The endocrine system regulates processes in the body through hormones secreted directly into the bloodstream. It includes glands like the pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenals, and ovaries. Hormones can be amino acid-based and water-soluble, acting through second messengers, or lipid-soluble like steroids, acting directly on genes in target cells. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland, which secretes hormones to regulate other endocrine glands and target organs. Together they maintain homeostasis through feedback loops and interactions between multiple hormones.
The study of endocrine system, and their role in the physiology of the body .
Endocrine--endo means within. This is a system which controls body function through hormones.
Endocrine System is composed of a number of glands.
The endocrine system includes the organs of the body that secrete hormones directly into body fluids such as blood
Regulates chemical reaction in cells and therefore control functions of the organs, tissues, and other cells
Endocrine glands are ductless glands comprised of endocrine cells.
This means that these glands do not have ducts that lead to the outside of the body.
For example, sweat glands are NOT endocrine glands (they are instead exocrine glands) because sweat glands have ducts that lead to the outside surface of your skin (that’s how the sweat gets out).
The study of endocrine system, and their role in the physiology of the body .
Endocrine--endo means within. This is a system which controls body function through hormones.
Endocrine System is composed of a number of glands.
The endocrine system includes the organs of the body that secrete hormones directly into body fluids such as blood
Regulates chemical reaction in cells and therefore control functions of the organs, tissues, and other cells
Endocrine glands are ductless glands comprised of endocrine cells.
This means that these glands do not have ducts that lead to the outside of the body.
For example, sweat glands are NOT endocrine glands (they are instead exocrine glands) because sweat glands have ducts that lead to the outside surface of your skin (that’s how the sweat gets out).
Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
One of the most developed cities of India, the city of Chennai is the capital of Tamilnadu and many people from different parts of India come here to earn their bread and butter. Being a metropolitan, the city is filled with towering building and beaches but the sad part as with almost every Indian city
We understand the unique challenges pickleball players face and are committed to helping you stay healthy and active. In this presentation, we’ll explore the three most common pickleball injuries and provide strategies for prevention and treatment.
Leading the Way in Nephrology: Dr. David Greene's Work with Stem Cells for Ki...Dr. David Greene Arizona
As we watch Dr. Greene's continued efforts and research in Arizona, it's clear that stem cell therapy holds a promising key to unlocking new doors in the treatment of kidney disease. With each study and trial, we step closer to a world where kidney disease is no longer a life sentence but a treatable condition, thanks to pioneers like Dr. David Greene.
How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
Pubrica’s team of researchers and writers create scientific and medical research articles, which may be important resources for authors and practitioners. Pubrica medical writers assist you in creating and revising the introduction by alerting the reader to gaps in the chosen study subject. Our professionals understand the order in which the hypothesis topic is followed by the broad subject, the issue, and the backdrop.
https://pubrica.com/academy/case-study-or-series/how-many-patients-does-case-series-should-have-in-comparison-to-case-reports/
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
This conference will delve into the intricate intersections between mental health, legal frameworks, and the prison system in Bolivia. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current challenges faced by mental health professionals working within the legislative and correctional landscapes. Topics of discussion will include the prevalence and impact of mental health issues among the incarcerated population, the effectiveness of existing mental health policies and legislation, and potential reforms to enhance the mental health support system within prisons.
