; Knee, Nanayakkara, Vietor,
Neighbors, & Patrick, 2001), much as implicit theories
in other domains have been shown to determine goals
and motivations in those contexts (see Dweck, Chiu, &
Hong, 1995, for review). Implicit theories of relation-
ships (ITRs), as defined here, are characterized by a
belief in romantic destiny and a belief in relationship
growth. Destiny belief is defined as the belief that po-
tential relationship partners are either compatible or
they are not. Growth belief is defined as the belief that
relationship challenges can be overcome. Theo-
retically, those who believe more (relative to less)
strongly in destiny attempt to determine the compati-
bility of their partner and the viability of the relation-
ship based on minimal information. They place a high
value on determining whether a relationship is meant
to be, and tend to diagnose the potential of the relation-
ship based on specific events. Those who believe more
(relative to less) strongly in growth are primarily inter-
ested in developing the relationship, and believe that
relationships grow not despite obstacles but rather be-
cause of them. Destiny belief is linked to attempts to
diagnose the status and potential success of the rela-
tionship, and growth belief is linked to attempts to
maintain the relationship.
Implicit Theories of Attributes
Implicit theories were first studied with regard to
traits such as personality, intelligence, and morality
(Dweck, 1996; Dweck et al., 1995; Dweck, Hong, &
Chiu, 1993). Research on ITRs grew out of Dweck and
colleagues’ research on implicit theories in these other
domains. Research has shown that implicit theories are
relatively domain-specific such that the particular the-
ories within a given domain (e.g., intelligence) most
strongly predict behavior within that domain (e.g., giv-
ing up on a challenging te ...
IntelligenceNew Findings and Theoretical DevelopmentsRic.docxbagotjesusa
Intelligence
New Findings and Theoretical Developments
Richard E. Nisbett University of Michigan
Joshua Aronson and Clancy Blair New York University
William Dickens Northeastern University
James Flynn University of Otago
Diane F. Halpern Claremont McKenna College
Eric Turkheimer University of Virginia
We review new findings and new theoretical developments
in the field of intelligence. New findings include the follow-
ing: (a) Heritability of IQ varies significantly by social
class. (b) Almost no genetic polymorphisms have been
discovered that are consistently associated with variation
in IQ in the normal range. (c) Much has been learned
about the biological underpinnings of intelligence. (d)
“Crystallized” and “fluid” IQ are quite different aspects of
intelligence at both the behavioral and biological levels.
(e) The importance of the environment for IQ is established
by the 12-point to 18-point increase in IQ when children
are adopted from working-class to middle-class homes. (f)
Even when improvements in IQ produced by the most
effective early childhood interventions fail to persist, there
can be very marked effects on academic achievement and
life outcomes. (g) In most developed countries studied,
gains on IQ tests have continued, and they are beginning in
the developing world. (h) Sex differences in aspects of
intelligence are due partly to identifiable biological factors
and partly to socialization factors. (i) The IQ gap between
Blacks and Whites has been reduced by 0.33 SD in recent
years. We report theorizing concerning (a) the relationship
between working memory and intelligence, (b) the appar-
ent contradiction between strong heritability effects on IQ
and strong secular effects on IQ, (c) whether a general
intelligence factor could arise from initially largely inde-
pendent cognitive skills, (d) the relation between self-reg-
ulation and cognitive skills, and (e) the effects of stress on
intelligence.
Keywords: intelligence, fluid and crystallized intelligence,
environmental and genetic influences, heritability, race and
sex differences
In 1994, a controversial book about intelligence byRichard Herrnstein and Charles Murray called The BellCurve was published. The book argued that IQ tests are
an accurate measure of intelligence; that IQ is a strong
predictor of school and career achievement; that IQ is
highly heritable; that IQ is little influenced by environmen-
tal factors; that racial differences in IQ are likely due at
least in part, and perhaps in large part, to genetics; that
environmental effects of all kinds have only a modest effect
on IQ; and that educational and other interventions have
little impact on IQ and little effect on racial differences in
IQ. The authors were skeptical about the ability of public
policy initiatives to have much impact on IQ or IQ-related
outcomes.
The Bell Curve sold more than 300,000 copies and
was given enormous attention by the press, which was
largely uncritical of the methods and .
