Diversity, Equity and Inclusion IIUnconscious Bias and Gen

Diversity, Equity and Inclusion II
Unconscious Bias and
Gender/Age/Ethnic Stereotypes
1
2
Overview
3
What is unconscious bias?
How to manage the ageing workforce and age diversity in the
workplace?

How can we practise inclusive leadership?
Unconscious Bias in Singapore
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zpz5iVhoI7Y
Unconscious Bias
Unconscious biases are:
attitudes beyond our regular perceptions of ourselves and others
reinforced by our environment and experiences
the basis for a great deal of our patterns of behaviour about
diversity.
Research is proving that we are biased towards the world around
us and use stereotypes all the time. Our brains are wired
towards patterns and similarity, while difference is harder to
accommodate.
Adapted from Queensland Government
Impacts of Unconscious Bias
Where there is bias (conscious or unconscious) in the
workplace, we continue to recruit, promote, allocate work, and
manage performance with filters on our thinking. We cannot
change what we do not see or acknowledge, but we can change
conscious attitudes and beliefs.

Unconscious bias in the workplace can mean:
talented people are left out of your workforce or not allowed
equal opportunity for development and career progression
diverse voices aren’t heard in meetings and decisions can be
impaired
your culture is not genuinely demonstrating inclusive workplace
principles
employees are not able to fully contribute to your organisation
creativity and productivity of your team or organisation may be
compromised.
Adapted from Queensland Government
How to Overcome Unconscious Bias
Recruitment and hiring: Increase local outreach (women,
minorities, veterans). Ensure a mix of interviewers and have a
diverse slate of candidates. Look for bias in job descriptions.
Hire talent, not just experience.
Performance reviews: It’s important to consider different
cultural styles and match diverse high potentials with an
executive sponsor. Ensure performance is measurable where
possible.
Retention: Make sure people get credit for their ideas and be
careful not to ignore, dismiss, interrupt or talk over other. Build
relationships with employees you don’t know much about.
Understand your role as a leader: Make it safe to take risks and
empower team members to make decisions. Take advice and
implement feedback—listen, talk, discuss and give actionable
feedback. Share that credit.

Adapted from http://www.valvemagazine.com/web-
only/categories/business-management/9627-managing-
unconscious-
bias.html?fbclid=IwAR3DiY5jdwfrN8jhfVxx6yKsUnUCoH6pTe
SeZpQBIOYGQROkTeQt7K_dRJo
Class Activity One
Read the article “How These 4 Tech Companies Are Tackling
Unconscious Bias”:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurencebradford/2018/09/19/how -
these-4-tech-companies-are-tackling-unconscious-bias/
Identify the policies the tech companies are implementing to
reduce unconscious bias.
Have you encountered unconscious bias before?
What can individuals do to reduce their own unconscious bias?
The Ageing Workforce
10
Our assumptions/stereotypes about old workers are wrong!
It’s not just the young who are investing in new skills

It’s not just the young who are positive and excited by their
work
Older people are working harder to keep fit
Older people are not more exhausted
Older people don’t want to slow down
Exploring is not just for the young
Gratton & Scott (2016), Harvard Business Review
Managing an Ageing Workforce
11
Traditional model:
Many companies are still stuck with an antiquated model for
dealing with ageing, which assumes that people should get pay
rises and promotions on the basis of age and then disappear
when they reach retirement.
Problems: The number of young people, particularly those with
valuable science and engineering skills, is shrinking;
governments are raising retirement age
Dealing with the problem – for example:
Construction companies such as Sweden’s Elmhults
Konstruktions and the Netherlands’ Hazenberg Bouw have
introduced mentoring systems that encourage prospective
retirees to train their replacements
From: The Economist
12

New model:
Break the age-pay link and treat retirement as a phased process
A few firms have introduced formal programmes of “phased
retirement”
Some consultancies and energy companies have developed
pools of retired or semi-retired workers who can be called upon
to work on individual projects (project-based consultants);
Asda (British supermarket retailer) allows employees to work
only during busy periods or take several months off in winter
Problem: The plethora of age-discrimination laws that have
been passed over the past few years make it harder for
companies to experiment and easier for a handful of
malcontents to sue.
From: The Economist
13
Ageing Workforce in Singapore
Ageing Workforce in Singapore
Class Activity Two
Read the articles:
Valuing and capitalising on an ageing workforce:
https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/valuing-and-capitalising-

on-an-ageing-workforce
Call for a new ministry of ageing to deal with emerging
challenges
https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/manpower/call-for-a-
new-ministry-of-ageing-to-deal-with-emerging-challenges
Identify the primary issue(s) older workers face in the
workforce
Identify the suggestion(s) put forth to manage older workers in
the workplace
Discuss their feasibility
Age Diversity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ixEItXXlj0
17
Engaging Millennials
Who are the Millennials:
A person reaching young adulthood in the early 21st century
- Oxford Living Dictionaries
Millennials consist, depending on whom you ask, of people born
from 1980 to 2000.
- Time
18

Why Millennials warrant attention by employers
They are now entering the workforce and are a larger gener ation
than the Baby Boomers with great potential
They will require targeted techniques for recruiting, managing,
motivating, and retaining them
They have expectations that are higher than the generations
before them because of the times they live in
They have different values, needs, and ways of doing things
than other generational cohorts in the workplace
From: Stafford & Friffis, 2008
19
How to engage Millennials
Create a deeply compelling vision of what the company or team
is contributing to society
Train managers and supervisors to communicate openly,
effectively, and frequently
Embrace technology and make collaboration a way of doing
business
Building an entrepreneurial environment that encourages
employees to research and develop their ideas
Loosen up the notion of the career ladder
Benson (2016), Harvard Business Review

20
“But for analytical purposes, we believe 1996 is a meaningful
cutoff between Millennials and Gen Z for a number of reasons,
including key political, economic and social factors that define
the Millennial generation’s formative years.” – Pew Research
Center
Generation Z
A report on Generation Z
Challenges of Managing Age-Diverse Teams in Asia
Adapted from: https://www.humanresourcesonline.net/do-your-
teams-prefer-working-with-older-managers/

Class Activity Three
Refer to the tables in the previous slide.
Discuss why:
Employees might prefer an older person to be their manager?
In Asia, more employees prefer an older person to be their
manager?
A manager might treat employees from various generations
differently?
Discuss how organisations/managers might approach age
diversity positively?
Building Inclusive Leadership
What is inclusion?
Seeking out, valuing, and using the knowledge and experiences
of diverse employees for business benefits;
Recognising, understanding, and respecting all the ways we
differ, and leveraging those differences for competitive business
advantages;
Roberson (2006, p. 220)
29
Report: Inclusive Leadership: The View From Six Countries
Summary of findings:

The more included employees felt, the more innovative they
reported being in their jobs.
The more included employees felt, the more they reported
engaging in team citizenship behaviors—going above and
beyond the “call of duty” to help other team members and meet
workgroup objectives.
Perceiving similarities with coworkers engendered a feeling of
belongingness while perceiving differences led to feelings of
uniqueness.
What is inclusive leadership?
Treating people and groups fairly—that is, based on their
unique characteristics, rather than on stereotypes
Personalizing individuals—that is, understanding and valuing
the uniqueness of diverse others while also accepting them as
members of the group
Leveraging the thinking of diverse groups for smarter ideation
and decision making that reduces the risk of being blindsided
Inclusive leadership: The views from six countries (2014)
31
What can leaders do to help employees feel included?

Empowerment: Enabling direct reports to develop and excel.
Humility: Admitting mistakes. Learning from criticism and
different points of view. Acknowledging and seeking
contributions of others to overcome one’s limitations.
Courage: Putting personal interests aside to achieve what needs
to be done. Acting on convictions and principles even when it
requires personal risk-taking.
Accountability: Demonstrating confidence in direct reports by
holding them responsible for performance they can control.
32
A full inclusive leadership model
33
Who is an Inclusive Leader?
References and reading list
Benson, T, ‘Motivating Millennials takes more than flexible
work policies’, Harvard Business Review, February 11, 2016
https://hbr.org/2016/02/motivating-millennials-takes-more-than-
flexible-work-policies
Prime, J & Salib RE. 2014, ‘Inclusive Leadership: The view

from six countries’, Catalyst, viewed 23 February 2017
http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/inclusive-leadership-view-
six-countries
Gratton, L & Scott, A 2016, ‘Our assumptions about old and
young workers are wrong’, Harvard Business Review,
November 14, 2016
https://hbr.org/2016/11/our-assumptions-about-old-and-young-
workers-are-wrong
Diversity Council Australia – Think you know what it takes to
be an Inclusive Leader?
https://www.dca.org.au/gettinginclusive/
Robert Half – Hiring and Managing Gen Z
https://www.roberthalf.com/research-and-insights/workplace-
research/the-secrets-to-hiring-and-managing-gen-z
35
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College of Administrative and Financial Sciences
Assignment 1, 2 & 3
Course Name: Entrepreneurship and Small Business

Student’s Name:
Course Code: - MGT 402
Student’s ID Number:
Semester: II
CRN:
Academic Year: 1440/1441 H
For Instructor’s Use only
Instructor’s Name:
Students’ Grade: Marks Obtained/Out of
Level of Marks: High/Middle/Low
Instructions – PLEASE READ THEM CAREFULLY
· The Assignment must be submitted on Blackboard (WORD
format only) via allocated folder.
· Assignments submitted through email will not be accepted.
· Students are advised to make their work clear and well
presented; marks may be reduced for poor presentation. This
includes filling your information on the cover page.
· Students must mention question number clearly in their
answer.
· Read carefully Grading Rubric below for specific criteria: 0-5
Marks.
· Late submission will NOT be accepted.
· Avoid plagiarism, the work should be in your own words,
copying from students or other resources without proper
referencing will result in ZERO marks. No exceptions.
· All answered must be typed using Times New Roman (size 12,
double-spaced) font. No pictures containing text will be
accepted and will be considered plagiarism).
· Submissions without this cover page, assignment instructions,
and assignment questions will NOT be accepted. You must
submit the assignment without deleting
the assignment instructions, cover page and assignment
questions.

