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![Classification of diabetes
Type 1 ( was called “insulin- dependent DM”/ juvenile type of DM) ( 5-10%)
Type 2 (was called “non insulin- dependent DM” /adult onset DM ) (90-95%)
The “pre-diabetic stage” (impaired glucose tolerance)
Gestational DM -any degree of glucose intolerance with onset or first
recognition during pregnancy [in 2-5% of all pregnancies]
Other specific types (1% - 2%)
– genetic syndromes (affecting insulin secretion or action)
– endocrinopathies (Acromegaly, Cushing’s syndrome, glucagonoma,
pheochromocytoma, thyrotoxicosis)
– diseases of pancreas (chronic pancreatitis, cancer)
– drug- or chemical-induced (corticosteroids, beta-blockers, thiazide
diuretics)
– infections (viral)
The main focus of this plenary](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/diabetesmellitus-pathophysiol-vnw-130817094220-phpapp01/85/Diabetes-mellitus-pathophysiol-vnw-5-320.jpg)
![(1) Symptoms (thirst, increased urination,
unexplained weight loss) + a random plasma glucose
concentration >200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L).
(2) Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) >126 mg/dL (7.0
mmol/L) after an overnight (at least 8-hour) fast
(3) Two-hour plasma glucose greater than 200 mg/dL
(11.1 mmol/L) during a standard 75-g oral glucose
tolerance test (OGTT)
[ should be confirmed on a later day with one of the
three methods listed]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/diabetesmellitus-pathophysiol-vnw-130817094220-phpapp01/85/Diabetes-mellitus-pathophysiol-vnw-33-320.jpg)
Uploaded byNyunt Wai
Diabetes mellitus pathophysiol-vnw
This document discusses diabetes mellitus and its various types and complications. It defines diabetes as a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion or insulin action. There are two main types - type 1 diabetes which results from an absolute deficiency of insulin due to autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells, and type 2 diabetes which is due to insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion. The document outlines the pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnostic criteria and long term complications of both types of diabetes, which can include damage to blood vessels, nerves, eyes and kidneys if not properly managed.
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Diabetes mellitus pathophysiol-vnw
- 1.
- 2. Obesity Diabetes mellitus Hypertension “Obesity isthe mother of metabolic diseases” The 3 public health scourges of modern times
- 3. World-wide estimated numberof adults with diabetes by age group and year
- 4. Diabetes mellitus is agroup of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from • defects in insulin secretion, • defects in insulin action (“insulin resistance”), • or both. long-term damage, dysfunction, and failure of various organs, especially the eyes kidney nerves heart blood vessels. “Complications”
- 5. Classification of diabetes Type 1 ( was called “insulin- dependent DM”/ juvenile type of DM) ( 5-10%) Type 2 (was called “non insulin- dependent DM” /adult onset DM ) (90-95%) The “pre-diabetic stage” (impaired glucose tolerance) Gestational DM -any degree of glucose intolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy [in 2-5% of all pregnancies] Other specific types (1% - 2%) – genetic syndromes (affecting insulin secretion or action) – endocrinopathies (Acromegaly, Cushing’s syndrome, glucagonoma, pheochromocytoma, thyrotoxicosis) – diseases of pancreas (chronic pancreatitis, cancer) – drug- or chemical-induced (corticosteroids, beta-blockers, thiazide diuretics) – infections (viral) The main focus of this plenary
- 6. Type 1 Diabetes “insulin-dependent DM” “ juvenile-onset DM” Type 2 Diabetes “Non insulin- dependent DM” “ adult-onset DM”
- 7. Type 1 Diabetes “insulin-dependent DM” “ juvenile-onset DM” Type 2 Diabetes “Non insulin- dependent DM” “ adult-onset DM” Many require insulin i.e. insulin- dependent May develop when much older Developing at younger age groups (childhood obesity)