IntelligenceNew Findings and Theoretical DevelopmentsRic.docxvrickens
Intelligence
New Findings and Theoretical Developments
Richard E. Nisbett University of Michigan
Joshua Aronson and Clancy Blair New York University
William Dickens Northeastern University
James Flynn University of Otago
Diane F. Halpern Claremont McKenna College
Eric Turkheimer University of Virginia
We review new findings and new theoretical developments
in the field of intelligence. New findings include the follow-
ing: (a) Heritability of IQ varies significantly by social
class. (b) Almost no genetic polymorphisms have been
discovered that are consistently associated with variation
in IQ in the normal range. (c) Much has been learned
about the biological underpinnings of intelligence. (d)
“Crystallized” and “fluid” IQ are quite different aspects of
intelligence at both the behavioral and biological levels.
(e) The importance of the environment for IQ is established
by the 12-point to 18-point increase in IQ when children
are adopted from working-class to middle-class homes. (f)
Even when improvements in IQ produced by the most
effective early childhood interventions fail to persist, there
can be very marked effects on academic achievement and
life outcomes. (g) In most developed countries studied,
gains on IQ tests have continued, and they are beginning in
the developing world. (h) Sex differences in aspects of
intelligence are due partly to identifiable biological factors
and partly to socialization factors. (i) The IQ gap between
Blacks and Whites has been reduced by 0.33 SD in recent
years. We report theorizing concerning (a) the relationship
between working memory and intelligence, (b) the appar-
ent contradiction between strong heritability effects on IQ
and strong secular effects on IQ, (c) whether a general
intelligence factor could arise from initially largely inde-
pendent cognitive skills, (d) the relation between self-reg-
ulation and cognitive skills, and (e) the effects of stress on
intelligence.
Keywords: intelligence, fluid and crystallized intelligence,
environmental and genetic influences, heritability, race and
sex differences
In 1994, a controversial book about intelligence byRichard Herrnstein and Charles Murray called The BellCurve was published. The book argued that IQ tests are
an accurate measure of intelligence; that IQ is a strong
predictor of school and career achievement; that IQ is
highly heritable; that IQ is little influenced by environmen-
tal factors; that racial differences in IQ are likely due at
least in part, and perhaps in large part, to genetics; that
environmental effects of all kinds have only a modest effect
on IQ; and that educational and other interventions have
little impact on IQ and little effect on racial differences in
IQ. The authors were skeptical about the ability of public
policy initiatives to have much impact on IQ or IQ-related
outcomes.
The Bell Curve sold more than 300,000 copies and
was given enormous attention by the press, which was
largely uncritical of the methods and ...
A presentation created to look at whether there is any truth to the idea that religion, in particular Biblical Inerrancy (Christian Fundamentalism), is a barrier to the Public's Acceptance of Scientific Knowledge.
Attending to the role of identity explorationin self-esteem.docxikirkton
Attending to the role of identity exploration
in self-esteem: Longitudinal associations
between identity styles and two features
of self-esteem
Bart Soenens,
1
Michael D. Berzonsky,
2
and Dennis R. Papini
3
Abstract
Although research suggests an interplay between identity development and self-esteem, most studies focused on the role of identity
commitment and measured only level of self-esteem. This study examined longitudinal associations between Berzonsky’s (2011) styles
of identity exploration and two distinct features of self-esteem: level of self-esteem and contingent self-esteem. Participants were 167
college students (mean age ¼ 19 years; 66% female) who completed questionnaires tapping into identity styles and features of self-
esteem at two measurement waves separated by a 4-month interval. Both information-oriented and normative styles were found to
be predicted by contingent self-esteem. Follow-up analyses demonstrated that the content of contingent self-esteem predicting both
identity styles was different. A diffuse-avoidant identity style was predicted mainly by low levels of self-esteem. Although we also
observed some effects of identity styles on the self-esteem variables, the self-esteem variables had overall a more consistent influence
on the identity styles than the other way around.
Keywords
contingent self-esteem, identity, identity style, late adolescence, self-esteem
Erikson (1968) recognized that how adolescents and young adults
negotiate identity conflicts and form a sense of identity has impor-
tant repercussions for their personality development. Given that
self-esteem has long been considered a key feature of healthy per-
sonality development (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs,
2003), considerable research has addressed associations between
features of identity formation and self-esteem.
