DBF-Lecture11-Chapter12.pptDatabase Principles Fundam.docx

DBF-Lecture11-Chapter12.ppt
Database Principles: Fundamentals of Design, Implementations
and Management
Lecture11- CHAPTER 12: Transaction Management and
Concurrency Control
Presented by Rabia Cherouk
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ObjectivesIn this chapter, you will learn:About database
transactions and their propertiesWhat concurrency control is
and what role it plays in maintaining the database’s
integrityWhat locking methods are and how they workHow
stamping methods are used for concurrency controlHow
optimistic methods are used for concurrency controlHow
database recovery management is used to maintain database
integrity
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What is a Transaction?A transaction is a logical unit of work
that must be either entirely completed or abortedSuccessful
transaction changes database from one consistent state to
anotherOne in which all data integrity constraints are
satisfiedMost real-world database transactions are formed by
two or more database requestsEquivalent of a single SQL

statement in an application program or transaction
Same as Fig. 12.1 in your book
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Evaluating Transaction Results Not all transactions update the
databaseSQL code represents a transaction because database
was accessedImproper or incomplete transactions can have
devastating effect on database integritySome DBMSs provide
means by which user can define enforceable constraintsOther
integrity rules are enforced automatically by the DBMS
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Figure 9.2
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Transaction Properties
All transactions must display atomicity, consistency, durability
and serializability (ACIDS).AtomicityAll operations of a
transaction must be completedConsistency Permanence of
database’s consistent stateIsolation Data used during transaction
cannot be used by second transaction until the first is completed

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Transaction Properties (cont..)Durability Once transactions are
committed, they cannot be undoneSerializabilityConcurrent
execution of several transactions yields consistent
resultsMultiuser databases are subject to multiple concurrent
transactions
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Transaction Management with SQLANSI (American National
Standard Institute) has defined standards that govern SQL
database transactionsTransaction support is provided by two
SQL statements: COMMIT and ROLLBACKTransaction
sequence must continue until:COMMIT statement is
reachedROLLBACK statement is reachedEnd of program is
reachedProgram is abnormally terminated
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The Transaction LogA DBMS uses a Transaction log to store:A
record for the beginning of transactionFor each transaction
component: Type of operation being performed (update, delete,
insert)Names of objects affected by transaction“Before” and
“after” values for updated fieldsPointers to previous and next
transaction log entries for the same transactionEnding
(COMMIT) of the transaction
Table 12.1 in your book
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The Transaction Log

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Concurrency ControlIs the coordination of simultaneous
transaction execution in a multiprocessing databaseObjective is
to ensure serializability of transactions in a multiuser
environmentSimultaneous execution of transactions over a
shared database can create several data integrity and
consistency problemsLost updatesUncommitted dataInconsistent
retrievals
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Lost UpdatesLost update problem:Two concurrent transactions
update same data elementOne of the updates is lostOverwritten
by the other transaction
Lost Updates
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Lost Updates (cont..)
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Uncommitted Data Uncommitted data phenomenon:Two
transactions executed concurrentlyFirst transaction rolled back
after second already accessed uncommitted data
Uncommitted Data
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Uncommitted Data (cont..)
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Inconsistent RetrievalsInconsistent retrievals:First transaction
accesses dataSecond transaction alters the dataFirst transaction
accesses the data againTransaction might read some data before
they are changed and other data after changedYields
inconsistent results
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The SchedulerSpecial DBMS program Purpose is to establish
order of operations within which concurrent transactions are
executedInterleaves execution of database operations:Ensures
serializabilityEnsures isolationSerializable scheduleInterleaved
execution of transactions yields same results as serial execution
The Scheduler (cont..) Bases its actions on concurrency control
algorithmsEnsures computer’s central processing unit (CPU) is
used efficientlyFacilitates data isolation to ensure that two
transactions do not update same data element at same time
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Database Recovery Management
Database recoveryRestores database from given state, usually
inconsistent, to previously consistent stateBased on atomic
transaction propertyAll portions of transaction treated as single
logical unit of workAll operations applied and completed to
produce consistent database
If transaction operation cannot be completed, transaction must
be aborted, and any changes to database must be rolled back
(undone)