- 8. Type 1 DiabetesType 2 Diabetes diabetes due to insulin resistance and inadequate compensatory insulin secretory response diabetes due to absolute deficiency of insulin
- 9. Positive Family history Type1 Diabetes Type 2 Diabetes (but ”obesity gene” not yet identified) 30 %10 %
- 10. Pathogenesis Susceptibility genes identified e.g.HLA haplotypes DR3 & DR4. cell-mediated autoimmune destruction of the beta-cells of the pancreas by auto- antibodies genetic predisposition environmental factors viral infections stress toxins e.g. rat poison Type 1 Diabetes absolute insulin deficiency
- 11. Sequence of eventsin the development of Pathogenesis Type 1 Diabetes
- 12. Pathogenesis genetic predisposition environmental factors Diet Physicalinactivity relative insulin deficiency Obesity insulin resistance and inadequate compensatory insulin secretory response Type 2 Diabetes
- 13. ?Exhaustion ?Glucotoxicity ? Amyloid deposition Postreceptordefects (refer to 2nd messenger systems mediating insulin action) Impaired insulin action Insulin Counter regulatory hormones: Cortisol Growth hormone Anti-insulin action hyperglycaemia Inadequate secretory response insulin resistance Type 2 DiabetesPathogenesis Glucagon Catecholamines Target cells Pancreatic beta-cells: Hyperglycaemic effect vs Diabetogenic effect
- 14. 2nd messenger systemsmediating insulin action What and where is the postreceptor defect? • Multiple, but unified hypothesis yet to be made
- 15. Sympathetic nervescells cells Glucagon Insulin receptor (-) receptor (+) receptor(+) receptor (-) Sympathetic nerves Net effect: incr. glucagon secretion Net effect: decr. insulin secretion (-) (+) Islets of Langerhans Insulin-glucagon interaction in normal conditions Paracrinepathway Start here
- 16. Sympathetic nerves Glucagon Insulin receptor (-) receptor (+) receptor(+) receptor (-) Sympathetic nerves Net effect: incr. glucagon secretion Net effect: decr. insulin secretion Paracrinepathway (-) (+) Islets of Langerhans DM: Hyperglucagonaemia is a feature of DM Beta-blockers may further impair insulin secretion Start here cells cells
- 17. Natural history ofType 2 Diabetes cell secretory response to progressive insulin resistance (Blood glucose normal) cells no longer able to compensate Type 2 Diabetes
- 18. Too late? At thetime of diagnosis, 50% of cell function has already been lost ( A study on patients in the UK) Type 2 Diabetes
- 19. Clinical presentation ofDM • Asymptomatic (particularly type 2 DM) • Features resulting from the effects of insulin deficiency/resistance (review insulin actions) – The 3 Polys : • Polyuria / nocturia • Polydipsia • Polyphagia (in the presence of unintentional weight loss) • Complications – Acute: coma (ketoacidosis) (particularly type 1 DM) – Chronic: macrovascular and microvascular
- 20. Pancreas beta cells Insulinactions Glucose entry and utilization (oxidation, storage) Glucose entry and oxidation TG synthesis insulin actions: a review
- 21. Pancreas beta cells Insulinactions Glucose entry and utilization (oxidation, storage) Glucose entry and oxidation TG synthesis Metabolic consequences of insulin deficiency/resistance
- 22. Clinical Features ofDM due to insulin lack Polyphagia (decr. leptin?) Starvation in the midst of plenty Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome (HHS) Lactic acidosis Lactic acidosis Muscle protein breakdown Acetoacetate,0H-butyrate, acetone
- 23. • Ketoacidosis -Life threatening – medical emergency! Stressful situation Positive feedback cycleStart here
- 24. Stressful situation Positive feedbackcycleStart here • Treatment: Fluids(normal saline), I.V. insulin. Monitor plasma glucose (and K+ as insulin promotes uptake of glucose and K+ by muscles and adipose tissue) Insulin pump Rehydration - fluids