Marcia’s (1980) identity-status paradigm has been the basis for
much research on identity and self-esteem. Marcia (1980) concluded
that adolescents in both the achieved (high commitment and exp-
loration) and foreclosed (high commitment and low exploration) sta-
tuses scored higher on self-esteem than adolescents in the moratorium
(low commitment and high exploration) and diffusion (low commit-
ment and exploration) statuses. More recent reviews (e.g., Luyckx
et al., 2013; Meeus, Iedema, Helsen, & Vollebergh, 1999) indicate
that youth with achieved and foreclosed statuses have the highest lev-
els of self-esteem and well-being, whereas those with a moratorium
status reported the lowest levels. Meeus et al. (1999) concluded that
positive well-being (including self-esteem) depends almost exclu-
sively on the degree to which youth have formed identity commit-
ments whereas identity exploration in the absence of commitment
(i.e., moratorium status) is injurious to well-being and self-esteem.
Herein we aim to address two shortcomings in research on iden-
tity and self-esteem. First, research has focused t ...
HOMEWORK 5 (Total 100 points – 25 points each)
1. (Chapter 9, Question 2) Select an industry and analyze its regionalization
drivers as they were five years ago, as they are today, and as they are likely to be in
five years’ time.
2. (Chapter 9, Question 3) How should a company decide when to use regional
rather than global strategies?
3. (Chapter 10, Question 2) Which industry globalization drivers are the easiest to
measure, and which are the most difficult? What is the basis for your assertion?
4. (Chapter 10, Question 3) How often and by whom should measures of
globalization and global strategy be made?
Mindfulness Research in Social Work:
Conceptual and Methodological
Recommendations
Eric L. Garland
Mindfulness refers to a set of practices as well as the psychological state and trait produced
by such practices. The state, trait, and practice of mindfulness may be broadly characterized
by a present-oriented, nonjudgmental awareness of cognitions, emotions, sensations, and
perceptions without fixation on thoughts of past or future. Research on mindfulness has
proliferated over the past decade. Given the explosion of scientific interest in this topic,
mindfulness-based therapies are attracting the attention of clinical social workers, who seek
to implement these interventions in numerous practice settings. Concomitantly, research on
mindfulness is now falling within the scope and purview of social work scholars. In response
to the growing interest in mindfulness within academic social work, the present article
outlines six conceptual and methodological recommendations for the conduct of future
empirical studies on mindfulness. These recommendations have practical importance for
advancing mindfulness research within and beyond social work.
KEY WORDS: evidence-based practice; meditation; mindfulness; randomized controlled trial; research methods
Mindfulness is linked with a set of cross-cultural principles and practices origi-nating in Asia more than 2,500 years
ago that have parallel manifestations in numerous
cultures around the world. With regard to its cur-
rent academic usage, mindfulness refers to a psycho-
logical phenomenon that is now being studied for
its relevance to mental and physical health in fields
such as medicine, psychology, and neuroscience.
Across these fields, there is a growing body of litera-
ture that attests to the efficacy of mindfulness-based
therapies for a wide range of biobehavioral disorders.
According to a search of PubMed and CRISP data-
bases conducted on October 4, 2009, there were
1,614 peer-reviewed journal articles on mindfulness
published in the scientific literature and 320 research
grants on mindfulness funded by the National Insti-
tutes of Health between 1998 and 2009. Indeed,
there is mounting empirical evidence of the role of
mindfulness in reducing stress and improving clinical
outcomes across diverse conditions such as depres-
sion (Teasdale et al., 2002), relations ...
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Divine intuition — cognitive style influences belief in god (shenhav et al. 2011)
1. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
Divine Intuition: Cognitive Style Influences Belief in God
Amitai Shenhav, David G. Rand, and Joshua D. Greene
Online First Publication, September 19, 2011. doi: 10.1037/a0025391
CITATION
Shenhav, A., Rand, D. G., & Greene, J. D. (2011, September 19). Divine Intuition: Cognitive
Style Influences Belief in God. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. Advance online
publication. doi: 10.1037/a0025391
3. 2 SHENHAV, RAND, AND GREENE
intuitive thinking include thinking that is reflexive, heuristic, as- has been reliably (positively) associated with scores on standard-
sociative, holistic or experiential in nature, whereas reflective ized measures of reasoning abilities (e.g., SAT and various IQ
thinking has been related to processes such as controlled, system- tests) and measures of thinking style revealed both through self-
atic, analytic, rule-based, or “rational” thinking. If belief in God is report (e.g., Cacioppo & Petty’s (1982) Need for Cognition Scale)
indeed intuitive (consistent with propositions that the underlying and through decreased bias susceptibility in classic judgment and
beliefs spring to mind automatically or effortlessly), this suggests decision-making tasks (Frederick, 2005; Toplak, West, & Stanov-
that the extent to which one believes in God may be influenced by ich, in press). We analyzed the number of intuitive responses given
one’s tendency to rely on intuition versus reflection. Here we by each participant rather than the number of correct responses to
tested this hypothesis. In Study 1, we examined the correlation avoid classifying nonintuitive incorrect responses (e.g., $0.08 in
between individual differences in cognitive style (intuitive vs. the example above) as intuitive.