3. • Endocrine system acts with nervous
system
of body cells
• Influences metabolic activities via
hormones transported in blood
• Responses are slower but longer lasting
than nervous system responses
• Endocrinology: study of hormones
and endocrine organs
Endocrine System Overview
4. Endocrine System
Controls and integrates body processes
Regulation of cellular metabolism
and energy balance
Mobilization of body defenses
Reproduction
Growth and
development
Maintenance of electrolyte, water,
and nutrient balance of blood
5. Types of Glands
Exocrine glands
• Produce non-hormonal
substances (examples:
sweat, saliva)
• Have ducts to carry secretions
to membrane surface
Endocrine glands
• Produce hormones
• Lack ducts
Secretions
Duct
Surface
Gland lumen
6. Types of Glands
Blood in
capillaries
Hormones
being secreted
into blood
Exocrine glands
• Produce non-hormonal
substances (examples:
sweat, saliva)
• Have ducts to carry secretions
to membrane surface
Endocrine glands
• Produce hormones
• Lack ducts
7. Endocrine System Overview
Pancreas
Gonads (ovaries)
Placenta
Organs with
exocrine and
endocrine
functions
Pineal gland
Adrenal glands
Pituitary gland
Trachea
Parathyroid glands
(on posterior side
of thyroid)
Thyroid gland Hypothalamus
8. Other tissues and organs
that produce hormones:
• Adipose cells
• Thymic cells
Endocrine System Overview
Adipose cell
9. Other tissues and organs
that produce hormones:
• Adipose cells
• Thymic cells
Endocrine System Overview
Duodenum
Small
intestine
Stomach
Jejunum
Ileum
Heart
Kidneys
10. Long-distance chemical
signals that travel in blood
or lymph
Chemicals that exert
effects on the same cells
that secrete them
Locally acting chemicals
that affect cells nearby
without affecting those
that secrete them
Chemical Messengers
Hormones Autocrines Paracrines
Autocrine and paracrine hormones are not
considered part of endocrine system
12. Hormone Chemical Structure
Amino acid-based hormones Steroids
• Amino acid derivatives,
peptides, and proteins
• Synthesized from cholesterol
• Gonadal and adrenocortical
hormones
Two main classes of hormones:
A possible third class, eicosanoids, is considered a hormone by some
scientists, but most classify it as a paracrine.
14. Action of Hormones
Target cell
Target cell
Hormones alter
target cell activity.
Blood vessel Hormone
Secreting cell
Receptor
15. Action of Hormones
Stimulate synthesis
of enzymes or other
proteins
Induce secretory activity
Activate or
deactivate
enzymes
Stimulate mitosis
Alter plasma membrane permeability
and/or membrane potential by
opening or closing ion channels
Hormone action on target cells may be to:
16. Action of Hormones
1. Water-soluble hormones
(all amino acid-based hormones
except thyroid hormone)
• Act on plasma membrane receptors
• Act via G protein second messengers
• Cannot enter cell
2. Lipid-soluble hormones
(steroid and thyroid hormones)
• Act on intracellular receptors
that directly activate genes
• Can enter cell
Hormones act in one of two ways,
depending on their chemical nature and receptor location.
17. Amino acid-based hormones, except thyroid
hormone, exert effects through second
messenger systems.
Second Messenger Systems
18. Second Messenger Systems
1. Water-soluble hormones (all amino acid-based hormones except thyroid hormone)
Cyclic
AMP
PIP2-
calcium
19. Cyclic AMP (cAMP) Signaling Mechanism
1. Water-soluble hormones (all amino acid-based hormones except thyroid hormone)
Receptor
Hormone
Cytoplasm
G protein complex
(stimulatory)
Adenylate cyclase
AC
ATP cAMP
Adenosine
triphosphate
PKA
Protein kinase
Phosphorylation cascade
Phosphodiesterase
(stops signal
transduction pathway)
-AMP
PDE4 PDE4i
activates Amplification effect
20. PIP2-Calcium Signaling Mechanism
Protein
kinase C
Phosphorylation
of target proteins
Phospholipase C
G protein coupled
receptor
IP3/Ca2+
channel
Ca2+
Ca2+
Ca2+
Ca2+ Ca2+
Ca2+
Ca2+ Ca2+
Ca2+
Protein kinase
Cellular
response
1. Water-soluble hormones (all amino acid-based hormones except thyroid hormone)
DAG
(diacylglycerol)
(Inositol trisphosphate) IP3
Hormone
PIP2
Calmodulin
21. 1. Lipid-soluble steroid hormones and
thyroid hormone can diffuse into
target cells and bind with intracellular
receptors.
2. Receptor-hormone complex enters
nucleus and binds to a specific
region of the DNA.
Intracellular Receptors: Direct Gene Activation
Lipid-soluble
hormone
2. Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid and thyroid hormones)
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Plasma
membrane
Intracellular
receptor
22. Intracellular Receptors: Direct Gene Activation
Lipid-soluble
hormone
3. Receptor-hormone complex helps
initiate DNA transcription
to produce mRNA.