Transaction RecoveryMakes use of deferred-write and write-
through techniquesDeferred write Transaction operations do not
immediately update physical databaseOnly transaction log is
updatedDatabase is physically updated only after transaction
reaches its commit point using transaction log information
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Transaction Recovery (cont..)Write-through techniqueDatabase
is immediately updated by transaction operations during
transaction’s execution, even before transaction reaches its
commit pointRecovery processIdentify last checkpointIf
transaction was committed before checkpointDo nothingIf
transaction committed after last checkpointDBMS redoes the
transaction using “after” valuesIf transaction had ROLLBACK
or was left activeDo nothing because no updates were made
Transaction Recovery (cont..)
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SummaryTransaction: sequence of database operations that
access databaseLogical unit of workNo portion of transaction
can exist by itselfFive main properties: atomicity, consistency,
isolation, durability, and serializabilityCOMMIT saves changes
to diskROLLBACK restores previous database stateSQL
transactions are formed by several SQL statements or database
requests
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Summary (cont..) Transaction log keeps track of all transactions
that modify databaseConcurrency control coordinates
simultaneous execution of transactionsScheduler establishes
order in which concurrent transaction operations are
executedLock guarantees unique access to a data item by
transactionTwo types of locks: binary locks and
shared/exclusive locks
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Summary (cont..) Serializability of schedules is guaranteed
through the use of two-phase lockingDeadlock: when two or
more transactions wait indefinitely for each other to release
lockThree deadlock control techniques: prevention, detection,
and avoidanceTime stamping methods assign unique time stamp
to each transaction Schedules execution of conflicting
transactions in time stamp order
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Summary (cont..) Optimistic methods assume the majority of
database transactions do not conflictTransactions are executed
concurrently, using private copies of the dataDatabase recovery

restores database from given state to previous consistent state
CHAPTER 12: Transaction Management and Concurrency
Control
ADDITIONAL SLIDES pages 635 to 644 in your
Book..
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Two-Phase Locking to Ensure Serializability (cont..)Governed
by the following rules:Two transactions cannot have conflicting
locksNo unlock operation can precede a lock operation in the
same transactionNo data are affected until all locks are
obtained—that is, until transaction is in its locked point
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Concurrency Control
with Locking MethodsLock Guarantees exclusive use of a data
item to a current transactionRequired to prevent another
transaction from reading inconsistent dataLock
managerResponsible for assigning and policing the locks used

by transactions
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Lock GranularityIndicates level of lock useLocking can take
place at following levels: DatabaseTablePageRowField
(attribute)
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Lock Granularity (cont..) Database-level lockEntire database is
lockedTable-level lockEntire table is lockedPage-level
lockEntire diskpage is locked Row-level lock Allows concurrent
transactions to access different rows of same tableEven if rows
are located on same page Field-level lock Allows concurrent
transactions to access same row as long as they Require the use
of different fields (attributes) within the row
Fig 12.3 in your book
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*
Fig. 12.5 in your book
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Lock Granularity (cont..)
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Lock Granularity (cont..)
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Lock TypesBinary lockTwo states: locked (1) or unlocked
(0)Exclusive lock Access is specifically reserved for transaction
that locked objectMust be used when potential for conflict
existsShared lock Concurrent transactions are granted read
access on basis of a common lock
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Two-Phase Locking to Ensure SerializabilityDefines how
transactions acquire and relinquish locksGuarantees
serializability, but does not prevent deadlocks Growing
phaseTransaction acquires all required locks without unlocking
any dataShrinking phaseTransaction releases all locks and
cannot obtain any new lock

Deadlocks (cont..)
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DeadlocksCondition that occurs when two transactions wait for
each other to unlock dataPossible only if one of the transactions
wants to obtain an exclusive lock on a data itemNo deadlock
condition can exist among shared locks
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Deadlocks (cont..)
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Deadlocks (cont..)Three techniques to control
deadlock:Prevention Detection Avoidance Choice of deadlock
control method depends on database environmentLow
probability of deadlock, detection recommendedHigh
probability, prevention recommended
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Concurrency Control

with Time Stamping Methods Assigns global unique time stamp
to each transactionProduces explicit order in which transactions
are submitted to DBMSUniqueness Ensures that no equal time
stamp values can existMonotonicityEnsures that time stamp
values always increase
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Wait/Die and Wound/Wait SchemesWait/die Older transaction
waits and younger is rolled back and rescheduledWound/wait
Older transaction rolls back younger transaction and
reschedules it
Wait/Die and Wound/Wait Schemes (cont..)
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Concurrency Control
with Optimistic Methods Optimistic approach Based on
assumption that majority of database operations do not
conflictDoes not require locking or time stamping
techniquesTransaction is executed without restrictions until it is
committedPhases: read, validation, and write

MA 106 Final Exam Name________________________
Solve by Factoring.
1) �2 + 4� − 5 = 0
2) (� − 2) (� + 5) = 8
Solve.
3) A batter hits a baseball in the air. The height h (in feet) of
the baseball after t seconds is
given by the equation ℎ = −16�2 + 64� + 3 = 0. When is the
baseball at a height of three feet?
Simplify.