Department of Business Administration
Entrepreneurship and Small Business - MGT 402
Assignment 1, 2 & 3
Course Learning Outcomes: Marks:
15
1. Demonstrate a solid understanding of the potential of
entrepreneur in today's competitive business world. (Lo 1.2)
2. Demonstrate ability to think independently and
systematically on developing a viable business model (Lo 1.3 &
3.7)
3. Understand the place of small business in history and explore
the strengths and weaknesses of small business. (Lo 1.1).
4. Utilize strong analytical skills and tools to formulate an
effective Bootstrap Marketing Plan on which a small business
can build a competitive edge in the marketplace. (Lo 1.8, 4.3 &
4.5).
5. Deliver and communicate marketing massages in coherent
and professional manner. (Lo 4.4).
BUSINESS PLAN
Project yourself as an entrepreneur of a small-scale business in
Saudi Arabia.Assignment Objectives & Requirements:
1. Owners
a. Your Business Name, Address, E‐ Mail
2. General Business Description (300 – 500 words)
A. What business will you be in? What will you do?
•Mission Statement
•Company goals and objectives
B. Business Philosophy
a. What is important to you in your business?
• To whom will you market your product?
• Describe your Industry: Is it a growth industry? What long

term or Short-term changes do you foresee in the industry? How
will your company take advantage of it?
• Describe your most important company strengths and core
competencies: What factors will make the company succeed?
What do you think your major competitive strengths will be?
What background experience, skills, and strengths do you
personally bring to this new venture?
• Legal form of ownership: Sole proprietor, Partnership,
Corporation, Limited liability corporation (LLC)? Why have
you selected this form?
3. Products and Services (300 – 500 words)
a. Describe in depth your products or services. (Technical
specifications)
b. What factors will give you competitive advantages or
disadvantages? Examples include level of quality or unique or
proprietary features.
4. Marketing Plan (300 – 500 words)
a. Market Research- Why?
b. Market Research- How? Primary or Secondary Data?
c. In your marketing plan, be as specific as possible; give
statistics, numbers, and sources. The marketing plan will be the
basis, later on, of the all‐ important sales projection.
Facts about your industry
• What is the total size of your market?
• Current demand in target market.
• Trends in target market—growth trends, trends in consumer
preferences, and trends in product development.
• Growth potential and opportunity for a business of your size.
• What barriers to entry do you face in entering this market with
your new company?
• How will you overcome the barriers?
• How could the change in technology, change in government
regulations, change in the economy, change in your industry,
affect your organization.
Product
• Describe the most important features. What is special about it?

• Describe the benefits. That is, what will the product do for the
customer?
Customer
• Identify your targeted customers, their demographics
Competition
• What products and companies will compete with you?
• How will your products or services compare with the
competition?
Strategy
• Outline a marketing Strategy.
Promotion
• How will you promote your Product?
• What will be your promotional budget?
Method of setting prices
•Compare your prices with those of the competitors. Are they
higher, lower, the same? Why?
•How important is price as a competitive factor?
• Do your intended customers really make their purchase
decisions mostly on price?
• What will be your customer service and credit policies?
Distribution Channels
How do you sell your products or services?
Legal Environment
• Licensing and bonding requirements
• Health, workplace, or environmental regulations
• Special regulations covering your industry or profession
• Insurance coverage
• Trademarks, copyrights, or patents (pending, existing, or
purchased
Personnel
•Number of employees
• Type of labor (skilled, unskilled, and professional)
• Where and how will you find the right employees?
• Quality of existing staff
• Pay structure
• Training methods and requirements

• Who does which tasks?
• For certain functions, will you use contract workers in
addition to employees?
Inventory
• What kind of inventory will you keep: raw materials, supplies,
finished goods?
• Average value in stock (i.e., what is your inventory
investment)?
• Rate of turnover and how this compares to the industry
averages?
• Seasonal buildups?
• Lead‐ time for ordering?
Suppliers:
Identify key suppliers.
• Credit and delivery policies
5. Financial Plan (300 – 500 words)
The financial plan consists of a 12‐ month profit and loss
projection, a cash‐ flow projection, a projected balance sheet,
and a break‐ even calculation. Together they constitute a
reasonable estimate of your company's financial future.
6. Conclusion (300 – 400 words)Assignment Submission
· There will be three submissions for this assignment as the
following:
Submission Week
Due Date
Point covered
Word
Count
Marks
First Submission
Week 7
1,2, &3
1. 0-50
2.300-500
3.300-500

5
Second Submission
Week 11
4
4. 300-500
5
Third Submission
Week 13
5 & 6
5.300-500
6. 300-500
5
Instructor’s assessment based on the sincere effort and
participation in the followings:
· Class
· Blackboard
· Discussion Board
· Wiki
· Blogs
10
TOTAL MARKS
25
Diversity, Equity and Inclusion I:
Diversity management and inclusive leadership
1

2
What does “diversity and inclusion” mean to people in
Singapore
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-vtphK93vz0
3
Overview
What is workplace diversity
Why do we care about workplace diversity
Types of diversity
How to manage diversity effectively
4
What is diversity
Broad term used to refer to all kinds of differences
Race/ethnicity, age, sex, religion, sexual orientation,
knowledge, values, attitudes, physical abilities, aggressiveness,
extroversion
Members of different groups share common values, attitudes,
and perceptions
There is still much diversity within each group

5
Diversity – A pressing concern
Ethical imperative
Distributive justice
Equal work should provide
individuals with an equal outcome
in terms of goods acquired or the
ability to acquire goods
Procedural justice
Fairness in the processes that resolve
disputes and allocate resources
6
Helps organisational effectiveness
Contributes to better managerial decision-making
Increases customer satisfaction
Contribute to the retention of valued employees
But… an unfortunate reality exists:
Biases, stereotypes and overt discrimination are prevalent
Diversity – A pressing concern
7
Unfortunate Reality
Age

Ageing population
Australia
Older people more likely to be laid off and unemployed
Over a quarter of Australians aged 50 years and over report that
they had experienced age discrimination in the last two years.
Singapore (see ageing population trend below):
8
Gender
The difference between salaries of men and women has
persisted at levels above 15% for about two decades, and the
most significant variation is between public (12.9%) and private
sector (20.8%).
Examples: Hollywood (Natalie Portman; Jennifer Lawrence)
Gender issues on Wall Street and in Silicon
Valley
Motherhood penalty and fatherhood bump;
Unfortunate Reality
9
Unfortunate Reality
Race and ethnicity
There was an anti-immigration sentiment during and after US
election in 2016.

A recent Australian study sent out 4,000 identical resumes but
with different names of candidates to employers in response to
job advertisement in Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney. They
found that:
“To get the same number of interviews as an applicant with an
Anglo-Saxon name, a Chinese applicant must submit 68 per cent
more applications, a Middle Eastern applicant must submit 64
per cent more applications, an Indigenous applicant must submit
35 per cent more applications, and an Italian applicant must
submit 12 per cent more applications.”
10
Unfortunate Reality
Religion
In France, a “burkini ban” was implemented to stop Muslim
women from wearing full-body swimwear (2016)
In Switzerland, a court ruled that Muslim girls must swim with
boys after parents refused to send their daughter to gender -
mixed swimming classes (2017)
A key lesson for managers when it comes to religious diversity:
recognising and being sensitive to different religions and their
belief systems, with particular attention being paid to when
religious holidays fall.
When managers acknowledge, respect and make even small
accommodations for religious diversity, employee loyalty is
often enhanced.
Good news:

IBM’s “Cultural Diversity Networking Group” and “Floating
Cultural Holiday policy”
Police officers in New York are able to wear beards and turbans
from the end of 2016
11
Unfortunate Reality
Capabilities or disabilities
People with a disability can bring skills, talents and abilities to
any workforce. Many are tertiary- or trades-qualified and hold
senior managerial positions. People with a disability who are
currently employed work across many occupations.
Although most people with a disability want to work, some
employers may have concerns about employing people with
disability. People with a disability often find it hard to break
down these barriers to recruitment.
Sometimes a person with a disability may need a few simple
adjustments to the workplace or a piece of special adaptive
equipment to allow them to perform a job. However, the larger
barrier facing many people with a disability is the attitudes of
others.
Good news: Justine Clark, the first contestant to compete in the
Miss World Australia pageant in a wheelchair: "I really hope it
sends a message that no matter what your race, size or
disability — whatever makes you different —
you are beautiful."
12
Unfortunate Reality

Socioeconomic background
Typically refers to a combination of social class and income-
related factors
Socioeconomic diversity suggests that managers need to be
sensitive and responsive to the needs and concerns of workers
who may be less fortunate than themselves in terms of income
and financial resources, childcare and eldercare options,
housing opportunities and sources of social and family support.
Managers should try to provide such individuals with
opportunities to learn, advance and make meaningful
contributions to their organisations while improving their
economic wellbeing.
13
Situations we want to avoid: “Singapore’s society can be
pigeonholed into Higher SES and Lower SES”
Unfortunate Reality
Sexual orientation
An increasing number of organisations recognise the status of
gay and lesbian employees and affirm their rights to fair and
equal treatment.
Ethically and legally: For many organisations, fair and equal
treatment is an integral part of doing business ethically; and it
is often a requirement of operating legally.
Economically: to attract and retain valuable employees
Some useful perspectives:
The real cost of Telstra’s backflip on marriage equality (Trau &