4. mRNA is then translated into
specific protein.
• Proteins synthesized have
various functions, e.g.: metabolic
activities, structural purposes,
or being exported from the cell.
2. Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid and thyroid hormones)
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Plasma
membrane
Intracellular
receptor
New
protein
26. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Blood vessel
Ca2+
Low
blood
levels of
Ca2+
+
Changing blood levels of ions and nutrients directly stimulate secretion of hormones
PTH
Calcium is released into bloodstream
Rising
levels
of Ca2+
+
29. The nervous system can make adjustments to hormone
levels when needed. It can modify stimulation or inhibition
of endocrine glands.
The nervous system can override normal endocrine controls.
Nervous System Modulation
31. Target cells must have specific receptors to which hormones
bind. For example, ACTH receptors are found only on certain
cells of the adrenal cortex, but thyroxin receptors are found
on nearly all cells of the body.
Target Cell Specificity
32. Target Cell Specificity
Affinity (strength)
of binding between
receptor and hormone
Relative number
of receptors on/in
target cell
Blood levels
of hormone
Target cell activation depends on 3 factors:
33. Target Cell Specificity
The amount of hormone can influence
the number of receptors for that
hormone
• Up-regulation: target cells form
more receptors in response to low
hormone levels
• Down-regulation: target cells lose
receptors in response to high
hormone levels
• Desensitizes the target cells to
prevent them from overreacting
to persistently high levels of
hormone
Up-regulation
Down-regulation
Hormone
Target
cell
Hormone
receptor
Time
Time
Hormone Target
cell
Hormone receptor
34. Hormone Circulation
Blood vessel Free hormone
Endocrine cell
Hormones circulate in the blood
either free or bound.
• Steroids and thyroid hormone are
attached to plasma proteins.
• All others circulate without carriers.
Bound to
carrier proteins
35. Hormone Circulation
Blood vessel Free hormone
Endocrine cell
Concentration of circulating hormone
reflects:
• Rate of release
• Speed at which it is inactivated
and removed from the body
Bound to
carrier proteins
37. Half-life is the time required for the level of hormone
in blood level to decrease by half. It varies anywhere from a
fraction of a minute to a week, depending on the hormone.
Half-life of Hormone Activity
38. Onset of Hormone Activity
Hormones have different response times:
• Some responses are immediate.
• Some, especially steroids,
can take hours to days.
• Some are inactive until they
enter target cells.
39. Duration of Hormone Activity
The duration of the response is usually
limited.
• It ranges from 10 seconds
to several hours.
• Effects may disappear rapidly
as blood levels drop, but some may
persist for hours at low blood levels.
40. Permissiveness Synergism
• One hormone cannot
exert its effects without
another hormone being
present.
• Example: Reproductive
hormones need thyroid
hormone to have effect.
• More than one hormone
produces the same
effects on a target cell,
causing amplification.
• Example: Glucagon and
epinephrine both cause
the liver to release
glucose.
Interaction of Hormones at Target Cells
Multiple hormones may act on the same target at the same time.
Antagonism
• One or more hormones
oppose the action of
another hormone.
• Example: Insulin
decreases blood
glucose levels while
glucagon increases
blood glucose levels.
42. The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus is
connected to the
pituitary gland
(hypophysis)
via a stalk called the
infundibulum.
• The pituitary secretes
at least 8 major
hormones.
Infundibulum
Thalamus
43. The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Hypothalamus
Infundibulum
Thalamus
Posterior pituitary:
composed of neural
tissue that secretes
neurohormones
Anterior pituitary
44. The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Anterior pituitary
Hypothalamus
Infundibulum
+ Posterior lobe
= Neurohypophysis
Thalamus
Posterior pituitary
45. The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Hypothalamus
Infundibulum
+ Posterior lobe
= Neurohypophysis
Thalamus
Posterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis):
consists of glandular
tissue
46. The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Pituitary gland
• The hypothalamus is
connected to the
pituitary gland
(hypophysis)
via a stalk called the
infundibulum.
• The pituitary secretes
at least 8 major
hormones.
