Diabetes mellitus is a disorder characterized by hyperglycemia due to insufficient insulin production or resistance. There are three main types: type 1 caused by beta cell destruction; type 2 caused by insulin resistance; and gestational diabetes during pregnancy. Sustained hyperglycemia can damage many organs and cause complications like retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy and infections. Treatment involves insulin, oral medications, nutrition, exercise, monitoring and education to control blood glucose levels and prevent complications. Nursing management focuses on glucose monitoring, medication administration, teaching, and treatment of hypoglycemia or diabetic ketoacidosis.
Diabetes mellitus refers to a group of diseases that affect how the body uses blood sugar (glucose). Glucose is an important source of energy for the cells that make up the muscles and tissues. It's also the brain's main source of fuel.
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a syndrome of chronic hyperglycaemia is due to one of two mechanisms:
Inadequate production of insulin , or
Inadequate sensitivity of cells to the action of insulin.
It affects more than 220 million people worldwide, and it is estimated that it will affect 440 million by the year 2030
"Diabetes" comes from the Greek word for "siphon", and implies that a lot of urine is made.
The second term,"mellitus" comes from the Latin word, "mel" which means "honey", and was used because the urine was sweet.
• The onset of type 1 diabetes may also be associated with sudden weight loss or nausea, vomiting, or abdominal pains, if DKA has developed.
Diabetes mellitus refers to a group of diseases that affect how the body uses blood sugar (glucose). Glucose is an important source of energy for the cells that make up the muscles and tissues. It's also the brain's main source of fuel.
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a syndrome of chronic hyperglycaemia is due to one of two mechanisms:
Inadequate production of insulin , or
Inadequate sensitivity of cells to the action of insulin.
It affects more than 220 million people worldwide, and it is estimated that it will affect 440 million by the year 2030
"Diabetes" comes from the Greek word for "siphon", and implies that a lot of urine is made.
The second term,"mellitus" comes from the Latin word, "mel" which means "honey", and was used because the urine was sweet.
• The onset of type 1 diabetes may also be associated with sudden weight loss or nausea, vomiting, or abdominal pains, if DKA has developed.
COMPLICATIONS, MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT APPROACH OF DIABETES MELLITUSAnas Indabawa
Diabetes describes a group of metabolic diseases in which the person has high blood glucose (blood sugar), either because insulin production is inadequate, or because the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin, or both. Mellitus is Latin for “sweet as honey”.
Pancreas is an elongated, tapered gland that is located behind the stomach and secretes digestive enzymes and the hormones insulin and glucagon.
The Pancreas secretes insulin and Glucagon directly into the blood stream.
It also secretes digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct, which joins the common bile duct from the liver and drains into the small intestine.
Insulin and Glucagon have opposite effects on liver and other tissues for controlling blood-glucose levels.
Nursing Management · Monitor blood sugar and use a sliding scale to treat high levels of glucose · Educate patient about diabetes · Examine feet .
Diagnosis involves measuring blood glucose levels. Ongoing specialized assessment and evaluation for complications are essential for diabetes management.
COMPLICATIONS, MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT APPROACH OF DIABETES MELLITUSAnas Indabawa
Diabetes describes a group of metabolic diseases in which the person has high blood glucose (blood sugar), either because insulin production is inadequate, or because the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin, or both. Mellitus is Latin for “sweet as honey”.
Pancreas is an elongated, tapered gland that is located behind the stomach and secretes digestive enzymes and the hormones insulin and glucagon.
The Pancreas secretes insulin and Glucagon directly into the blood stream.
It also secretes digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct, which joins the common bile duct from the liver and drains into the small intestine.
Insulin and Glucagon have opposite effects on liver and other tissues for controlling blood-glucose levels.
Nursing Management · Monitor blood sugar and use a sliding scale to treat high levels of glucose · Educate patient about diabetes · Examine feet .
Diagnosis involves measuring blood glucose levels. Ongoing specialized assessment and evaluation for complications are essential for diabetes management.
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The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
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Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
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• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2. • Diabetes mellitus is a disorder characterized by insufficient
production of insulin in the pancreas or when there is
a resistance or deficiency of available insulin resulting
in hyperglycemia.
• It is characterized by disturbances in carbohydrate, protein, and
fat metabolism.
• Sustained hyperglycemia has been shown to affect almost all
tissues in the body and is associated with significant
complications of multiple organ systems, including the eyes,
nerves, kidneys, and blood vessels.