Shao, 2016)
Homophobia is harmful to workers and businesses (Trau, 2017)
Diversity Council Australia has developed the Australi an
Equality Index which measures the commitment of
organisations to LGBT inclusion.
Wear it Purple Day to support for young people with different
sex, sexuality and gender identities.
15
How to manage diversity effectively: Legislative measures
around the world
Click here for more:
Asia Diversity and Discrimination Traffic Lights 2014
Click the link to see more details
16
How to manage diversity effectively: Organisational measures
Secure top management commitment
Top management’s commitment to diversity is crucial for the
success of any diversity-related initiatives.
Strive to increase the accuracy of perceptions
Managers should consciously attempt to be open to other points
of view and perspectives, seek them out and encourage their
employees to do the same.
Managers should not be afraid to change their views about a
person, issue or event; moreover, they should encourage their
employees to be open to changing their views.
From: Jones, George, Barrett, & Honig (2016), Contemporary

Management (4e), pp. 109-112
17
Increase diversity awareness
Provide organisational members with accurate information
about diversity
Uncover personal biases and stereotypes
Assess personal beliefs, attitudes and values and learn from
other points of view
Overturn inaccurate stereotypes and beliefs about different
groups
Develop an atmosphere in which people feel free to share their
differing perspectives and viewpoints
Improve understanding and tolerance of others who are different
from oneself
18
Increase diversity skills
Improve the way managers and staff interact with each other
and improve their ability to work with different kinds of people.
Particularly, learn how to communicate with diversity of
employees.
Organisational members should also feel comfortable enough to
clear the air and solve communication difficulties and

misunderstandings as they occur rather than letting problems
grow and fester without acknowledgement.
Diversity education can help managers and subordinates gain a
better understanding of how people may interpret certain kinds
of comments and behaviours. It can also help employees learn
how to functionally resolve misunderstanding.
Management (4e), pp. 109-112.
19
Support flexible work arrangements
To the extent it is feasible, managers should be flexible enough
to incorporate the differing needs of diverse employees
E.g., allowing days off for religious leave; flexible work hours,
having the option to work from home
20
Pay close attention to how employees are evaluated
Whenever feasible, it is desirable to rely on objective

performance indicators, as these are less subject to bias;
When objective indicators are not available or are inappropriate,
managers should ensure that adequate time and attention are
focused on the evaluation of employees’ performance and
evaluators are held accountable for their evaluations.
Vague standards should be avoided.
Management (4e), pp. 109-112.
21
Measure diversity and inclusion
One way to check whether an organisation is not managing
diversity well is analyse the percentage of diverse groups within
an organisation (age, race, culture) for imbalance.
This analysis can be the starting point for improvement and goal
setting to achieve a more balanced and representative
organisation.
22
Empower employees to challenge discriminatory behaviours,

actions and remarks
Create an organisational culture that has zero tolerance for
discrimination.
Organisational members should feel empowered to challenge
discriminatory behaviour
From: Jones, George, Barrett, & Honig (2016),
Contemporary Management (4e), pp. 109-112
23
Reward employees for effectively managing diversity
Employees should be encouraged and rewarded for their
contribution to the objective of effective diversity management;
E.g., After settling a major race discrimination court case
against them, Coca-Cola company now ties managers’ pay to
their achievement of diversity goals.
Encourage mentoring of diverse employees
Develop a high-quality, close and supportive relationship with a
mentor

24
Provide training utilising a multipronged, ongoing approach
Use films and printed materials supplemented by experiential
exercises to uncover hidden biases and stereotypes;
Providing a forum for people to learn about and discuss their
differing attitudes, values and experiences
Role-plays to enact problems resulting from lack of awareness
and indicate the increased understanding that comes from
appreciating others’ viewpoints
Hire external consultants to provide diversity training
25
Equality, Diversity & Inclusion:
Award-Winning Animation
https://youtu.be/C-uyB5I6WnQ
26

In-class Activities
Diversity
What do you understand by this term? Shout out your answers!
‹#›
Diversity Council Australia (DCA):
All of the differences between people in how they identify in
relation to their:
Age, caring responsibilities, cultural background, disability,
gender or gender identity, Aboriginal and / or Torres Strait
Islander background, sexual orientation, intersex status, and
socio-economic background (Social Identity)
Profession, education, work experiences, and organisational role
(Professional Identity).
All of these aspects of our identity inform our individual
perspective of the world.
Diversity
‹#›

Inclusion
What do you understand by this term? Shout out your answers!
‹#›
Diversity Council Australia (DCA):
Inclusion occurs when a diversity of people (e.g. of different
ages, cultural backgrounds, genders) feel valued and respected,
have access to opportunities and resources, and can contribute
their perspectives and talents to improve their organisation.
It is only through inclusion that organisations can make the
most out of diversity.
Inclusion
‹#›
Class Activity 1:
Is the organisation really inclusive?
Ask any company whether they’re diverse and inclusive, and
they’re probably going to tell you “yes”. If you take that answer
at face value, you run the risk of joining a company that talks a
big game, but ultimately fails to take action. And in a worst-
case scenario, this results in anyone from a non-traditional
background feeling isolated and uncomfortable at work.
But you don’t have to wait until you’ve accepted a position to
figure out whether or not a company walks the walk when it
comes to diversity and inclusion. The interview process is an
opportunity not only for a company to get to know you, but for

you to get to know the company.
Based on your understanding of diversity and inclusion, what
would you ask the organisation? In your groups, prepare five
questions.
Remember an interview isn’t just the candidate being
interviewed, but the candidate interviewing the organisation
too. See the interview as an opportunity for you to really get to
know the company, understand the culture, and what drives
their ethics.
Millennials will actively research the companies diversity and
inclusion policy before they go in and if the culture internally
doesn’t match up to what is said externally, they will leave. The
previous generation also did the research but once they were in
they were reluctant to move. That has changed.
32
Class Activity 2:
How to be an inclusive leader?
Practicing diversity and inclusion allows for more effective
talent management (attraction and retention), alignment, and
team performance, as well as improved efficiency. These factors
all contribute to building a high-performance organisation.
Based on your understanding of diversity and inclusion, identify
some key traits of an inclusive leader. In your groups, come out
with at least three traits. Following which, come out with ways
leaders can translate those traits into practice in the workplace.
Class Activity 3:

Why do some D&I initiatives fail?
“Most organisations are failing miserably when it comes to their
diversity and inclusion efforts. The reason: there are
fundamental flaws in how most organisations approach diversity
& inclusion (D&I).”
“Do people who undergo training usually shed their biases?”
In your groups, discuss: Why do you think some diversity &
inclusion (D&I) initiatives fail? Come up with three reasons.
References and reading list
Jones, GR, George, JM, Barrett, M, & Honig, B 2016, ‘Chapter
4: Managing change and diversity’, in Contemporary
Management, 4th edn, MaGraw Hill, pp. 96-113.
Inclusion through Intervention: Living with diversity the
Singapore way, Ministry of National Development, Singapore.
Managing workplace diversity: A toolkit for organisations,
Ministry of Manpower, Singapore
35
Technology and Digitalisation II:
Digital Leadership, Virtual Teams, and Technology-Enabled
Working
1

2
Overview
Technology-Enabled Working
Virtual Teams & Digital Leadership
Metacognition
3
“When the World Economic Forum surveyed global HR
decision-makers, some 44% pointed to new technologies
enabling remote working, co-working space and
teleconferencing as the principal driver of change.
Concurrently, advances in mobile and cloud technology
allowing remote and instant access were singled out as the most
important technological driver of change, enabling the rapid
spread of internet-based service models.”
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/02/the-future-of-work/
Fuelled by cloud technology

Cloud technology: ability to access distributed computer
processing and storage capabilities, relies on sharing of
resources to achieve coherence and economies of scale
Employees can work anywhere in the world, stay connected
24/7, and systems are always up-to-date
Remove barriers to workplace mobility
Increased collaboration and communication
Real-time access to information
Track employee activity and productivity
Virtual Teams
Virtual Teams
Virtual Teams (or VTs) are teams whose members use
technology to varying degrees in working across locational,
temporal, and relational boundaries to accomplish an
interdependent task.
Martins, Gilson, & Maynard (2004: 808)
9
Virtual Teams
Key Challenge of Virtual Teams—Distance

Distance affects how you feel about people
Distance affects how you know about people
Source: Mark Mortensen (2015)
“…communicating with your virtual team members should be
considered at least four times as challenging as communicating
with those sitting right outside your office.”
Source: Project Management Institute
10
Virtual Teams
Managing Virtual Teams Effectively
The right team
People: good qualities
Size: small teams
Roles: core, operational and outer
The right leadership
Fostering trust
Encouraging open dialogue
Clarifying goals and guidelines
Sending a meeting agenda to participants 48 hours before the
meeting
Source: Keith Ferrazzi (2014)
11
Virtual Teams

Managing Virtual Teams Effectively
The right touchpoints
Onboarding
Having breaks every 30/60/90 minutes
No interruptions when someone is speaking
The right technology
Conference calling
Direct calling and text messaging
Discussion forums or virtual team rooms
Source: Keith Ferrazzi (2014)
12
Ten Tips to build trust in virtual teams
Communicate a variety of topics
Share the time-zone burden
Be a connector
Rotate power
Standardize communication procedures
Clarify goals, roles, and expectations
Communicate frequently
Be reliable—do what you say you will do!
Create a virtual space for your team’s project and social
documents
Select appropriate communication channel
Digital Leadership – Individual Level