- 25. • hyperglycaemia • Excessglucose attaches nonenymatically to amino acids of proteins *“glycosylation”+ • Glycosylation of haemoglobin HbA1C refects glycaemic control for the past 2 months (half life for RBCs) • Glycosylation of plasma proteins fructosamine levels refects glycaemic control for the past 6 weeks(shorter half life) Complications: pathogenesis
- 26. Complications: pathogenesis • Hyperglycaemia • Excess entry of glucose into non-insulin dependent tissues – Nerves – Lens – Kidneys – Blood vessels • Increased intracellular glucose metabolized to sorbitol fructose increased osmotic load influx of water osmotic cell injury • E.g. lens cataract
- 27. Vascular complications: pathogenesis •“glyocosylation”of collagen and other long-lived proteins in tissues • Irreversible formation of advanced glycosylation end products (AGEs) accumulation of AGEs over the lifetime of blood vessel walls – Protein cross-linking and trapping of plasma lipoproteins in blood vessel walls – Reduction in protein breakdown – AGE binding to cell receptors/ endothelial dysfunction • vasculopathy
- 28. Microvascular complications • Retinopathy •Nephropathy • Neuropathy • Impaired skin healing foot ulcers
- 29. Microvascular complications • DiabeticRetinopathy: – Capillary microanuerysms – Macular oedema – neovascularization – partial or total vision loss
- 30. Microvascular complications • Diabeticnephropathy: – Thickening of glomerular basement membrane – Mesangial cell expansion – glomerulosclerosis Glomerular hypertension Progressive decline in glomerular filtration rate nephrotic syndrome (leakage of albumin)/ renal failure
- 31. Microvascular complications • Diabeticneuropathy – also due to direct effects of hyperglycaemia and intracellular metabolic changes • impaired nerve function (sensory, motor) – Symmetric polyneuropathy (distal feet and hands) – Autonomic neuropathy – Cranial neuropathy – Mononeuropathy (median neerve, peroneal nerve) – “diabetic foot”
- 32. Macrovascular complications • Largevessel atherosclerosis (due to hyperinsulinaemia, dyslipidaemia, hyperglycaemia) • Coronary arteries myocardial ischaemia /infarction • Cerebral arteries transient ischaemic attacks; cerebrovascular events stroke • Peripheral artery disease ischaemia intermittent claudication
- 33. (1) Symptoms (thirst,increased urination, unexplained weight loss) + a random plasma glucose concentration >200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L). (2) Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) >126 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L) after an overnight (at least 8-hour) fast (3) Two-hour plasma glucose greater than 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) during a standard 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) [ should be confirmed on a later day with one of the three methods listed]
- 34. Oral Glucose ToleranceTest (OGTT) (how much one can tolerate a glucose load without undue rise in plasma glucose levels; reflects how efficiently insulin can handle the glucose load)) Procedure Overnight fast 75 g glucose in 300 ml water given orally over 5 minutes Basal plasma glucose & every 30 minutes for 2 hours Urine tested for sugar Indications Borderline fasting (FPG) or postprandial PG Persistent glycosuria Glycosuria of pregnancy Pregnant women with family history of DM or had large babies
- 35.
- 36. Symptoms of HYPOGLYCAEMIA AUTONOMIC •Sweating • Trembling • Pounding heart • Hunger • Anxiety NUEROGLYCOPENIC • Confusion • Drowsiness • Speech difficulty • Inability to concentrate • In-coordination NON-SPECIFIC: Nausea, tiredness, headache Diabetics on Insulin therapy “Hypoglycaemia awareness”
- 37. American diabetic association.Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetic care, 2004, 27 (Suppl. 1); 55-60. Robbins Pathologic basis of disease. Pocket companion. Saunders. Holt RIG and Hanley N. Essential Endocrinology and Diabetes. 5th ed. 2007, Blackwell. Merck Manual. iPhone app. Agile Parters. www.Merck Manuals.com. Diabetes power point file. Prof. Hla-Yee-Yee, IMU.
Editor's Notes
- #23 Balanitis – candadiasis;