reflective) and belief in God. In Study 2, we did the same while We collected additional demographic/socioeconomic information
controlling for cognitive ability (IQ) and personality. In Study 3, concerning age, gender, education, income, and political orientation.
we tested for a causal relationship between cognitive style and Participants indicated the highest education level obtained (at present)
belief in God by experimentally inducing mindsets favoring intu- by themselves and by their biological parents, their immediate family
ition over reflection or vice versa. income level during childhood, their own income in the previous year,
and how liberal or conservative they are, both socially and fiscally. To
Study 1 maximize the reliability and generalizability of our results, we em-
ployed an attentiveness check based on recommendations of Oppen-
Method heimer, Meyvis, and Davidenko (2009). Participants completed this
attentiveness check after completing the surveys described previously,
We recruited participants online (N 882, 64% female; Mage and their data were excluded from analyses if they failed to follow the
33 years; SD 11.7; U.S. residents only; excluding participants directions given. Numbers of responses vary by item due to omitted
who failed an attentiveness check; details follow) using Amazon’s responses and the fact that not all items were included in an initial
Mechanical Turk (www.mturk.com; see Buhrmester, Kwang, & version of the survey.
Gosling, 2011; Horton, Rand, & Zeckhauser, 2011). Participants
completed a demographic survey including questions about belief Results and Discussion
in God. We employed continuous measures of belief in God
(anchored at confident atheist and confident believer), belief in an Participants who gave more intuitive CRT responses reported
immortal soul, familial religiosity during childhood, and change in more confident belief in God on our continuous atheist– believer
belief in God since childhood (i.e., the degree to which the par- scale (Table 1); F(1, 880) 28.1, p .0001, .18 (all tests
ticipant has become a more/less confident atheist/believer since two-tailed unless otherwise specified; all F tests based on ordinary
childhood). We also employed a binary forced-choice question least-squares multiple regression models with belief in God as
asking whether participants had had an experience that convinced dependent variable). This relationship remained significant, F(1,
them of God’s existence (Kass, Friedman, Leserman, Zuttermeis- 725) 11.3, p .001, .13, when we controlled for age,
ter, & Benson, 1991). gender, education, each parent’s education, current income, and
Participants then completed a three-item Cognitive Reflection family income during childhood. The effect was also robust to
Test (CRT; Frederick, 2005), which we used to assess cognitive additionally controlling for economic and social conservatism,
style. The three items are math problems with intuitively attractive F(1, 715) 5.6, p .02, 0.08, despite the previously
but incorrect answers. For example: “A bat and a ball cost $1.10 in observed strong relationship between belief in God and political
total. The bat costs $1.00 more than the ball. How much does the conservatism (Layman & Carmines, 1997; Malka, Lelkes, Srivas-
ball cost?” The response $0.10 springs immediately to mind, but tava, Cohen, & Miller, in press). Intuitive responses were also
the correct answer is $0.05. Choosing the attractive but incorrect positively correlated with self-reported belief in immortal souls,
answer signals greater reliance on intuition and less reliance on r(875) .14, p .0001, and with reports of experiences that
reflection. The number of correct responses an individual provides convinced the participant of God’s existence (Figure 1A); 2(1,
Table 1
Correlations Between CRT and Measures of Religious Belief (Study 1)
Variable 1 2 3 4 5
1. CRT–intuitive responding —
2. Belief in God .176882 —
3. Belief in immortal souls .141875 .725874 —
4. Familial religiosity .048743 .375738 .267733 —
5. Belief change since childhood .192736 .755738 .548729 .162741 —
6. Convinced of God’s existencea .145829 .680826 .572821 .317685 .615680
Note. CRT Cognitive Reflection Test (Frederick, 2005). Pairwise Ns are provided in subscript.
a
Values are point biserial correlation coefficients (for dichotomous variable).
p .05. p .01. p .001 (two-tailed).