5) 50
6)
10
x25
7)
3
7
x3
x48
Solve.
8) �2 − 64 = 0

9) (� + 2)2 = 36
10) Solve by completing the square.
7x6x
2
11) Solve by using the quadratic formula.
4-x6x
2
Find all values that make the rational expression undefined. If

the rational expression is
defined for all real numbers, so state.
12)
18x9x
64x
2
2
Simplify the expression.
13)
2
32
9x3x
x217x

Perform the indicated operation. Simplify if possible.
14)
ara
a
ra
ra
2
22

15)
12
2
4
1x
x
1-x
48x
16)
6-m
18
6-m

x
142x
11
2
Solve the equation.
19)
x
7
7
1
x
2

Simplify the complex fraction.
20)
1
a
7
1
a
7
21) The triangles in the figure are similar. Find the length of
the side marked with an x.

10
8
x
5
4
3
and Management
Lecture7- CHAPTER 8 : Beginning Structured Query Language
Presented by Rabia Cherouk
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ObjectivesIn this chapter, you will learn:The basic commands
and functions of SQLHow to use SQL for data administration
(to create tables, indexes, and views)How to use SQL for data
manipulation (to add, modify, delete, and retrieve data)How to
use SQL to query a database for useful information
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Introduction to SQLSQL functions fit into two broad
categories:Data definition language (DDL)Create database
objects, such as tables, indexes, and viewsDefine access rights
to those database objectsData manipulation language
(DML)SQL is relatively easy to learnBasic command set has
vocabulary of less than 100 words – Non-procedural
languageAmerican National Standards Institute (ANSI)
prescribes a standard SQLand standards are accepted by ISO
(International Organisation for Standardisation) .Several SQL
dialects exist
Introduction to SQL (cont..)
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Introduction to SQL (cont..)
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Data Definition CommandsThe database modelIn this chapter, a
simple database with these tables is used to illustrate
commands:CUSTOMERINVOICELINEPRODUCTVENDORFoc
us on PRODUCT and VENDOR tables

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The Database Model
Figure 8.1 in your book
The Database Model (cont..)
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Creating the DatabaseTwo tasks must be completed:
1/ Create database structure
2/ Create tables that will hold end-user dataFirst
task:RDBMS creates physical files that will hold
databaseDiffers substantially from one RDBMS to another
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The Database SchemaAuthentication Process through which
DBMS verifies that only registered users are able to access
databaseLog on to RDBMS using user ID and password created
by database administratorSchemaIs a group of database
objects—such as tables and indexes— that are related to each
other. Usually a schema belongs to a single user or application.
A single database can hold multiple schemas belonging to
different users or applications.

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Data TypesData type selection is usually dictated by nature of
data and by intended usePay close attention to expected use of
attributes for sorting and data retrieval purposesSupported data
types:Number(L,D), Integer, Smallint, Decimal(L,D)Char(L),
Varchar(L), Varchar2(L)Date, Time, TimestampReal, Double,
FloatInterval day to hourMany other types
Data Types (cont..)
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Creating Table StructuresUse one line per column (attribute)
definitionUse spaces to line up attribute characteristics and
constraintsTable and attribute names are capitalizedNOT NULL
specification UNIQUE specification Primary key attributes
contain both a NOT NULL and a UNIQUE specificationRDBMS
will automatically enforce referential integrity for foreign keys
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Creating Table Structures (cont..)Command sequence ends with
semicolon
Example:
CREATE TABLE EMP_2
( EMP_NUM CHAR(3) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
EMP_LNAME VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL,
EMP_FNAME VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL,