Digital Leadership Capabilities
Digital Leadership
Why is digital leadership important?
By acting as a digital role model, leaders can maximise the
potential of their employees to not only reinforce a digital
culture but also shape the workforce of the future.
This digital leadership challenges many traditional expressions
of leadership, such as:
Seizing the opportunities of the digital age and avoiding the
extinction that comes with standing still demands a new type of
leadership. This digital leadership challenges many traditional
expressions of leadership, such as:
Command and control leadership – that can separate decisions
from their context and impact
Layers of hierarchy – that slow decisions and blur roles
‘Gatekeepers’ to leadership – that can keep out new ideas and
challenge diverse thinking
Extensive reporting – that consumes effort, reduces speed and
filters out ideas and information.
17
Meeting the digital leadership challenge
https://www.nousgroup.com/insights/leadership-disrupted-
leading-digital-age/
To create an environment where answers can be found by many
rather than told by a few, and it fosters daily experimentation

and innovation closer to customers.
But this positive effect also exacerbates the challenge, because
it means digital leadership must be fostered across a broader
and often large segment of the workforce, beyond the executive
level that is the go-to layer for investment in development.
At the same time, we are operating in a world where traditional
training is time consuming, costly and less helpful to modern
learners, who are self-directed, digitally savvy and easily
distracted.
The ability to grow digital leadership at all levels and at scale
can be a differentiator and an accelerator for businesses. Like
the world of digital business, the path to great digital leadership
is not a question of “best practice”, but requires fresh thinking,
experimentation, and adaptation.
18
Meeting the digital leadership challenge
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/04/leadership-digital-
age-leader/
The challenges ahead
Disruptions in the digital world occur at a phenomenal rate.
They have the power to impact the way entire industries
operate. All actors, from regulators to policy-makers,
governments and digital leaders, need to proactively analyse the
risks involved and come up with solutions for mitigating them.
Facebook’s security breaches, privacy policies and data sharing.
Leaders need to create systems that ensure transparency, a
thorough audit of processes and the highest ethical standards in
dealing with personal data, privacy of individuals and corporate
information

By empowering others to pinpoint and solve critical problems,
digital leaders will have the power to shape the future of our
world.
19
Meta cognition
20
Meta cognition
21
Meta cognition
22
Summary of First Three Lectures…
Introduction
Technology and digitalisation I
Work automation

Big data
Cyber security
Technology and digitalisation II
Technology-enabled working
Virtual teams
Digital leadership
Some questions:
What are the potential risks of work automation?
How can we use big data wisely?
How can we become an effective digital leader to deliver high
performance in the digital world?
23
Assignment 2 In Detail
Questions to think about:
How can universities remain relevant in the digital economy?
Will traditional degrees be relevant going forward?
What are some threats to the survival/thriving of the higher
education sector? (Be proactive and do additional readings)
Is RMIT University well-placed to thrive in the digital
economy?
Drawing on the course materials and additional research:
Identify the potential issues and challenges which RMIT
University is likely to face in the digital economy.
Discuss what RMIT University can do in the face of the issues
and challenges you have identified.
Justify your recommendations.

Thank you!
Keep in touch at
[email protected]
Technology and Digitalisation I:
Workplace Automation, Big Data, and
Cyber Security
1
2
https://youtu.be/6HzdOkPPPRU
Gartner Top 10 Strategic Technology Trends for 2020
Inju Yang (IY) - 6.06min
Overview

The Digital Economy and Workplace
Workplace Automation
Big Data
Cyber Security
4
Platform economy
Platform economy
Platform economy
Platform economy
Platform economy
Platform economy
The “gig” economy

11
Platform economy
Platform economy
The “gig” economy
The gig economy: hyper flexibility or sham contracting?
To its proponents, the gig economy is a brave new world
allowing people to be masters of their own fate: to choose the
work they do and for how much they do it. To its critics, the gig
economy is dangerously unregulated and creates fertile ground
for exploitation: the promise of choice rings hollow.
14
Digital economy to triple to $240 billion by 2025-Southeast
Asia’s case
Google’s third “e-Conomy SEA” report
The Digitalisation of the Economy
The trend of the economy is in digital adoption

16
17
Some examples of leading companies
in a digital world
18
LinkedIn
Disrupting the corporate recruitment market
Instagram
Influencer marketing
Telstra
Crowd support transforming service through the crowd

Airbnb
It’s not about what you own but what you do
Managing Big Data
“You can’t manage what you don’t measure.”
Peter Drucker
Big data is so voluminous, but it can be used to address
business problems.
- Oracle
19
Managing Big Data
What is big data?
Big data is a collection of data from traditional and digital
sources inside and outside your company that represents a
source for ongoing discovery and analysis.
Source: McAfee & Brynjolfsson (2012), Harvard Business
Review
20
Managing Big Data
Features of big data
Volume: Amount of data

Velocity: Rate at which data is received and acted on
Variety: Types of data that are available
Review
21
Managing Big Data
Benefits of big data
The more companies are characterised as data-driven, the better
they performed.
Companies in the top third of their industry in the use of data-
driven decision making were, on average, 5% more productive
and 6% more profitable than their competitors.
Big data makes it possible for people to gain more complete
answers/solution as it provides more information.
Review & Oracle
22
Product DevelopmentCompanies like Netflix and Procter &
Gamble use big data to anticipate customer demand. They build
predictive models for new products and services by classifying
key attributes of past and current products or services and
modeling the relationship between those attributes and the
commercial success of the offerings. In addition, P&G uses data
and analytics from focus groups, social media, test markets, and
early store rollouts to plan, produce, and launch new
products.Predictive MaintenanceFactors that can predi ct
mechanical failures may be deeply buried in structured data,
such as the year, make, and model of equipment, as well as in
unstructured data that covers millions of log entries, sensor

data, error messages, and engine temperature. By analyzing
these indications of potential issues before the problems
happen, organizations can deploy maintenance more cost
effectively and maximize parts and equipment uptime.Customer
ExperienceThe race for customers is on. A clearer view of
customer experience is more possible now than ever before. Big
data enables you to gather data from social media, web visits,
call logs, and other sources to improve the interaction
experience and maximize the value delivered. Start delivering
personalized offers, reduce customer churn, and handle issues
proactively.Fraud and ComplianceWhen it comes to security,
it’s not just a few rogue hackers—you’re up against entire
expert teams. Security landscapes and compliance requirements
are constantly evolving. Big data helps you identify patter ns in
data that indicate fraud and aggregate large volumes of
information to make regulatory reporting much faster.Machine
LearningMachine learning is a hot topic right now. And data—
specifically big data—is one of the reasons why. We are now
able to teach machines instead of program them. The
availability of big data to train machine learning models makes
that possible.Operational EfficiencyOperational efficiency may
not always make the news, but it’s an area in which big data is
having the most impact. With big data, you can analyze and
assess production, customer feedback and returns, and other
factors to reduce outages and anticipate future demands. Big
data can also be used to improve decision-making in line with
current market demand.Drive InnovationBi g data can help you
innovate by studying interdependencies among humans,
institutions, entities, and process and then determining new
ways to use those insights. Use data insights to improve
decisions about financial and planning considerations. Examine
trends and what customers want to deliver new products and
services. Implement dynamic pricing. There are endless
possibilities.
Big Data Applications

23
Big Data Analytics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aeHqYLgZP84
Play from the beginning to 01:30 as an introduction to the topic
24
The Dangers of Big Data
https://youtu.be/y8yMlMBCQiQ
First, big data is…big. Although new technologies have been
developed for data storage, data volumes are doubling in size
about every two years. Organizations still struggle to keep pace
with their data and find ways to effectively store it.
Data must be used to be valuable and that depends on curation.
Clean data, or data that’s relevant to the client and organized in
a way that enables meaningful analysis, requires a lot of work.
Data scientists spend 50 to 80 percent of their time curating and
preparing data before it can actually be used.
Big data technology is changing at a rapid pace. Keeping up
with big data technology is an ongoing challenge.
Big Data Challenges
Big Data
Take the problem apart into pieces

Put pieces back together to conclude
Big Data
Human Brain
Two pillars of solving complex problems
27
Management challenges posed by big data
Leadership
Talent management
Technology
Decision making
Organisational culture
Review
Managing Big Data
28
Class Activity :
How can we use big data wisely?
How does big data help us solve complex problems?
What is the role of big data?
Why is big data alone not enough?
What are the messages to organisations?
29
Artificial Intelligence

“…the field of computer science dedicated to solving cognitive
problems commonly associated with human intelligence, such as
learning, problem solving, and pattern recognition.”
- Amazon
Big data and AI
Big data and AI
Types of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Weak AI or Narrow AI:
Focused on one narrow task
Example: poker game machine in which all rules and moves are
fed into the machine
Each and every weak AI will contribute to the building of
strong AI.
Strong AI:
Machines that can actually think and perform tasks on its own
just like a human being
Types of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Reactive Machines:
Basic forms of AI
Doesn’t have past memory and cannot use past information for
future actions
Example: IBM chess program that beat Garry Kasparov in the
1990s

Limited Memory:
Can use past experiences to inform future decisions
Decision-making functions in self-driving cars have been
designed this way
Observations used to inform actions happening in the not so
distant future, but these observations are not stored permanently
Theory of Mind:
Able to understand people’s emotions, belief, thoughts,
expectations
Able to interact socially
Not fully achieved
Self-awareness:
Has its own conscious, super intelligent, self-awareness and
sentient
Not fully achieved
What is digital workplace like?
The digital workplace encompasses all the technologies people
use to get work done in today’s workplace. It ranges from HR
applications and core business applications to e-mail, instant
messaging and enterprise social media tools and virtual meeting
tools.
35
What are the digital tools available at workplace?
36

38
What will be the impact of automation on the economy and
organisations?
Can we look forward to vast improvements in productivity,
freedom from boring work, and improved quality of life?
Should we fear threat to jobs, disruptions to organisations, and
strains on the social fabric?
39
Four Fundamentals of Workplace Automation
1) The automation of activities
At least 45% of work activities could be automated using
already demonstrated technology
In many cases, automation technology can already match, or
even exceed the median level of human performance required
Narrative Science’s Quill
Amazon’s fleet of Kiva robots
Amazon Go grocery store

IBM’s Watson
From: Mckinsey & Company
40
2) The redefinition of jobs and business processes
Fewer than 5% of occupations can be entirely automated using
current technology, but 60% of occupations could have 30% or
more of their constituent activities automated
As roles and processes get redefined, the economic benefits of
automation will extend far beyond labour savings
Lawyers using text-mining techniques to review legal
documents
Sales organisations use automation to improve quality of offers
41
3) The impact on high-wage occupations
A significant percentage of the activities performed by even
those in the highest-paid occupations (for example, financial
planners, physicians, and senior executives) can be automated
by adapting current technology.
For example, activities consuming more than 20% of a CEO’s
working time could be automated using current technologies.
These include analysing reports and data to inform operational
decisions, preparing staff assignments, and reviewing status
reports.