4. COGNITIVE STYLE INFLUENCES BELIEF IN GOD 3
Figure 1. The frequency of intuitive/incorrect responses to Cognitive Reflection Test items was positively
correlated with (A) experience-based belief in God and (B) the degree to which belief in God has increased since
childhood (Study 1). Error bars reflect standard errors of the mean.
N 829) 17.6, p .0001, rpoint-biserial .15. Participants who and measures of belief in God used in Study 1. Here we focus on
provided all intuitive responses were 1.5 times as likely (39% vs the continuous belief in God measure.
59.1%) to report having had an experience convincing them of Cognitive ability—specifically verbal and nonverbal reasoning
God’s existence as those who provided none. abilities—was assessed with two measures: the Shipley Vocabu-
In addition, CRT scores were significantly positively correlated lary Test (Shipley, 1986) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
with the degree to which belief in God was reported to have Scale Matrix Reasoning test (3rd ed., Wechsler, 1997). These
changed since childhood, r(736) .19, p .0001, with more scales provide well-validated estimates of IQ in their respective
intuitive participants reporting becoming more confident believers domains and are close analogs to ones used previously in disso-
and more reflective participants reporting becoming more confi- ciating cognitive ability from cognitive style (Macpherson &
dent atheists (Figure 1B). Post hoc comparisons to the midpoint on Stanovich, 2007; Toplak et al., in press). Participants were ex-
this scale (5, indicating no change) confirmed that participants cluded from analysis if they failed to fully respond or reported the
who were most reflective (provided no intuitive responses on the use of outside assistance. Personality variables were assessed using
CRT) were significantly below that midpoint (Wilcoxon signed- the following scales: Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (Patton, Stan-
rank test, p .05), suggesting they had on average become more ford, & Barratt, 1995), NEO Personality Inventory (Costa &
confident atheists. Participants on the opposite extreme (all intui- McRae, 1992), and the Behavioral Inhibition/Activation Scales
tive responses) were significantly above the midpoint (Wilcoxon (BIS/BAS; Carver & White, 1994). Numbers of responses vary by
signed-rank test, p .0001). Notably, CRT scores were not item due to omitted responses.
significantly correlated with reported familial religiosity during
childhood, r(743) .05, p .19. This suggests that the correlation Results and Discussion
between intuitive thinking and belief in God is not simply a
Replicating previous findings (Toplak, et al., in press; cf.
reflection of a cultural pattern whereby childhood environments
Frederick, 2005), we found that the number of correct responses
favoring religion also happen to favor intuition. Rather, these data
given on the CRT was correlated with both vocabulary IQ,
suggest that cognitive style predicts how one’s religious beliefs
r(307) .27, p .001, and matrix reasoning IQ, r(302) .34,
change over time, independent of one’s childhood religious influ-
p .001. We also replicated the results from Study 1, again
ences or lack thereof. This suggests a causal relationship between
finding a significant positive association between intuitive re-
cognitive style and belief in God, a relationship for which we
sponses on the CRT and belief in God, r(300) .14, one-tailed
tested experimentally in Study 3. In Study 2, we examined the
p .01. Moreover, we found that this relationship held, F(1,
relationship between CRT and belief in God while controlling for
270) 5.0, one-tailed p .01, 0.13, while including
IQ and selected personality variables.
controls for age, gender, and all measures of cognitive ability
and personality described earlier in a multiple regression model
Study 2 with belief in God as a dependent variable (see Table 2). Thus
the relationship between CRT and belief in God cannot be
Method explained as an effect of cognitive ability per se (Stanovich,
2009; Stanovich & West, 2008). We also replicated the positive
We examined data from an independent neuroscientific and association between CRT and our binary measure of belief in
genomic study (see acknowledgments in the author note) employ- God, 2(1, N 289) 3.64, one-tailed p .05, rpoint-biserial
ing a range of laboratory and online measures of cognitive ability .11, and with change in belief in God since childhood, r(300)
and personality (N 321, 65% female; Mage 20.3 years; SD .10, one-tailed p .05, while still not finding an association
2.7). Participants completed an online survey including the CRT with familial religiosity, r(312) –.01, ns.