3. Types
• Type 1 diabetes mellitus or, formerly called insulin-dependent
diabetes mellitus, typically occurs in younger people with the
exact cause is unknown. Type 1 diabetes may result from an
autoimmune process triggered by a virus
• Type 2 diabetes mellitus, formerly called non-insulin
dependent diabetes mellitus, is characterized by defects in
insulin release and use, and insulin resistance. Commonly
occurs in patients with obesity and those with genetic
susceptibility to DM.
• Gestational diabetes mellitus is characterized by glucose
intolerance of any degree that occurs during pregnancy.
4. Pathophysiology
• Type 1 diabetes mellitus:
• There is a destruction of the islet cells in the pancreas causing
insufficient insulin and excess glucagon.
• Glucose accumulates in the serum causing hyperglycemia.
• Blood being delivered in the kidneys has high glucose concentration
causing osmotic diuresis and glycosuria.
• Osmotic diuresis causes water loss, resulting in polydipsia.
• Lack of insulin makes the body unable to use carbohydrates primarily
and instead uses fats and proteins for energy production, resulting in
ketosis and weight loss.
• Polyphagia and fatigue result from the break down of nutritional stores.
5. • Type 2 diabetes mellitus:
• Insulin resistance occurs in diabetes mellitus, wherein there is a
decrease in tissue sensitivity to insulin.
• In normal conditions, insulin binds to special receptors on the cell
surfaces and initiates reactions involved in glucose metabolism.
However, in type 2 diabetes, these intracellular reactions are
diminished, making insulin less effective at stimulating glucose uptake
by the tissues and at regulating glucose release by the liver.
• If the beta cells cannot keep up with the increased demand for insulin,
the glucose level rises and type 2 diabetes develops.
6. • Gestational diabetes mellitus:
• Hyperglycemia develops in pregnancy because of the secretion of
placental hormones, which causes insulin resistance.
• Gestational diabetes is related to the anti-insulin effects
of progesterone, cortisol, and human placenta lactogen, which increase
the amount of insulin needed to maintain glycemic control.
7. Complications
• Hypoglycemia is when the blood the glucose falls to less than
50 to 60 mg/dL and is linked to excessive use of hypoglycemic
agents, decreased food intake, increased physical activity,
excessive alcohol consumption, or renal failure. It often occurs
before meals, especially if meals are delayed or snacks are
omitted. It can occur on type 1 or type 2 diabetes.
8. • Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is caused by an absence or
severe inadequacy of insulin. This deficit in available insulin
results in disorders in the metabolism of carbohydrate, protein,
and fat. DKA is usually associated with incorrect or failure to
take insulin as prescribed and stress and is occurring in clients
with type 1 diabetes.
• Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Syndrome
(HHNS) is the combination of severe hyperglycemia and
hyperosmolarity with little or no acidosis. The insulin level in
HHNS is too low to prevent hyperglycemia but is high enough to
prevent fat breakdown. HHNS occurs in older clients (50 to 70
years old) with type 2 diabetes and is associated with stress or
ingestion of certain drugs.
9. • Microangiopathy, or diabetic microvascular disease, is
characterized by capillary basement membrane thickening most
prominently in the retina and glomerulus.
• Diabetic retinopathy is the deterioration of the small blood
vessels that nourish the retina causing visual impairment.
• Nephropathy is a renal dysfunction caused by microvascular
changes in the kidney secondary to diabetes mellitus.
10. • Diabetic neuropathy refers to a group of diseases that affect
all types of nerves characterized by paresthesias or decreased
sensation. Peripheral neuropathy and autonomic
neuropathy are two of the most common types of neuropathy
found in diabetes.
• Increased susceptibility to infections results from an
impaired ability of granulocytes to respond to infectious agents.
11. Clinical Manifestations
• Diabetes mellitus:
• Polyuria (increased urination), polydipsia (increased thirst), and
polyphagia (increased appetite) are the classic symptoms of diabetes
mellitus, also known as the “3 P’s of DM”.
• Fatigue and weakness
• Weight loss
• Sudden vision changes
• Tingling or numbness in hands or feet
• Dry skin
• Skin lesions or wounds that are slow to heal
• Recurrent infections (urinary, skin, vulva)
14. Hypoglycemia
• Mild hypoglycemia: stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system.
• Sweating
• Cool, moist skin, or pallor
• Tremors
• Tachycardia
• Palpitation
• Nervousness
• Hunger
• Moderate hypoglycemia: decreased glucose levels for the brain cells.