42
4) The future of creativity and emotions
Capabilities such as creativity and sensing emotions are core to
the human experience and also difficult to automate. The
amount of time that workers spend on activities requiring these
capabilities, though, appears to be surprisingly low. Just 4% of
the work activities across the US economy require creativity
and only 29% of work activities require sensing emotion.
The potential to generate a greater amount of meaningful work
could be achieved as automation replaces more routine or
repetitive tasks, allowing employees to focus more on tasks that
utilise creativity and emotion.
43
Challenges and risks
Job losses and economic inequality
Privacy concern as automation increases the amount of data
collected and dispersed.
The safety risks arising from automated processes, e.g., who is
responsible if a driverless school bus knocks down a pedestrian?

44
Messages for top-management
Keep an eye on the speed and direction of automation, for
starters, and then determine where, when, and how much to
invest in automation.
Making such determinations will require executives to build
their understanding of the economics of automation, the trade-
offs between augmenting versus replacing different types of
activities with intelligent machines, and the implications for
human skill development in their organizations.
The degree to which executives embrace these priorities will
influence not only the pace of change within their companies,
but also to what extent those organizations sharpen or lose their
competitive edge.
45
Class Activity :
What is your future job like?
Read the New Work Smarts Report to learn how work
automation impacts our future jobs.
Discuss in small groups what jobs you would like to have in the
future, and what changes you can expect to have in your future
jobs.

Cyber Security
https://youtu.be/cZ543_0bjbw
Inju Yang (IY) - 1.51min, 2017
Cyber Security Disasters of 2018
Digital transformation calls for cyber security
Cyber security myths
We have invested in a high-end security tool
A third-party provider manages our security
We only need to protect our internet-facing applications
We have never been attacked, so our security is good enough
Security is well-managed by the IT department
We have completed our security project
Antivirus is good enough
We don’t need assessments and tests
Managing Cyber Security

49
Managing Cyber Security
The four steps of managing for cyber security
50
Class Activity :
Read these articles and discuss…
The 3 biggest challenges for tech in 2019 - The Business Times:
https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/technology/the-3-biggest-
challenges-for-tech-in-2019
13 tech experts predict the industry's biggest challenges in 2019
- Forbes:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2018/12/27/13-
tech-experts-predict-the-industrys-biggest-challenges-in-
2019/#5f45b1851bcd
Silicon Valley parents are raising their kids tech-free — and it
should be a red flag - Business Insider:
https://www.businessinsider.sg/silicon-valley-parents-raising-
their-kids-tech-free-red-flag-2018-2/?r=US&IR=T
Discuss in the context of millennials and Gen Zs growing up
with technology:
Is technology controlling us or are we controlling it?
What can we do to thrive in a technology-enabled future?
Class Activity :
Read these articles and discuss…

References and Reading List
Chui, M, Manyika, J. & Miremadi, M. “Four fundamentals of
workplace automation”, McKinsey & Company, November
2015.
Cyber Security: Empowering the CIO. Report from Deloitte.
McAfee, A & Brynjolfsson, E 2012, ‘Big data: The management
revolution’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 90, no. 10, pp. 60-
68.
Taking Leadership in A Digital Economy. Report by Telstra
Corporation Limited and Deloitte Digital, November 2012.
The Digital Economy in Singapore.
The Digital Workplace: Think, Share, Do. Report from Deloitte.
53
Introduction to Contemporary Management: Issues and
Challenges
1
Teaching Team

2
Dr. Inju Yang (Course coordinator/Visiting Lecturer) – MEL
[email protected]
Mr. Praba Achuthan Nair (Lecturer) – SIN
[email protected]
Mr. Chong Hock Chua (Lecturer) – SIN
[email protected]
Mr. Jeffrey Thu Kuang Kwek (Lecturer) – SIN
[email protected]
Overview
Evolution of management thinking
What is “contemporary” management
What are the issues and challenges
Course arrangement
3
Evolution of Management Thinking
Early Management: 3000 BCE-1776
Behavioural Approaches: Late 1700s-1950s
Classical Approaches: 1911-1947
Management Science Approaches: 1940s-1950s

Contemporary Approaches: 1960s-present
4
Industrial revolutions
1. The First Industrial Revolution used water and steam power
to mechanize production. 1765: steam engine
2. The Second used electric power to create mass production.
1870: a new source of energy, electricity, gas, and oil; chemical
synthesis and methods of communication such as the telegraph
and the telephone; the inventions of the automobile, and the
plane in the beginning of the 20th century
3. The Third used electronics and information technology to
automate production. 1969: the rise of electronics,
telecommunications and computers; two major inventions,
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and robots helped give
rise to an era of high-level automation
4. Fourth industrial revolution. the Internet, a revolution
happening right now
5
Early Management: 3000BC-1776BC
3000-2500 BC: The Egyptian Pyramids
1400s: The Venetian warships
1776: Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations
1780s-Mid 1800s: Industrial revolution
6

Late 1700s-Early 1900s: Working with people
1924-Mid-1930s: The Hawthorne studies
1930s-1950s: The “human relations” movement
1960s-Today: Organisational behaviour
7
1911: Scientific management
1916-1947:
General administrative theory
Principles of management
8
Ford and Taylor – Scientific Management
9
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8PdmNbqtDdI

Management Science Approaches:
1940s-1950s
Quantitative management
Operations management
Total quality management (TQM)
Management information system (MIS)
10
Two main perspectives
Open System perspective
Contingency perspective
11
Open system perspective
A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent parts
arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole.
Organisation as being made up of “interdependent factors,
including individuals, groups, attitudes, motives, formal
structure, interactions, goals, status, and authority.”

It implies that decisions and actions in one organisational area
will affect other areas.
Recognises that organisations are not self-contained.
12
Contingency perspective
Organisations are different, face different situations
(contingencies), and require different ways of managing.
The primary value of the contingency approach is that it
stresses there are no simplistic or universal rules for managers
to follow.
13
What makes contemporary management approaches different
from previous approaches
Dynamic and open to constant changes.
Need to remain flexible
Flat – Hierarchy
Employee morale
Risk management fully integrated into key business processes
and strategy
Technology-enabled
14

Summary
15
Early Management: 3000 BC–1776 BC
: Project management; rank and administration; self-interest,
invisible hand; industrial revolution
: The emergence of factories, division of labour; power sources;
Hawthorne effect
: Resource allocation; production; centralised planning
Management Science Approaches: 1940s-1950s
: Productivity; process management; economic efficiency
: Contingency approach - different situations and conditions
require different management approaches; collective decision-
making; customer- and value-driven
Class Activity :
Reviewing History of Management
Two-three key words for each of the stages of management
history?
Discuss what makes contemporary management approaches
different from previous approaches?
16
What is Contemporary Management
Contemporary Management examines the way of thinking that is
needed to address issues and challenges as they emerge in
contemporary organisations.
Contemporary issues and challenges have arisen as a result of

the changing nature of the external environments (VUCA).
17
Define “Contemporary”
New
New environments
Technology and digitalisation
Diverse workforce
Globalisation and multiculturalism
New phenomena
Big data and cyber security
Bamboo ceiling effect
Multicultural individuals
New theories/perspectives/practices
Diversity management
Cultural intelligence
18
Complex
Multiple perspectives
Global virtual teams management
Culture
Technology
Team
Leadership
Multiple levels of analysis
Change management

Employee—individual level
Team leader—team level
Top management—organisational level
Stress and coping
Mental health in the workplace
19
Define “Contemporary”
20
Contemporary Management:
Issues and Challenges
Topic 1:
Technology & Digitalisation
Topic 3: Stress & Coping in the Workplace
Topic 4: Thriving in the Global Work Environment
Topic 5: Change Management and Knowledge Management

Topic 2:
Diversity, Equity and Inclusion
Issues and Challenges
21Technology and Digitalisation1. Workplace automation, big
data, and cyber security2. Digital leadership, social media, and
technology-enabled workingDiversity, Equity and
Inclusion3. Diversity management and inclusive
leadership4. Unconscious bias training and gender/age/ethnic
stereotypesStress and Coping in the Workplace5. Workplace
mental health, stress and burnout6. Work–life balance policies
and practicesThriving in the Global Work Environment7.
Emotional intelligence and emotion management in the
workplace8. Globalisation, multiculturalism, and cultural
intelligenceChange Management and Knowledge
Management9. Organisational change management10. Managing
positive organisational change
Give a summary of each topic
Course Arrangement
Learning resources
Assessments
22
No prescribed textbook
Reference notebook
Book chapters