5. 4 SHENHAV, RAND, AND GREENE
Table 2
Correlations Between CRT, Religious Belief, IQ, and Personality Variables (Study 2)
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. CRT–intuitive responding —
2. CRT–correct responding .754 —
3. IQ–matrix reasoning .272 .337 —
4. IQ–vocabulary .213 .266 .293 —
5. Belief in God .135 [0.138 ] .178 [ 0.166 ] .047 .081 —
6. Openness to experience .011 .035 .033 .214 .322 —
7. Extraversion .023 .106 .003 .174 .120 .105
Note. CRT Cognitive Reflection Test (Frederick, 2005). For brevity, we include here only personality variables that continue to predict belief in God
when all other variables are included. Partial correlations given in brackets reflect first-order correlations between CRT and belief in God when controlling
for IQ and personality variables shown. Pairwise Ns vary from 299 to 314 individuals.
p .05. p .01. p .001 (two-tailed).
Study 3 ing the aforementioned question about experienced-based belief in
God and a continuous measure of strength of belief in God. We
Method hypothesized that inducing participants to favor intuition over
reflection would increase self-reported belief in God.
Participants were recruited online (N 373; 63% female;
Mage 31 years; SD 11.5; U.S. residents only; excluding
Results and Discussion
participants based on partial task completion). As our experimental
manipulation, we induced participants to favor intuition over re- As predicted, we found that participants who wrote about an
flection and vice versa using a writing exercise. We employed a experience that vindicated intuition (intuition-positive or
2 2 between-subjects design in which participants were ran- reflection-negative) reported stronger belief in God, compared
domly assigned to write about a situation in which they adopted with participants who wrote about an experience that vindicated
one of two cognitive approaches (intuitive vs. reflective) and in reflection (intuition-negative or reflection-positive). This was de-
which that approach led to an outcome that was either positive or termined by a 2 2 between-subjects analysis of variance with
negative. Situations involving intuitive/reflective approaches were self-reported belief in God as a dependent variable. Neither factor
respectively defined as ones in which the participant followed his exhibited a main effect on reported belief in God—main effect of
or her “intuition/first instinct” or ones in which the participant thinking style: F(1, 369) 0.41, p .52; main effect of outcome
employed a strategy of “carefully reasoning through a situation.” valence: F(1, 369) 0.10, p .76. However, as suggested earlier,
For example, participants assigned to the intuition-positive condi- we did observe the predicted crossover interaction between the
tion responded to the following prompt (italicized portions varied recollected cognitive approach and the valence of the recollected
by condition): “Please write a paragraph (approximately 8 –10 outcome (Figure 2); F(1, 369) 4.5, p .035; Cohen’s d 0.22.
sentences) describing a time your intuition/first instinct led you in Likewise, we observed the same crossover interaction for our
the right direction and resulted in a good outcome.” Participants binary reports of having been convinced of God’s existence (Fig-
were excluded if they failed to write at least eight sentences. ure 2); logistic regression 2(1, N 373) 9.8, p .002, Cohen’s
Participants then completed a demographic questionnaire includ- d 0.33; main effect 2s 0.55).
Figure 2. Recollecting the past efficacy of intuition, or inefficacy or reflection, increases reported belief in God
(Study 3). Error bars reflect standard errors of the mean.
6. COGNITIVE STYLE INFLUENCES BELIEF IN GOD 5
General Discussion because of variation in how commonly the belief is held. A
framework that incorporates individual differences in cognitive
Three studies—two correlational, one experimental—showed style may help illuminate the causes of cultural variability in belief
that intuitive thinking predicts belief in God. Study 1 showed that in God, for example the high rates of atheism in Scandinavian
people who exhibit thinking styles that are more intuitive and less countries (Zuckerman, 2007).
reflective are more likely to believe in God and to believe in God In sum, the present results are noteworthy because they help
with greater confidence. These results held while variables related explain a profoundly important and elusive social phenomenon in
to education, socioeconomic status, and political orientation were terms of more basic cognitive tendencies, ones with observable
controlled. Study 2 showed that these results held while cognitive effects across a wide range of psychological domains (Stanovich,
ability and personality were controlled. In both studies, we found Toplak, & West, 2008; Stanovich & West, 1998). How people
that cognitive style predicted self-reported changes in belief since think— or fail to think—about the prices of bats and balls is
childhood but was uncorrelated with religious influences during reflected in their thinking, and ultimately their convictions, about
childhood. This suggests that cognitive style is not only predictive the metaphysical order of the universe.
of one’s beliefs but also a critical factor in the evolution of one’s
beliefs over time. Consistent with this hypothesis, we demon-
strated a causal relationship between (induced) cognitive style and
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j.jesp.2009.03.009 Accepted August 8, 2011