EMP_INITIAL CHAR(1),
EMP_HIRE DATE NOT NULL,
JOB_CODE CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (EMP_NUM),
FOREIGN KEY (JOB_CODE) REFERENCES JOB);
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SQL ConstraintsNOT NULL constraint Ensures that column
does not accept nullsUNIQUE constraint Ensures that all values
in column are uniqueDEFAULT constraint Assigns value to
attribute when a new row is added to tableCHECK constraint
Validates data when attribute value is entered
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SQL IndexesWhen primary key is declared, DBMS
automatically creates unique indexOften need additional
indexesUsing CREATE INDEX command, SQL indexes can be
created on basis of any selected attributeComposite indexIndex
based on two or more attributesOften used to prevent data
duplication
SQL Indexes (cont..)
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Data Manipulation CommandsAdding table rowsSaving table
changesListing table rowsUpdating table rowsRestoring table
contentsDeleting table rowsInserting table rows with a select
subquery
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Data Manipulation
CommandsINSERTSELECTCOMMITUPDATEROLLBACK
DELETE
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Adding Table RowsINSERT Used to enter data into
tableSyntax: INSERT INTO columnname
VALUES (value1, value2, … , valueN);
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Adding Table Rows (cont..)When entering values, notice
that:Row contents are entered between parenthesesCharacter
and date values are entered between apostrophesNumerical
entries are not enclosed in apostrophesAttribute entries are
separated by commasA value is required for each columnUse
NULL for unknown values

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Saving Table ChangesChanges made to table contents are not
physically saved on disk until:Database is closedProgram is
closedCOMMIT command is usedSyntax:COMMIT
[WORK];Will permanently save any changes made to any table
in the database
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Listing Table RowsSELECT Used to list contents of
tableSyntax: SELECT columnlistFROM tablename;Columnlist
represents one or more attributes, separated by commasAsterisk
can be used as wildcard character to list all attributes
Listing Table Rows (cont..)
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Updating Table RowsUPDATE Modify data in a tableSyntax:
UPDATE tablename
SET columnname = expression [, columnname = expression]
[WHERE conditionlist];If more than one attribute is to be
updated in row, separate corrections with commas

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Restoring Table ContentsROLLBACKUsed to restore database
to its previous conditionOnly applicable if COMMIT command
has not been used to permanently store changes in
databaseSyntax:ROLLBACK;COMMIT and ROLLBACK only
work with manipulation commands that are used to add, modify,
or delete table rows
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Deleting Table RowsDELETE Deletes a table rowSyntax:
DELETE FROM tablename
[WHERE conditionlist ];WHERE condition is optionalIf
WHERE condition is not specified, all rows from specified table
will be deleted
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Inserting Table Rows with a
SELECT SubqueryINSERTInserts multiple rows from another
table (source)Uses SELECT subquerySubquery: query that is
embedded (or nested) inside another querySubquery is executed
firstSyntax:
INSERT INTO tablename SELECT columnlist FROM
tablename;
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SELECT QueriesFine-tune SELECT command by adding
restrictions to search criteria using:Conditional
restrictionsArithmetic operatorsLogical operatorsSpecial
operators
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Selecting Rows with
Conditional RestrictionsSelect partial table contents by placing
restrictions on rows to be included in outputAdd conditional
restrictions to SELECT statement, using WHERE clauseSyntax:
SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[ WHERE conditionlist ] ;
Selecting Rows with
Conditional Restrictions (continued)
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Selecting Rows with

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Selecting Rows with
Conditional Restrictions (cont..)
Selecting Rows with
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Selecting Rows with
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Selecting Rows with

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Selecting Rows with
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Selecting Rows with
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Selecting Rows with
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Selecting Rows with
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Arithmetic Operators:
The Rule of PrecedencePerform operations within
parenthesesPerform power operationsPerform multiplications
and divisionsPerform additions and subtractionsTable 8.7 in
your book in T
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Logical Operators: AND, OR, and NOTSearching data involves
multiple conditionsLogical operators: AND, OR, and NOTCan
be combinedParentheses placed to enforce precedence
orderConditions in parentheses always executed firstBoolean
algebra: mathematical field dedicated to use of logical
operatorsNOT negates result of conditional expression
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Special OperatorsBETWEEN: checks whether attribute value is
within a rangeIS NULL: checks whether attribute value is
nullLIKE: checks whether attribute value matches given string
patternIN: checks whether attribute value matches any value
within a value listEXISTS: checks if subquery returns any rows
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Advanced Data Definition CommandsAll changes in table
structure are made by using ALTER commandThree
optionsADD adds a columnMODIFY changes column
characteristicsDROP deletes a columnCan also be used to: Add
table constraintsRemove table constraints
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Changing a Column’s Data TypeALTER can be used to change
data typeSome RDBMSs do not permit changes to data types
unless column is empty
Changing a Column’s Data CharacteristicsUse ALTER to
change data characteristicsChanges in column’s characteristics
permitted if changes do not alter the existing data type
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Adding a Column
Dropping a ColumnUse ALTER to add columnDo not include
the NOT NULL clause for new columnUse ALTER to drop
columnSome RDBMSs impose restrictions on the deletion of an
attribute