Journal and news articles
Reports
Videos
23
Learning Resources
Assessments
Assessment 1 (individual assessment – 20%)
Literature Review Assignment
Analyse articles
Assessment 2 (group assessment – 40%)
Write a Strategy Report for RMIT University
Group assessment: 3,000 words (+/-10%) excluding references
Assessment 3 (individual assessment – 40%)
Analyse a Case Study
2,500 words (+/-10%) excluding references
24
Questions?
25

Class Activity
The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What it means, how to
respond
- By Klaus Schwab, Founder and Executive Chairman of the
World Economic Forum
26
Class Activity :
Brainstorming
What are the main issues and challenges we face today and
tomorrow?
What are the skills and qualities you need to develop to be able
to meet those challenges?
27
References and Reading List
28
The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What it means, how to
respond - World Economics Forum:
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrial-
revolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond/
Management’s Three Eras: A Brief History - Harvard Business
Review: https://hbr.org/2014/07/managements-three-eras-a-
brief-history

fpsyg-09-02414 November 28, 2018 Time: 21:2 # 1
PERSPECTIVE
published: 30 November 2018
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02414
Edited by:
Montgomery Anthony,
University of Macedonia, Greece
Reviewed by:
Sebastian Molinillo,
Universidad de Málaga, Spain
Marinella Coco,
Università degli Studi di Catania, Italy
*Correspondence:
Justin Craig Field
[email protected]
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to
Organizational Psychology,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Psychology
Received: 27 July 2018
Accepted: 16 November 2018

Published: 30 November 2018
Citation:
Field JC and Chan XW (2018)
Contemporary Knowledge Workers
and the Boundaryless Work–Life
Interface: Implications for the Human
Resource Management of the
Knowledge Workforce.
Front. Psychol. 9:2414.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02414
Contemporary Knowledge Workers
and the Boundaryless Work–Life
Interface: Implications for the Human
Resource Management of the
Knowledge Workforce
Justin Craig Field1* and Xi Wen Chan2
1 UNE Business School, University of New England, Armidale,
NSW, Australia, 2 School of Management, College
of Business, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
In the last decade, knowledge workers have seen tremendous
change in ways of
working and living, driven by proliferating mobile
communication technologies, the
rise of dual-income couples, shifting expectations of ideal
motherhood and involved
fatherhood, and the rise of flexible working arrangements.
Drawing on 54 interviews
with Australian knowledge workers in the information

technology sector, we argue that
the interface between work and life is now blurred and
boundaryless for knowledge
workers. By this, we mean that knowledge workers are
empowered and enslaved by
mobile devices that bring work into the home, and family into
the workplace. Knowledge
workers take advantage of flexible working to craft unique,
personal arrangements to
suit their work, family, personal and community pursuits. They
choose where and when
to work, often interweaving the work domain and the home–
family domain multiple
times per day. Teleworkers, for example, attain rapid boundary
transitions rending
the work–home boundary, thus making their experience of the
work–life interface
boundaryless.
Keywords: work–life theories, boundaryless work–life interface,
knowledge workers, human resource
management, organizational psychology
INTRODUCTION
Ways of working and living have changed dramatically in post-
industrial economies in the last
decade. First, proliferating information and communication
technologies (ICT), often mobile, are
connecting people, but also intensifying work beyond
traditional offices and working hours (Ciolfi
and Lockley, 2018). Second, more women are working. Dual-
income couples are now the norm
(Abele and Volmer, 2011). Third, expectations of parenthood
are changing. Mothers are working
more, while balancing parenting with working. Fathers are

increasingly more involved in parenting,
shifting from exclusively being breadwinners (McGill, 2014).
Finally, companies are offering flexible
working arrangements (FWAs), so that employees can vary the
time, schedule and location of work,
to suit their needs.
Knowledge work is dominating in post-industrial economies.
Knowledge work involves
manipulating and transmitting ideas, rather than goods. In
particular, knowledge workers use
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ull
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http://loop.frontiersin.org/ people/592015/overview
https://www.frontiersin.org/
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology#articles
Field and Chan Boundaryless Work-Life Interface

ICT to exchange meaning. Knowledge processes are
unconstrained, occurring in any location and at any time
(Nelson et al., 2017), but they are subject to the influence of
organizational culture, technological support, and supervisory
arrangements, as well as the agency of knowledge workers to
subvert or comply with organizational norms.
Considering rapid technological change, demographic change,
societal change and the rise of knowledge work, we propose
a new appreciation of the boundaryless work–life interface for
flexible knowledge workers. Despite intense work and non-
work activities, we contend flexible knowledge workers do not
emphasize the distinction between work and non-work. Rather,
they work at any place and time, but also manage to achieve
harmonious balance in their lives. Existing work–life theories
do not present the work–life experiences of flexible knowledge
workers accurately. Hence, we describe a richer
conceptualisation
of the work–life interface for this group and discuss
implications
for human resources (HR) policies and management methods in
the digital economy.
EXISTING THEORIES ON THE
WORK–LIFE INTERFACE
Work–life theories can be classified into three streams: (1)
negative side of the work–life interface, stemming from role
strain theory, (2) positive side of work–life interface, stemming
from role accumulation theory, and (3) blurred boundaries
between work and non-work, stemming from boundary and
border theory.
Negative Side of the Work–Life Interface
Role strain theory, which originated from Goode’s (1960)
scarcity

perspective, contends that multiple roles lead to role strain
and subsequently interrole conflict (work–family conflict) as it
becomes difficult to perform each role due to conflicting
demands
on time, energy and attention among the roles (Greenhaus
and Beutell, 1985). Defined as “an individual’s experience that
work and family roles are incompatible in some respect, as a
result of which participation in one role is made more difficult
by virtue of participation in the other role” (Greenhaus and
Beutell, 1985, p. 77), work–family conflict had dominated
work–
life research owing to the rise of dual-income households with
children. However, Marks (1977) argued that role strain was not
a result of incompatible role demands, but by role imbalance, as
there is a difference in the importance of roles assumed. Marks
(1977) added that no role strain would occur if all commitments
were equally positive or negative. Barnett and Hyde (2001) also
reasoned that having several roles was not the issue, it was the
quality and combination of roles that contributed to role strain.
Positive Side of the Work–Life Interface
As research on work–family conflict matured, Greenhaus and
Powell (2006) responded to calls to examine the positive side of
the work–life interface. Drawing on role accumulation theory,
Greenhaus and Powell (2006, p. 73) proposed the concept
of work–family enrichment, defined as “the extent to which
an individual’s experiences in one role improve his or her
quality of life in other roles.” Role accumulation theory was
jointly developed by Sieber (1974) and Marks (1977), both of
whom argued that having multiple roles is more rewarding
than stressful, and that the more roles individuals took on, the
more resources they possessed, and the more opportunities they
were exposed to. Research on work–family enrichment
increased
drastically in the past decade in large part due to the positive

psychology movement and demographic trends which have
given
rise to workplace policies that seek to enhance employees’ work
and life (Brough and O’Driscoll, 2015). The strongest criticism
on
work–family enrichment is it does not acknowledge the negative
side of the work–life interface, which many researchers argue
cannot be dismissed since people tend to struggle with
managing
their work and non-work responsibilities.
Blurring of Boundaries Between Work
and Life
In this research, we use “work–life” as opposed to “work–
family” or “work–home” to acknowledge non-work roles
(e.g., community, social and personal pursuits) (Moen, 2011).
Alongside work–family enrichment and conflict are several
theories on work–life balance, including Ashforth et al.’s
(2000)
boundary theory and Clark’s (2000) border theory. However,
research on work–life balance has not advanced theoretically
because of inconsistent definitions of work–life balance
(Kalliath
and Brough, 2008). Border theory and boundary theory
contribute to the study of work–life linkages by describing how
varying levels of work–life integration affect well-being, and
addressing how people construct and cross boundaries between
work and life.
Boundary Theory
Boundary theory focuses on the meanings people assign to work
and life (Nippert-Eng, 1996) and the ease and frequency of
transitioning between roles (Ashforth et al., 2000). Boundaries
are clearer when roles are separated, while role transitions
are easier when roles are integrated. Role blurring is the
experience of confusion or difficulty in distinguishing work

from non-work roles, especially when roles are highly
integrated
(Desrochers et al., 2005). Boundaries can be classified by their
flexibility and permeability. Flexibility is the “extent to which
the physical time and location markers, such as working hours
and workplace, may be changed”; permeability is “the degree
to which a person physically located in one domain may be
psychologically concerned with the other” (Hall and Richter,
1988, p. 215). Roles can be arranged along a segmentation–
integration continuum: when role boundaries are inflexible and
impermeable, the roles are segmented; when boundaries are
flexible and permeable, roles are integrated (Ashforth et al.,
2000).
Studies (e.g., Hyland and Prottas, 2017) using boundary theory
have found that permeability is asymmetrical—work demands
tend to spill over into non-work domains. Individuals with
strong
segmentation preferences face challenges crossing boundaries;
while those with strong integration preferences face challenges
in creating and maintaining boundaries. Drawing on Weiss and
Cropanzano (1996) affective events theory, Hunter et al. (2017)
extended boundary theory by incorporating goal obstruction
as the explanatory mechanism linking work-to-family conflict