Hypothalamus
47. Posterior Pituitary-hypothalamic Relationships
Capillary
plexus
Hypothalamo-
hypophyseal
tract
Posterior
pituitary
gland
The posterior lobe is
neural tissue derived from
a downgrowth of the brain.
Hormones are stored in
axon terminals in the
posterior pituitary and are
released into the blood
when neurons fire.
• Paraventricular neurons
produce oxytocin (OT)
• Supraoptic neurons
produce antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) ADH release
OT release
Hypothalamus
Infundibulum
Pituitary gland
ADH release
OT release
49. Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic Hormones
Paraventricular
neurons produce
oxytocin (OT)
Supraoptic
neurons produce
antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
Posterior pituitary consists of axon terminals
of neurons from hypothalamic neurons:
50. Oxytocin Effects
• Stimulates uterine contractions
during childbirth
• Triggers milk ejection
• Acts as neurotransmitter in the brain
(PIP2-calcium second messenger
system)
Both positive feedback mechanisms
More oxytocin
needed
Uterine
contractions
3
Posterior
pituitary
Positive
feedback
4
Oxytocin
release
2
1
51. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Osmoreceptor cells
in hypothalamus
monitor solute concentration
Posterior pituitary:
release of ADH
Kidney tubules
reabsorb more water
and prevent urine formation
Inhibited by:
alcohol, diuretics
High concentrations
cause vasoconstriction
(ADH = vasopressin)
+
Triggered by:
• Solute concentration
= too high
• Pain
• Low blood pressure
• Drugs
+
53. The hypothalamus secretes releasing and
inhibiting hormones to the anterior pituitary
to regulate hormone secretion.
Pituitary-hypothalamic Relationships
55. Anterior Pituitary Hormones
All but growth hormone (GH) activate target cells
via cAMP second messenger system.
LH FSH TSH PRL GH ACTH
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
56. Anterior Pituitary Hormones
All but 2 are tropic hormones (tropins) that regulate
the secretion of other hormones.
LH FSH TSH PRL GH ACTH
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
57. GH is also called somatotropin as it is
produced by somatotropic cells.
It has direct actions on metabolism
and indirect growth-promoting actions.
Growth Hormone (GH)
58. Growth Hormone (GH)
Fatty acids
• Tropic hormone, also called somatotropin
• Origin: somatotropic cells
• Function: direct actions on metabolism and indirect growth-promoting actions
Direct actions
on metabolism
Indirect
actions
on growth
• Glucose-sparing actions decrease rate
of cellular glucose uptake and metabolism
(anti-insulin effects)
• Triggers liver to break down glycogen
into glucose
• Increases blood levels of fatty acids
for use as fuel and encourages cellular
protein synthesis
59. Growth Hormone (GH)
Direct actions
on metabolism
Indirect
actions
on growth
• GH triggers liver, skeletal muscle, and bone
to produce insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
• IGFs stimulate cellular uptake of nutrients to:
• Synthesize DNA and proteins
needed for cell division
• Form of collagen
• Deposit of bone matrix
• GH stimulates most cells to enlarge and divide
(major targets: bone and skeletal muscle)
• Tropic hormone, also called somatotropin
• Origin: somatotropic cells
• Function: direct actions on metabolism and indirect growth-promoting actions
IGF-1 release
60. Growth Hormone (GH) Regulation of Secretion
GH release or
inhibition is chiefly
regulated by
hypothalamic
hormones on
somatotropic
cells.
