The document discusses the advantages and disadvantages of at-large versus district-based electoral systems for city councils. At-large systems can represent the whole city but are less likely to encourage representation of specific neighborhoods or minority groups. District systems make it easier for minorities and new candidates to win seats but can exacerbate divisions within a city. The document also analyzes data on representation of Black and Latino populations under different systems.

1. At-Large vs. District Elections Consequences for Representation

2. Advantages of At-Large Systems Members represent the whole city, not just their own district. Reduced divisiveness and factions. Voters can choose from a broader base of candidates. No battles over how to draw district lines.

3. Advantages of District Elections Encourages personal campaigning. Encourages attention to neighborhood concerns. Easier for new candidates to win election. Lower cost of campaigning. Enhances descriptive representation and shared policy views/ideology.

4. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 Original goal: eliminating Black disenfranchisement when a group is prohibited or discouraged from voting. Later extended to vote dilution of Blacks and language minorities. when the votes of a group are manipulated to count less than those of another group (Whites).

5. Reynolds v. Sims (1964) Voting includes “all action necessary to make a vote effective.” White v. Regester (1973) Multimember districts are unconstitutional if they dilute minority votes. Thornburg v. Gingles (1986) At-large elections often present an unconstitutional dilution of minority vote strength.

6. Use of Electoral System by City Size Source: National League of Cities, 2003. Small (<25,000 pop.) Medium (25,000-199,999) Large (>200,000) At-large 59% 58% 13% District 24% 27% 49% Mixed 17% 18% 38%

7. How At-Large Systems Dilute City X 9 seats 2/3 White 1/3 Black Likely result of at-large elections: 9 White council members White Voters Black Voters

8. Music for the Prom 10 students gather to choose five songs to feature at the school prom. Six students like top-forty. Four prefer hip-hop. Under normal circumstances, the group might agree to choose three top-forty and two hip-hop tunes. However, if they voted using the winner-take-all voting method, all five selections would be Top Forty. Source: Lani Guinier: The Tyranny of the Majority (1994)

9. How District Systems Help City X 9 seats 2/3 White 1/3 Black Likely result of district elections: 6 White council members, 3 Black White Voters Black Voters

10. Complications… If racial and ethnic groups are not residentially segregated, district elections will not result in proportional representation. Cracking & Packing

14. The Bottom Line: While the ability of at-large districts to represent Blacks has improved dramatically in recent decades… … Blacks are most equitably represented by district elections .

15. Black Representation All cities: .82 in at-large systems 1.06 in district systems .77 in mixed systems Southern cities: .71 in at-large systems .95 in district systems .72 in mixed systems Source: Susan Welch, “The Impact of At-Large Elections on the Representation of Blacks and Hispanics.” Journal of Politics 52, 4 (Nov. 1990). Representational parity = 1.0

16. Latinos are abysmally underrepresented in all systems. District elections do not promote more equitable representation for Latinos. Latinos have fared quite well in at-large systems in California. Latino Representation

17. Latino Representation All cities: .47 in at-large systems .38 in district systems .56 in mixed systems In California: .48 in at-large systems .27 in district systems .17 in mixed systems Representational parity = 1.0

18. What Helps Latinos? Latinos do better under district systems in cities with more residential segregation. Latinos do better under district systems as their proportion of the population increases (>20%). .65 for at-large systems .71 for district systems

19. What About Hayward? Would district elections bring descriptive representation for Hayward Latinos? Latino Residential Segregation Menlo Park: .75 Oakland: .70 Hayward: .29 Fremont: .18 Alameda: .18 San Leandro: .19 Source: US Census

20. Guinier’s Critique District elections are a short-term fix that merely move the effect of racial prejudice from the voting booth to the process of government. Elected minorities are then outvoted by more numerous White elected officials. Surrounding districts are made even more white.

21. What is Representation? Descriptive Representation vs. Substantive Representation

22. Summing Up District elections are better at providing descriptive representation for blacks, but have a mixed record for Latinos. District elections may hamper substantive representation and ultimately limit minority political power.