and job satisfaction. Specifically, boundary violation events
(e.g.,
taking a phone call from a family member at work) occurring at
work were appraised as obstructing one’s work goals due to
time
and attention redirected from meeting work goals to meeting
family needs.
Boundaryless work–life interface of knowledge workers
Knowledge work tends to involve a high degree of both
flexibility
and permeability, facilitating role blurring or, increasingly, a
state of “boundarylessness” (Albertsen et al., 2010). Unlike
traditional “9-to-5” jobs, knowledge work is characterized by a
less rule-based and more flexible regulation, especially in terms
of time, space, and jobscope (Allvin, 2008). That is, knowledge
workers typically have individualized schedules, temporal and
geographical flexibility, and more job autonomy (Albertsen
et al., 2010). “Boundarylessness” does not necessarily suggest
the complete absence of boundaries between different life
domains, but it illustrates weak to virtually absent domain
boundaries (Ezzedeen and Zikic, 2017). Since the concept of
“boundarylessness” is a new and novel phenomenon, we focus
on understanding the boundaryless nature of knowledge
workers’
work–life interface. Accordingly, the pursuit of empirical
observations is important as it contributes to theory
development
and decision-making for employees, managers and organizations
(Albertsen et al., 2010).
Border Theory
Border theory is devoted only to work and family domains.
Work–family balance is the outcome of interest, defined as
“satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home, with
a minimum of role conflict” (Clark, 2000, p. 751). It differs

from boundary theory in that definition of borders includes
psychological categories and also tangible boundaries that
divide
the time, place and people associated with work and life.
Borders are characterized by their strength, from weak to
strong.
Weak borders are more likely to be permeable and flexible,
facilitating blending between roles. Strong borders are more
likely to be inflexible and impermeable, preventing role
blending
(Clark, 2000). Border-keepers are members of a domain who are
influential in defining the border and the domain. Conflict may
arise when border-keepers and border-crossers do not agree on
the exact boundaries of a domain. They may also disagree about
the flexibility and permeability of the boundary.
Research Question
In this study, our goal is to illuminate the poorly understood
boundaryless nature of knowledge workers’ work–life interface.
Existing work–life theories do not adequately and accurately
account for knowledge workers’ work and non-work
experiences.
Therefore, we seek a deeper understanding of how flexible
knowledge workers perceive and navigate their life domains,
and to discover various contextual and socio-cognitive factors
that influence their perceptions and decisions. Therefore, a
qualitative design is particularly apposite for our research. We
interpretively explored three questions: (1) How do flexible
knowledge workers perceive, think about, and experience
the interface between their work and non-work domains?
(2) How do flexible knowledge workers perceive and manage
role boundaries between their work and non-work domains? (3)
What contextual and socio-cognitive factors account for flexible
knowledge workers’ differing perceptions and decisions when
managing their work–life interface? In sum, we qualitatively

explored the perceptions and decisions of flexible knowledge
workers with the understanding that these have implications for
their individual, work and family functioning (Ashforth et al.,
2000).
METHODS
To answer our research questions, we conducted an exploratory
case study, using an embedded single-case design (Yin, 2009)
to examine knowledge workers’ perceptions about balancing
work and life. Each participant represented an embedded
sub-case within the case study. We adopted an interpretive
research approach, giving voice to participants’ interpretations
and perceptions of the work–life interface. The participants’
point
of view is the foundation of our analysis. This section provides
a
detailed description of our method, to support dependability and
transferability (Lincoln and Guba, 1985).
Data Collection
The research site was the Australian affiliate of a multi -
national technology company (referred to as “Tech”). Tech
had around 130,000 employees worldwide at the time of the
study, with around 2,100 employees in Australia. Access to
employees at the research site was negotiated with the HR
director. Before we approached Tech, we sought ethics approval
from the University of New England’s Human Research Ethics
Committee. The HR director allowed us to gather data in
two ways. First, semi-structured interviews were the principal
source of information about participants’ thoughts, feelings and
perceptions about work–life balance and how they arranged
their
working and personal lives. Confidentiality was protected by
a written informed consent agreement with each participant.
Second, we gathered policy documents, people directory entries

and corporate broadcast emails from Tech’s intranet, and we
downloaded Tech’s statutory reports to government agencies, as
triangulation sources. In addition, the principal researcher wrote
field notes after each interview to document researcher
responses
and states, using ongoing reflective commentary (Shenton,
2004)
to capture assumptions, emotional states and possible bias.
Semi-Structured Interviews
The lead researcher conducted all interviews to maintain
a consistent data collection approach. He conducted pilot
interviews with five participants drawn from Sales, Human
Resources and Research & Development departments at Tech.
Pilot participants used FWAs in different ways: three were
teleworkers, one was part-time, and one was full-time, about to
begin parental leave. The purpose of the pilot interviews was to
test the interview template (see Appendix 1) against the
research
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ps ychology/
questions, across different jobs and different demographic
attributes, and to enhance dependability by following a
consistent
procedure, per guidelines of Miles et al. (2014).

We developed the interview template for the pilot interviews
from a study of the literature, focusing on satisfying the
research
questions. Prior to the pilot interviews, we reviewed the
interview
template with academic colleagues, to enhance objectivity and
confirmability (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Sample questions
included: What triggered your request for flexible working?
How
do you balance work versus home and family? How do you
define
what is work time and what is non-work time?
Following the pilot interviews, the interview template was
revised with supplementary questions. For teleworkers, we
found
it useful to ask: Do you ever work very early or very late? Is
this your choice or has your manager directed you? How do you
blend work tasks and home or childcare tasks, when working
from home? For part-time participants, we asked: To what
extent
do you work on a non-working day? Is this your choice or
has your manager directed you? We also found it useful to ask
all participants about availability: When do you make yourself
strictly unavailable? Do you ever disconnect? These questions
explored richer detail about participants’ methods of formi ng
and
dismantling boundaries, and their perceptions of organizational
norms and their personal responses to such expectations.
Document Gathering
We gathered relevant documents from Tech’s intranet, including
people directory entries for all participants, copies of published
policies, and corporate broadcast emails from business leaders
or

Tech HR team. We also gathered Tech’s statutory reports to the
Workplace Gender Equality Agency.
Sampling and Saturation
To identify participants accessing FWAs, Tech’s HR team
provided reports listing Tech employees with part-time hours,
with flexible or remote working arrangements, and with
completed leaves of absence (other than annual and sick leave).
We used non-probability purposive and snowball sampling
techniques (Bernard and Ryan, 2010). We used the reports
to identify the population of all employees using FWAs, and
we invited all employees in the population to participate in
interviews. We also asked Tech HR managers and interviewees
to recommend other employees who might have relevant
experiences to share. This was productive because we
discovered
some employees using informal FWAs (e.g., working at home as
a
personal arrangement with the manager) did not appear on
Tech’s
official records.
Overall, we interviewed 54 participants at Tech (Field, 2017).
Participants fell into three categories: part-time, teleworkers,
and
sabbaticals. Some participants had multiple experiences, so they
fell into multiple categories. Participants represented 39% of all
part-time employees at Tech Australia, and 40% of all
teleworkers
at Tech Australia, giving credibility and depth to the findings of
this case study. Because sabbaticals were infrequent and
episodic,
it was not possible to calculate a participation rate.
Saturation for part-time participants was achieved after 12
of 24 interviews. After the twelfth interview, we heard repeated

themes of work expanding into non-work time and efforts to
juggle work and family. Saturation for teleworker participants
was achieved after 15 of 30 interviews. After the fifteenth
interview, we heard repeated themes of blending work and
home/family during the work day and being available outside of
conventional working hours. Turning to sabbatical participants,
it was not possible to establish whether saturation was reached.
Only five interviews were conducted, because employees going
on sabbaticals are rare at Tech.
Data Preparation
All recorded interviews were transcribed into text files (one
participant did not consent to audio recording). We provided
the text files to participants for verification, if they had made
this
request before interview, to enhance credibility and authenticity
of the study (Miles et al., 2014). During transcription, the lead
researcher recorded transcription memos to capture generative
insights, connections and themes (Sunstein and Chiseri-Strater,
2012). Each transcript was made anonymous by introducing
pseudonyms and code numbers for each participant. We used
MAXQDA for data coding and analysis, and uploaded interview
transcripts, field memos, transcription memos, and gathered
documents. The data corpus consisted of 53 interview
transcripts
and one interview summary (Field, 2017), plus 177 other
documents including field notes, transcription memos, coding
memos, company policies, company statutory reports, company
emails and people directory entries. There was a total of
473,206
words in interview documents, and 106,466 words in the other
documents.
Data Analysis
We use the technique of thematic qualitative text analysis