Hypothalamus
GHRH
Pituitary
GH
+
GHIH/SST
GH
IGF-I
Liver
+
Stomach
Ghrelin
GH in blood
Glucose
(hypoglycemia)
Amino acids
63. • Internal and external
factors that alter release
of CRH include fever,
hypoglycemia,
and stressors
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Anterior pituitary
Adrenal cortex
ACTH
Corticosteroid
Hypothalamus
CRH
64. Gonadotropins (FSH and LH)
Male testes Female ovaries
+
Anterior
pituitary
Hypothalamus
GnRH
LH, FSH
Sex hormones
+
Testosterone
Estradiol
progesterone
+ +
LH and FSH
both absent
from blood in
prepubertal
boys and girls
65. • Origin: prolactin
cells of anterior
pituitary
• Function:
stimulates milk
production in
females role in
males not well
understood
Prolactin (PRL)
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Breast
TRH
Dopamine/PIH
PRL
Breast milk production
+
• Mechanical
stimulus
• Increased
estrogen
levels
(suckling)
66. Prolactin (PRL)
Increased estrogen levels stimulate PRL
Reason behind breast swelling and tenderness during menstrual cycle
Rising blood levels toward end of pregnancy
Suckling stimulates PRL release and promotes continued milk production
68. Isthmus:
median mass
connecting two
lateral lobes
Thyroid Gland Location and Structure
Follicles:
hollow sphere of epithelial follicular cells
that produce glycoprotein thyroglobulin
Butterfly-shaped gland in anterior neck on the trachea, just inferior to larynx, that consists of:
69. Thyroid Gland Location and Structure
Colloid: fluid of follicle lumen containing
thyroglobulin plus iodine; precursor to
thyroid hormone
Parafollicular cells:
produce hormone
calcitonin
Butterfly-shaped gland in anterior neck on the trachea, just inferior to larynx, that consists of:
70. Location and Structure
PhilSchatz, Anatomy, https://philschatz.com/anatomy-book/contents/m46700.html, CC BY 4.0, cropped
Parafollicular cell
Colloid-containing
follicle
Follicle cells
(cuboidal epithelium)
71. Thyroid Hormone (TH)
T4 (thyroxine) T3 (triiodothyronine)
Both are iodine-containing amine hormones.
72. Thyroid Hormone (TH)
Target cell
T4
T3
T3
T3
T3
Gene
transcription
Increases basal metabolic
rate and heat production
calorigenic
DNA
Receptor
73. Thyroid Hormone (TH)
Regulates tissue growth
and development
Maintains blood pressure
Critical for normal skeletal and
nervous system development
and reproductive capabilities
Increases adrenergic receptors
in blood vessels
76. T4 and T3 are transported by thyroxine-binding globulins (TBGs).
• Both bind to target receptors, but T3 is 10 times more active than T4.
• Peripheral tissues have enzymes needed to convert T4 to T3.
• Enzymes remove one iodine atom from thyroxine.
Thyroid Hormone (TH) Transport and Regulation
78. • Produced by parafollicular (C)
cells in response to high Ca2+
levels
• Antagonist to parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
Calcitonin
Parafollicular cell
Colloid-containing
follicle
Follicle cells
(cuboidal epithelium)
79. No known physiological role in
humans at normal physiological
levels, but at higher-than-normal
doses:
• Inhibits osteoclast activity and
prevents release of Ca2+ from
bone matrix
• Stimulates Ca2+ uptake and
incorporation into bone matrix
Calcitonin
Parafollicular cell
Colloid-containing
follicle
Follicle cells
(cuboidal epithelium)
82. • 4 - 8 tiny yellow-brown
glands embedded in a
posterior surface of the
thyroid.
• Contain oxyphil cells
(function not clear) and
parathyroid cells, which
secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH), or
parathormone
Parathyroid Gland
Hyoid bone
Thyroid
cartilage
Cricoid
cartilage
Right
parathyroid
glands
Left
parathyroid
glands
83. • 4 - 8 tiny yellow-brown glands
embedded in the posterior
aspect of thyroid
• Contain oxyphil cells (function
not clear) and parathyroid cells,
which secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid Gland
Oxyphil cells
Blood vessel
Parathyroid
(chief) cell
84. • PTH is the most important
hormone in Ca2+ homeostasis
• Secreted in response to
low blood levels of Ca2+
• Inhibited by rising levels
of Ca2+
• Target organs: skeleton,
kidneys, and intestine
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Oxyphil cells
Blood vessel
Parathyroid
(chief) cell
85. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid glands (located on the back of the thyroid gland)
Intestine
Bone
Kidney
Blood vessel
Ca2+
Ca2+
Ca2+
Rising
levels
of Ca2+
Low
blood
levels of
Ca2+
PTH
Vitamin D
PTH
+ +
86. Functions of Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid glands (located on the back of the thyroid gland)
Intestine
Bone
Kidney
Blood vessel
Ca2+
Ca2+
Ca2+
PTH
Vitamin D
PTH
88. Adrenal Gland
Adrenal gland
Adrenal cortex
3 layers of glandular
tissue that synthesize
and secrete several
different hormones
Nervous tissue that
is part of sympathetic
nervous system
Paired, pyramid-shaped organs
atop kidneys (suprarenal glands)
Adrenal medulla
Superior surface of kidney
89. • Produces over 24 different hormones
collectively called corticosteroids.