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SummarySQL commands can be divided into two overall
categories: Data definition language commands Data
manipulation language commandsThe ANSI standard data types
are supported by all RDBMS vendors in different waysBasic
data definition commands allow you to create tables, indexes,
and views
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Summary (cont..)DML commands allow you to add, modify, and
delete rows from tablesThe basic DML commands:SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, COMMIT, and
ROLLBACKSELECT statement is main data retrieval command
in SQL
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Summary (cont..)WHERE clause can be used with SELECT,
UPDATE, and DELETE statementsAggregate functionsSpecial
functions that perform arithmetic computations over a set of
rowsORDER BY clauseUsed to sort output of SELECT
statementCan sort by one or more columnsAscending or
descending order
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Summary (cont..)Join output of multiple tables with SELECT
statementJoin performed every time you specify two or more
tables in FROM clauseIf no join condition specified, DBMX
performs Cartesian productNatural join uses join condition to
match only rows with equal values in specified columnsRight

outer join and left outer join select rows with no matching
values in other related table
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Advanced Data UpdatesUPDATE command updates only data in
existing rowsIf relationship between entries and existing
columns, can assign values to slotsArithmetic operators useful
in data updatesIn Oracle, ROLLBACK command undoes
changes made by last two UPDATE statements
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Advanced Data Updates
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Copying Parts of TablesSQL permits copying contents of
selected table columnsData need not be reentered manually into
newly created table(s)First create the table structureNext add
rows to new table using table rows from another table
Copying Parts of Tables (cont..)
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Adding Primary and Foreign Key DesignationsWhen table is
copied, integrity rules do not copyPrimary and foreign keys
manually defined on new tableUser ALTER TABLE
commandSyntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename
ADD PRIMARY KEY (fieldname);For foreign key, use
FOREIGN KEY in place of PRIMARY KEY
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Deleting a Table from the DatabaseDROPDeletes table from
databaseSyntax:
DROP TABLE tablename;Can drop a table only if it is not the
“one” side of any relationshipOtherwise RDBMS generates an
error messageForeign key integrity violation
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Advanced SELECT QueriesLogical operators work well in the
query environmentSQL provides useful functions
that:CountFind minimum and maximum valuesCalculate
averages, etc.SQL allows user to limit queries to:Entries having
no duplicatesEntries whose duplicates may be grouped
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Ordering a ListingORDER BY clause useful when listing order
importantSyntax:
SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[WHERE conditionlist]
[ORDER BY columnlist [ASC | DESC]];Ascending order
by default

Ordering a Listing
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Ordering a Listing (cont..)
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Ordering a Listing (cont..)
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Listing Unique ValuesDISTINCT clause produces list of only
values that are different from one anotherExample:
SELECT DISTINCT V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT;Access places nulls at the top of the
listOracle places it at the bottomPlacement of nulls does not
affect list contents

Listing Unique Values
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Aggregate FunctionsCOUNT function tallies number of non-null
values of an attributeTakes one parameter: usually a column
nameMAX and MIN find highest (lowest) value in a
tableCompute MAX value in inner queryCompare to each value
returned by the querySUM computes total sum for any specified
attributeAVG function format similar to MIN and MAX
Aggregate Functions
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Aggregate Functions (cont..)
Figure 8.21 COUNT function output examples
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Figure 8.22 MIN and MAX Output Examples
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Figure 8.23 The total values of all items in the PRODUCT table
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Figure 8.24 AVG Function Output Examples
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Grouping DataFrequency distributions created by GROUP BY
clause within SELECT statementSyntax:
SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[WHERE conditionlist]
[GROUP BY columnlist]
[HAVINGconditionlist]
[ORDER BY columnlist [ASC | DESC] ] ;