(Kuckartz, 2014) to examine common elements between
participants and groups, differences between participants and
TABLE 1 | Deductive coding and analysis from literature review
and theory.
Theoretical area Category Codes
Role strain theory Work–life conflict • Work conflict at
home/family
• Home/family
conflict at work
Role accumulation
theory
Work–life
enrichment
• Work enrichment
at home/family
• Home/family
enrichment at work
Boundary theory and
Border theory
Boundaries and
borders
• Defining work
domain boundaries
• Defining

home/family
boundaries
• Crossing
boundaries
• Perceptions of
boundary keepers
• Perceptions of
boundary crossers
groups, and relationships within the data. The principal unit
of analysis was each participant’s interview transcript. We
read through each transcript closely multiple times, identifying
segments addressing our research questions.
We began data analysis with a primarily deductive approach,
in order to examine participant perceptions in light of role
strain theory, role accumulation theory, boundary theory and
border theory. We developed thematic categories (Kuckartz,
2014), displayed in Table 1, then coded all interviews using the
broad thematic categories. We chose the unit of coding to be
at the paragraph level, in interview transcripts. We also wrote

individual case summaries.
In the second cycle of coding, we retrieved all segments within
a category, then used an inductive method, in alignment with
our research questions, to formulate sub-categories from the
data. For example, when investigating ‘Crossing boundaries’
and
‘Work conflict at home/family’ for part-time participants, we
coded for the health status of dependent children, the nature
of the day (working or non-working), the clock time (within
or beyond conventional working hours), and the organizational
hierarchical status (e.g., vice president or individual
contributor)
of the co-workers making contact.
To enhance credibility, preliminary themes and findings
were shared with academic colleagues and discussed at
length, to challenge the analysis, using the peer debriefing
method (Kuckartz, 2014). The purpose of this debate was
so that findings would not rely on the interpretations of a
single analyst alone, enhancing trustworthiness of the analysis
(Miles et al., 2014). We also used negative and deviant
case analysis (Richards and Hemphill, 2018), aiming to find
exception cases in the data set, to bolster our understanding
of participant perceptions of their work–life interface. We
conducted extensive cross-case analysis, comparing cohorts
(part-time, teleworkers, sabbaticals), gender, age groups, career
level (individual contributors, front-line managers, middle
managers), participant tenure with manager, and participant
tenure with Tech.
Conducting Research as a Privileged
Insider
During data collection and analysis, the lead researcher was an
employee of Tech. Insider status afforded privileged access to
the

research site and to gatekeepers within the organization. Insider
status also provided an extensive network of acquaintances and
co-workers as key participants of the case study. Furthermore,
tacit and intrinsic knowledge of Tech’s organizational culture
was
useful to establish shared cultural membership with
participants.
Using this knowledge, the lead researcher established trust
and rapport with participants, enhancing each participant’s
sense of freedom to voice their stories. Conversely, the
researcher’s insider status raised fears and risks for some
participants. Specifically, some participants were concerned
that their stories, employment history or family arrangements
were unique, which allowed others to identify them. Some
feared their reputation might be damaged or feared their
private opinions about co-workers might damage relationships.
We addressed these fears by emphasizing arrangements for
confidential treatment of interviews, anonymity and provision
of
pseudonyms.
FINDINGS
Sample Demographic Characteristics
The sample consisted of 54 flexible knowledge workers. The
sample was 62.96% female and 37.04% male. Mean age
of participants was 43.24 years (SD = 7.49 years). Mean
organizational tenure was 10.12 years (SD = 6.55 years). The
number of individual contributors was 41; the number of front-
line managers was seven and the number of middle managers
was six. Five participants were single, six participants had a
partner and no dependents, and 43 participants had a partner and
dependent children. Dual-earner couples made up 75.93% of the
sample.

The Case for the Boundaryless
Work–Life Interface
From our analysis, we argue that flexible knowledge workers
perceive the work–life interface as fuzzy and boundaryless.
Work–life balance is different for every person: subjective
perceptions of demands originating from work, home–family
and
other life domains define how individuals measure the success
of
FWAs.
Despite intense work and non-work activities, we found
that participants barely distinguished between work and non-
work. Our finding is in line with the research findings of Hill
et al. (2003) who found that virtual office workers tend to have
difficulty knowing when they are at work and when they are
home, due to the lack of externally imposed physical
boundaries.
Facilitated by ICT, our participants worked in many different
locations at various times. They leveraged FWAs to take care
of home–family concerns during office hours. Our participants
also overwhelmingly favored an integration preference, with
highly flexible and permeable boundaries. Ronald showed how
he permitted family concerns to cross into the work domain,
leveraging spatio-temporal flexibility.
Ronald: I’m present [for work] if I need to, if I get a phone call
from school and my wife is at work, and one of the kids needs
to be picked up because they’re not feeling well, it has allowed
me that flexibility . . . for me to go and pick them up.
(Individual
contributor, full-time, age 35–39, teleworker some of the week).
Whereas segmentation was the norm decades ago (Nippert-
Eng, 1996), now integration is the norm for flexible knowledge
workers. Participant expectations about where and when to

work are boundaryless—and the physical and technological
barriers that surround these expectations have been abolished.
Boundaries are so permeable they do not even matter,
reinforcing
fuzzy boundarylessness. With ICT in hand, knowledge workers
move seamlessly from work demands to home demands and
back again, not paying much attention to boundaries. Katrina
focused on her children during part of the day. When she missed
a work telephone call, she quickly returned it, demonstrating
high
permeability and high integration.
Katrina: I’ll answer it, if I really can’t answer it I will let it go
to
voicemail and then I’ll call them back, 10 min later when, when
I can. But generally speaking I will just, a child in one hand and
I’m on the phone to them. (Individual contributor, part-time,
age
25-29, office based).
When working at home, some or all of the week, or
participating in global projects collaborating across time zones,
participants found they needed to work earlier or later than core
working hours. Yet, during the day, they used time for home–

family tasks. By doing this, participants enacted home devotion
and simultaneously work devotion (as defined by Blair-Loy,
2003). They were involved parents, yet also appearing as ideal
workers to their managers and co-workers. They could also
work
the same or more number of hours each day, intersperse several
hours of quality family time, without impacting their work–life
balance (Hill et al., 2003). Anastasia illustrated how she
interwove
between work and family during core working hours, but then
extended the working day into the evening.
Anastasia: Ok, well, the girls have got something on at
assembly today. I’m just going to go. So I block out my diary
and
I go to the assembly and enjoy it and I am present for them and
then I come home and log back on. Now I might have to work a
few extra hours that night after they go to bed. You do it. You
just
juggle it. Some days I don’t even work my core hours.
(Individual
contributor, age 35–39, teleworker some of the week).
Likewise, Thomas took an active role as an involved father, in
the late afternoon, but worked intensely during early mornings
and late at night.
Thomas: One of the things that I’ve always been very careful
about is to not let the work–life balance get out of kilter. Given
that I’ve got two young kids, what works for me exceptionally
well is the fact that because I’ve got a global job where I’m
on the phone from, most days, from 06:00 till 08:00 or 09:00
in the morning, and then I’m on the phone again from 20:00
at night through till 22:00 or 23:00, means that I essentially
don’t do any work in the early afternoons, which is 15:00 in the
afternoon through until about 20:00 at night, so when the kids

get
home from school. (Individual contributor, full-time, age 45–49,
teleworker all of the week).
We argue there is reduced work–life conflict in this state
of boundarylessness. Thomas specifically mentioned leveraging
FWAs to manage his work–life balance, to fit his expectations.
Because flexible knowledge workers have more freedom to
choose
working arrangements to suit home–family arrangements, we
argue they use the technique of crafting their work–life
interface
to suit their requirements. We found work–life conflict was
present in a small way, but not regarded as excessive by
participants. The autonomy afforded by FWAs gave participants
control over work and home–family, thus they were able to
meet demands from all domains under conditions of apparent
work–life balance.
Participants did not take a pure work-oriented view of the
world. They did not simply regard themselves as employees,
above all else, as Anastasia and Thomas demonstrate. We
contend that individuals make work–life balance decisions
across
their life-space, including all their roles (e.g., students,
workers,
spouses, homemakers, parents, and citizens). Their decisions
vary
over the life course, as they move across generations and work
and home demands shift in priority. Events such as marriage,
divorce, childbirth, promotion or relocation shift perceptions
about home–family demands and work demands. Choices about
whether to use FWAs are not solely governed by perceptions at
work, and penalties and benefits from flex-work, but are also
governed by perceptions at home, and associated penalties and

benefits.
Organizational expectations played a significant role in
shaping participant perceptions about boundaries. We observed
that managers hardly ever requested extended work hours from
participants. Instead, individuals worked where and when they
perceived it was necessary, either to complete their workload
(especially so for managers), or, to collaborate with co-workers
in distant time zones. Ethan explained how he perceived Tech’s
organizational culture and the demands of his intense workload
as a middle manager.
Ethan: And the company doesn’t set it as an expectation. They
don’t expect me to sit, or the hundreds of other people that sit
on their sofas at night, doing email for the day. It’s not
expected,
right. But it’s not discouraged. [. . .] It’s a self-driven, there’s
no
expectation, other than your personal drive to be on top of or in
front of or caught up on, or, but it’s, you’re never in front of,
right.
You’re always [. . .] You’re never in front, yeah. So it’s just
about
keeping head above water in some respects, right.
Lauren explained her views about the mistaken freedom of
working from home, and the requirement to be constantly
available, enforced by her manager’s behavior. Organizational
norms were powerful in shaping acceptable and unacceptable
behaviors for participants.
Lauren: No, because if you do that, there will be him [Lauren’s
manager] asking, where are you? You should always be
available.
So there was no hiding. There was absolutely no hiding. So
even

though that people say that you work from home and you’ve got
all this freedom, it’s nothing like that. On the contrary, in fact.
Because you felt like you had to be constantly by your computer
so you can answer your chat right away, or your phone right
away. Because if there was a delay there’s always that worry at
the
back of your head, oh, do they think I’m not working?
(Individual
contributor, full-time, age 40–44, teleworker some of the week).
So, fuzzy boundarylessness has a dark side. Participants
framed use of ICT to craft reputations of high availability
as a personal choice. Yet, participants were responding to
strongly held behavioral norms in organizational culture.
There was little resistance to working outside conventional
hours—it seemed so ‘normal’. But, per Lauren’s remarks,
participants were not truly free to decide working hours
independently. Constant availability for work has become a
proxy
for organizational commitment. Virtual displays of employee
engagement are now paramount. Individuals work within a
matrix of co-worker relationships at work, and kin relationships
at home. Each of these relationships constitutes border-keeper
expectations, so knowledge workers must craft a careful path
between competing expectations. Megan paid more attention
to work than family. She worked while on vacation (an
extreme example in our study), to avoid out-of-control work
situations.

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