• Steroid hormones are not stored in cells.
• The rate of release depends on the
rate of synthesis.
Adrenal Cortex
Adrenal gland
Superior surface of kidney
Adrenal
cortex
Adrenal
medulla
90. Adrenal Cortex
PhilSchatz, Anatomy, https://philschatz.com/anatomy-book/contents/m46684.html, CC BY 4.0, cropped
Adrenal medulla
Three layers of cortical cells produce different corticosteroids.
Zona glomerulosa Mineralocorticoids
Zona fasciculata Glucocorticoids
Zona reticularis Gonadocorticoids
91. Adrenal Cortex Mineralocorticoids
K+ (potassium)
• Sets resting membrane
potential of cells
Na+ (sodium)
• Affects ECF volume, blood
volume, blood pressure,
and levels of other ions
(K+, H+, HCO3 , and Cl )
Function: regulate electrolyte concentrations in ECF
primarily Na+ (sodium) and K+ (potassium)
93. Effects of aldosterone are short-lived.
It stimulates synthesis and activation of
Na+/K+ ATPase transport pumps, where
Na+ is exchanged for K+.
Adrenal Cortex Mineralocorticoids
101. Adrenal Cortex Actions of Cortisol
Formation of glucose
from fats and proteins
Rise in blood pressure
Enhances vasoconstriction
Gluconeogenesis
Metabolic effects
Cortisol
102. Adrenal Cortex Actions of Cortisol
• Depress cartilage and bone formation
• Inhibit inflammation by decreasing release of inflammatory chemicals
• Depress immune system
• Disrupt normal cardiovascular, neural, and gastrointestinal functions
Excessive levels of glucocorticoids
103. Glucocorticoid drugs can control
symptoms of many inflammatory diseases
(arthritis, allergies) but can also cause
undesirable effects.
Adrenal Cortex Actions of Cortisol
104. Adrenal Cortex Gonadocorticoids
Adrenal
cortex
Weak androgens (male sex hormones) are converted
to testosterone in tissue cells, some to estrogens.
May contribute to:
• Onset of puberty and appearance
of secondary sex characteristics
• Sex drive in women
• Source of estrogens in
postmenopausal women
105. Medullary chromaffin cells synthesize
catecholamines: epinephrine (80%)
and norepinephrine (20%)
Adrenal Medulla
Effects of catecholamines
• Vasoconstriction
• Increased heart rate
• Increased blood glucose levels
• Blood diverted to brain, heart,
and skeletal muscle
20%
80%
108. The pineal gland is a small gland that is hanging from the
roof of the third ventricle.
Pinealocytes secrete melatonin, derived from serotonin.
Pineal Gland
110. Pineal Gland
Day/night cycles
Timing of sexual maturation
and puberty
Production of antioxidant and
detoxification molecules in cells
Physiological processes that show
rhythmic variations (body
temperature, sleep, appetite)
Melatonin may affect:
112. The pancreas is a triangular gland located
partially behind the stomach.
It has both exocrine and endocrine cells.
Other Endocrine Organs Pancreas
114. Pancreas
Acinar cells (exocrine)
produce enzyme-rich juice for digestion
Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
contain endocrine cells
Alpha () cells Beta () cells
Produce glucagon
(hyperglycemic hormone)
Produce insulin
(hypoglycemic hormone)
115. Pancreatic Islets
PhilSchatz, Anatomie, https://philschatz.com/anatomy-book/contents/m46685.html, CC BY 4.0, cropped
The alpha and beta cells appear as little islands among the acinar cells.