Grouping Data
Figure 8.25 GROUP BY Clause Output Examples
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Grouping Data (cont..)
Figure 8.27 An application of the HAVING clause
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Virtual Tables: Creating a ViewView is virtual table based on
SELECT queryCreate view by using CREATE VIEW
commandSpecial characteristics of relational view:Name of
view can be used anywhere a table name is expectedView
dynamically updatedRestricts users to only specified columns
and rowsViews may be used as basis for reports
Virtual Tables: Creating a View (cont..)
Figure 8.28 Creating a virtual table using the CREATE VIEW
command

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Joining Database TablesAbility to combine (join) tables on
common attributes is most important distinction between
relational database and other databasesJoin is performed when
data are retrieved from more than one table at a timeEquality
comparison between foreign key and primary key of related
tablesJoin tables by listing tables in FROM clause of SELECT
statementDBMS creates Cartesian product of every table
Joining Database Tables (cont..)
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*
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Joining Tables with an AliasAlias identifies the source table
from which data are takenAlias can be used to identify source
tableAny legal table name can be used as aliasAdd alias after

table name in FROM clauseFROM tablename alias
*
*
Recursive Joins - Outer JoinsAlias especially useful when a
table must be joined to itselfRecursive queryUse aliases to
differentiate the table from itselfTwo types of outer joinLeft
outer joinRight outer join
Recursive Joins
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Recursive Joins (cont..)
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Outer Joins
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Outer Joins (cont..)
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Grouping Data (cont..)
Figure 8.26 Incorrect and Correct use of the GROUP BY Clause
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Lect10-Conceptual, Logical and Physical.ppt
9
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and Management
Lecture 10 - CHAPTER 11: CONCEPTUAL, LOGICAL AND
PHYSICAL DATABASE DESIGN

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In this chapter, you will learn:About the three stages of
database design: conceptual, logical and physical.How to design
a conceptual model to represent the business and its key
functional areas.How the conceptual model can be transformed
into a logically equivalent set of relations.How to translate the
logical data model into a set of specific DBMS table
specifications.About different types of file organization.How
indexes can be applied to improve data access and retrieval.How
to estimate data storage requirements.
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9
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Database DesignNecessary to focus on the dataMust
concentrate on the data characteristics required to build
database modelAt this point there are two views of data within
system:Business view of data as an information
sourceDesigner’s view of the data structure, its access, and

activities required to transform data into information
9
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Database Design (cont..)
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To complete the design phase, we must remember
these points:The process of database design is loosely related
to analysis and design of larger system The data component is
only one element of a larger systemSystems analysts or systems
programmers are in charge of designing other system
componentsTheir activities create procedures that will help
transform data within database into useful informationThe
Database Design does not constitute a sequential
processIterative process that provides continuous feedback
designed to trace previous steps
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3 Stages of Database Design

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I. Conceptual Design (CD)In the CD, Data modeling is used to
create an abstract database structure that represents real-world
objects in most realistic way possibleThe CD must embody
clear understanding of business and its functional areasEnsure
that all data needed are in the model, and that all data in the
model are neededRequires four steps:Data analysis and
requirementsEntity relationship modeling and
normalisationData model verificationDistributed database
design
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I. Conceptual Design (cont..)Data Analysis and Requirements
First step is to discover the data element characteristicsObtains
characteristics from different sourcesMust take into account the
business rulesDerived from the description of operations which
is a Document that provides precise, detailed, up-to-date, and
thoroughly reviewed description of activities that define
organization’s operating environment
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I. Conceptual Design (cont...)Entity Relationship (ER)
Modeling
and Normalization Designer must communicate and enforce
appropriate standards to be used in documentation of designUse
of diagrams and symbolsDocumentation writing
styleLayoutOther conventions to be followed during
documentation
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I. Conceptual Design (cont..)
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I. Conceptual Design (cont..)Entity Relationship (ER) Modeling
and
Normalization (cont…)Data dictionary Defines all objects
(entities, attributes, relations, views, and so on) Used in tandem
with the normalization process to help eliminate data anomalies
and redundancy problems