• Impaired CNS function
• Inability to concentrate
• Lightheadedness
• Headache
• Confusion
• Memory lapses
• Double vision
• Drowsiness
• Severe hypoglycemia: severe impairment of the CNS.
• Disoriented behavior
• Seizures
• Difficulty arousing from sleep
• Loss of consciousness
15. Laboratory and Diagnostics
• Diabetes mellitus
• Fasting blood glucose level above 140 mg/dL or postprandial (after
meals) blood glucose levels above 200 mg/dl measured on more than
one occasion is diagnostic.
• Glycosylated hemoglobin (HgbA1C) shows an elevated blood glucose
level.
16. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
• Blood glucose levels between 300 and 8900 mg/dL
• Ketoacidosis is reflected in low serum bicarbonate (0 to 15 mEq/L) and
low pH values.
• Accumulation of ketone bodies is reflected in blood and urine ketone
measurements.
• Sodium and potassium concentrations may vary depending on the
degree of dehydration. Increased levels of creatinine, blood urea
nitrogen, and hematocrit go along with dehydration.
• Arterial blood gas indicate metabolic acidosis
17. • HHNS
• Serum blood glucose higher than 700 mg/dL
• Serum blood osmolality is higher than 350 mOsm/kg
• Urine specimen reveals the absence of ketosis
• Serum electrolyte levels show hypernatremia and hypokalemia.
• Hypoglycemia
• Serum blood glucose level is less than 70 mg/dL
18. Medical Management
• The main goal of treatment is to normalize insulin activity and
blood glucose levels to reduce the development of
complications.
• There are five components of management for
diabetes: nutrition, exercise, monitoring, pharmacologic therapy,
and education.
• Insulin is the primary treatment for type 1 diabetes.
• Weight reduction is the primary treatment for type 2 diabetes.
• Exercise enhances the effectiveness of insulin.
19. • Nursing Management
• Monitor blood glucose levels and provide teaching to the
patient on how to do so.
• Administer medications, as prescribed:
• Insulin for type 1 diabetes
• Hypoglycemic agents for type 2 diabetes
(sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, biguanides, alpha-glucosidase
inhibitors)
• Self-administering insulin
• Provide information and teaching on how to self-administer insulin.
20. • On storing insulin: vials of insulin, when not in use, should be
refrigerated (extreme temperatures should also be
avoided). Insulin vial that is currently in use can be kept at
room temperature (1 month). Cloudy insulins should be
thoroughly mixed by gently inverting the vial or rolling it between
the hands before drawing the solution. Intermediate-acting
insulin showing a frosted, whitish coating inside the bottle,
should be discarded.
• On selecting syringes: syringes should match the insulin
concentration.
21. • On mixing insulins: patients should be warned not to inject
one type of insulin into the bottle containing a different type of
insulin. Patients with difficulty mixing insulins may use premixed
insulin.
• Selecting and rotating injection sites: the abdomen, upper
arms, thighs, and hips are the four main sites for insulin
injection. Rotation of injection sites is recommended to prevent
lipodystrophy which may cause a decrease in the absorption of
insulin. Encourage the patient to use all available injection sites
within one area rather than randomly rotating sites from area to
area.
22. • Inserting the needle: insulin should be injected into the subcutaneous
tissue, the incorrect technique may affect the rate of absorption.
• Nurse teaching on diabetes
• Assess readiness to learn and include the patient’s family in developing
a diabetic teaching plan.
• Prevention of complications
• Dietary and lifestyle changes
• Proper self-care (especially foot care)
• Administration and management of insulin
• Use of hypoglycemic medications
23. • Management of DKA.
• Treatment goal is to prevent dehydration, electrolyte loss, and
acidosis.
• Normal saline (0.9%) is infused at a high rate to replace fluid
loss. Hypotonic solution (0.45% NS) may be used for hypertension or
hypernatremia.
• Administer regular insulin, as ordered.
• Monitor serum glucose levels as insulin is administered.
• Monitor potassium levels, because potassium shifts affect the heart.
• Monitor respirations as respiratory distress can occur.
• Assess vital signs, intake and output, and monitor ketone levels.
•
24. • Management of HHNS.
• Assess vital signs, fluid status, and laboratory values. Fluid status and
urine output are closely monitored because of the risk for renal failure
secondary to severe dehydration.
• Because clients are usually older, monitor for heart failure and cardiac
arrhythmias.
• Management of Hypoglycemia.
• Monitor blood glucose levels.
• Administer glucose (oral glucose, I.V. glucose, or glucagon).
• Advise client to carry simple sugar at all times to prevent case of
hypoglycemia