Alpha cells
Beta cells
Exocrine acinus
116. Extremely potent hyperglycemic agent
• Triggered by decreased blood glucose
levels, rising amino acid levels,
or sympathetic nervous system
Pancreatic Islets Glucagon
PhilSchatz, Anatomy, https://philschatz.com/anatomy-book/contents/m46685.html, CC BY 4.0, edited
Splenic artery
Glucagon release:
alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon
117. Raises blood glucose levels
by targeting liver to:
• Break down glycogen into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• Synthesize glucose from lactic
acid and other noncarbohydrates
(gluconeogenesis)
• Release glucose into the blood
Pancreatic Islets Glucagon
PhilSchatz, Anatomy, https://philschatz.com/anatomy-book/contents/m46685.html, CC BY 4.0, edited
Glucagon release:
alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon
Splenic artery
119. • Secreted when blood glucose
levels increase
• Synthesized as proinsulin that is
then modified
Pancreatic Islets Insulin
PhilSchatz, Anatomy, https://philschatz.com/anatomy-book/contents/m46685.html, CC BY 4.0, edited
Splenic artery
Insulin release:
beta cells of pancreas release insulin
120. Pancreatic Islets Insulin
Beta
cell
Insulin
Enhances membrane
transport of glucose
into fat and muscle cells
Inhibits conversion of
amino acids or fats to glucose
Smooth ER
Rough ER
Inhibits breakdown of
glycogen to glucose
Liver
Mitochondria
122. Insulin also triggers cells to:
• Catalyze oxidation of glucose
for ATP production: first priority
• Polymerize glucose to form
glycogen
• Convert glucose to fat
(particularly in adipose tissue)
Pancreatic Islets Insulin
PhilSchatz, Anatomy, https://philschatz.com/anatomy-book/contents/m46685.html, CC BY 4.0, edited
Insulin release:
beta cells of pancreas release insulin
Splenic artery
124. Pancreatic Islets Insulin
Factors that influence insulin release
Elevated blood glucose
levels: primary stimulus
Rising blood levels of
amino acids and fatty
acids
Hormones glucagon,
epinephrine, growth
hormone, thyroxine,
glucocorticoids
Somatostatin and
sympathetic nervous
system inhibit insulin
release
Release of acetylcholine
by parasympathetic
nerve fibers
125. The Gonads and Placenta
• Maturation of reproductive organs
• Appearance of secondary sexual
characteristics
• With progesterone, causes breast
development and cyclic changes
in uterine mucosa
• Initiates maturation of male
reproductive organs
• Causes appearance of male secondary
sexual characteristics and sex drive
• Necessary for normal sperm production
• Maintains reproductive organs
in functional state
Progesterone Testosterone
Estrogen
Estrogen Progesterone
Gonads
Ovaries (female) Testes (male)
126. The Placenta secretes estrogens, progesterone,
and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Placenta
127. Most endocrine organs operate well until old age, however:
• ↓ GH (muscle atrophy)
• ↓ TH (lower basal metabolic rates)
• = PTH (lack of estrogen in older women
makes them more vulnerable to
bone-demineralizing effects of PTH)
• ↓ Glucose tolerance
• Ovaries: become unresponsive to
gonadotropins (estrogen deficiency)
• ↓ Testosterone (effect is not
usually seen until very old age)
Endocrine Function throughout Life
128. In a Nutshell
The endocrine system acts with the
nervous system. It coordinates and
integrates the activity of body cells.
Hormones act by binding to specific
target cells and altering cell activity.
There are several endocrine glands
throughout the body, which secrete
specific hormones and target specific
cells.
129. In a Nutshell
The pituitary gland secretes 8 different
hormones: 2 posterior pituitary
hormones and 6 anterior pituitary
hormones.
The thyroid gland secretes thyroid
hormone (metabolic regulator).
The parathyroid secretes parathyroid
hormone (Ca2+ levels).
130. In a Nutshell
The adrenal gland secretes hormones
responsible for several different body
activities (regulation of blood pressure
and stress response).
The pineal gland secretes the hormone
melatonin (circadian rhythm).
Other organs in the body with
endocrine function include the
pancreas, gonads, and placenta.