9
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I. Conceptual Design (cont..)The Data Model Verification The
ER Model must be verified against the proposed system
processes to corroborate (confirm) that the intended processes
can be supported by the database modelA revision of the
original design starts with careful reevaluation of the entities,
followed by the detailed examination of the attributes that
describe these entitiesDefine design’s major components as
modules:A module is an information system component that
handles a specific function
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I. Conceptual Design (cont..)Data Model Verification
(cont..)Verification process starts with:Selecting a central
(most important) entityWhich is defined in terms of its
participation in most of the model’s relationshipsThe next step
is to identify the module or subsystem to which central entity
belongs and to define boundaries and scopeOnce the module is
identified, the central entity is placed within module’s
framework
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I. Conceptual Design (cont..)Distributed Database
DesignPortions of the database may reside in different physical
locationsDesigner must also develop data distribution and
allocation strategies
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II. DBMS Software SelectionThe selection of the software is
critical to an information system’s smooth operationAdvantages
and disadvantages should be carefully studiedSome common
factors that may affect the purchasing decision are:CostDBMS
features and toolsUnderlying model: Hierarchical, network,
relational etc…PortabilityDBMS requirements

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III. Logical DesignUsed to translate the conceptual design into
internal model for selected database management systemLogical
design is software-dependentRequires that all objects in the
model be mapped to specific constructs used by selected
database software
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III. Logical Design (cont..)Used to translate the conceptual
design into internal model for the selected database management
systemLogical design is software-dependentThe logical design
stage consists of the following phases:
Creating the logical data model.
Validating the logical data model using normalization.
Assigning and validating integrity constraints.
Merging logical models constructed for different parts for the
database together.
Reviewing the logical data model with the user.
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III. Logical Design (cont..)

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III. Logical Design (cont…)
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Review the complete logical model with the userReviewing the
completed logical model with the users to ensure that all the
data requirements have been modelled Ensure that all the
transactions are supported within the different user views. This
stage is very important as any problems need to be solved
before beginning the physical database design stage.
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IV. Physical Database DesignPhysical database design requires
the definition of specific storage or access methods that will be
used by the database. Involves the translation of the logical
model into a set of specific DBMS specifications for storing and
accessing data.The ultimate goal must be to ensure that data
storage is effective to ensure integrity and security and efficient
in terms of query response time.

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IV. Physical Design (cont..)Is the process of selecting data
storage and data access characteristics of the databaseThe
storage characteristics are a function of device types supported
by the hardware, the type of data access methods supported by
the system, and DBMSParticularly important in older
hierarchical and network modelsBecomes more complex when
data are distributed at different locations
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IV. Physical Database Design (cont..)
The following information needs to have been collected:
A set of normalized relations devised from the ER model and
the normalization process.
An estimate of the volume of data which will be stored in each
database table and the usage statistics.
An estimate of the physical storage requirements for each field
(attribute) within the database.
The physical storage characteristics of the DBMS that are being
used
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Stages of Physical Database Design
Analysing data volume and database usage.
Translate each relation identified in the logical data model into
a table.
Determine a suitable file organization.
Define indexes.
Define user views.
Estimate data storage requirements.
Determine database security for users.
Additional slides are after the summary
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Analysing Data Volume and Database UsageThe steps required
to carrying out this phase are:
Identifying the most frequent and critical transactions.
Analysis of critical transactions to determine which relations in
the database participate in these transactions.
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Analysing Data Volume and Database Usage (cont….)Data
volume and data usage statistics are usually shown on a
simplified version of the ERD. This diagram is known as a
composite usage map or a transaction usage map.
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Analysing Data Volume and Database Usage (cont….)
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Translate logical relations into tables
Identify the primary and any foreign keys for each table.

Identify those attributes which are not allowed to contain NULL
values and those which should be UNIQUE. You can exclude
the primary key attribute(s) here as the PRIMARY KEY
constraint automatically imposes the NOT NULL and UNIQUE
constraints.
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Translate logical relations into tablesFor each relation you
should:
Identify each attribute name and its domain from the data
dictionary. Note any attributes which require DEFAULT values
to be inserted into the attribute whenever new rows are inserted
into the database.
Determine any attributes that require a CHECK constraint in
order to validate the value of the attribute.
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Translate logical relations into tables (continued)

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Translate logical relations into tables (cont..)
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Determine Suitable File OrganisationSelecting the most suitable
file organization is very important to ensure that the data is
stored efficiently and data can be retrieved as quickly as
possible.To do this the DBMS must know where this record is
stored and how it can identify it. Look at the future growth of
the database and whether the type of file organization provides
some protection against data loss.
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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)There are three
categories of file organizations:files which contain randomly
ordered records known as heap filesfiles which are sorted on
one or more fields such as file organizations which are based on
indexesfiles hashed on one or more fields known as hash files.
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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)Sequential File
OrganizationsRecords are stored in a sequence based on the
value of one or more fields which is often the primary key. In
order to locate a specific record the whole file must be searched
and every record in the file must be read in turn until the
required record is located.
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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)Heap File
OrganizationsRecords are unordered and inserted into the file as
they come. Only used when a large quantity of data needs to be
inserted into a table for the first time.
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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)
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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)Indexed File
OrganizationsRecords can be stored in a sorted or unsorted
sequence and an index is created locate specific records
quickly.

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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)Types of
IndexesPrimary index —these indexes are placed on unique
fields such as the primary key.Secondary index —these indexes
can be placed on any field in the file that is unordered.Multi-
level index —is used where one index becomes too large and so
is split into a number of separate indexes in order to reduce the
search.
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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)B-treesBalanced or
B-trees and are used to maintain an ordered set of indexes or
data to allow efficient operations to select, delete and insert
data.A special kind of B-tree is known as the B+-tree where all
keys reside in the leaves. This tree is mostoften used to
represent indexes which act as a ‘road_map’ so that each index
can be quickly located
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Conceptual Design of the DVD rental store
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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)Bitmap
IndexesBitmap indexes are usually applied to attributes which
are sparse in their given domain.A two-dimensional array is
constructed. One column is generated for every row in the table
which we want to index with each column representing a
distinct value within the bitmapped index. The two-dimensional
array represents each value within the index multiplied by the
number of rows in the table.
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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)Bitmap indexes are
usually used when:A column in the table has low cardinality.
The table is not used often for data manipulation activities and
is large.Specific SQL queries reference a number of low
cardinality values in their where clauses.
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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)Join IndexCan be
applied to columns from two or more tables whose values come
from the same domain. It is often referred to as a bitmap join
index and it is a way of saving space by reducing the volume of
data that must be joined. The bitmap join stores the ROWIDS of
corresponding rows in a separate table.

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Determine Suitable File Organisation (cont..)Hashed File
OrganizationsUses a hashing algorithm to map a primary key

value onto a specific record address in the file. Records are
stored in a random order throughout the file. Often referred to
as random or direct files.
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Define Indexes (cont..)In SQL, indexes are created using the
CREATE INDEX statement. For example, if we wanted to
create a primary index on the DVD_ID primary key field from
the DVDs table the SQL would be:
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX DVDINDEX ON
DVD(DVD_ID)
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Define Indexes (cont..)As a general rule, indexes are likely to
be used:When an indexed column appears by itself in a search
criteria of a WHERE or HAVING clause.When an indexed
column appears by itself in a GROUP BY or ORDER BY
clause.When a MAX or MIN function is applied to an indexed

column.When the data sparsity on the indexed column is high.
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Guidelines for creating IndexesCreate indexes for each single
attribute used in a WHERE, HAVING, ORDER BY, or GROUP
BY clause.Do not use indexes in small tables or tables with low
sparsity.Declare primary and foreign keys so the query
optimizer within a specific DBMS can use the indexes in join
operations.Declare indexes in join columns other than PK/FK.
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Define User ViewsDuring the conceptual design stage the
different user views required for the database are
determined.Using the relations defined in the logical data
model, these views must now be defined. Views are often
defined taking database security into account as they can help to
define the roles of different types of users.

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Estimate Data Storage Requirements
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SecurityData must be protected from access by unauthorized
usersMust provide for following: Physical securityPassword
securityAccess rightsAudit trailsData encryptionDiskless
workstations
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Determine database security for usersDuring physical database
design security requirements must be implementedDatabase
privileges for users will need to be established. For example,
privileges may include selecting rows from specified tables or
views, being able to modify or delete data in specified tables

etc.
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Determine database security for usersDuring physical database
design security requirements must be implementedDatabase
privileges for users will need to be established. For example,
privileges may include selecting rows from specified tables or
views, being able to modify or delete data in specified tables
etc.
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Security in ORACLEThe SQL commands GRANT and REVOKE
are used to authorize or withdraw privileges on specific user
accounts. For example, the following two SQL statements grant
the account with the username ‘Craig’ the ability to select rows
from the DVD table and the ability to create tables.
GRANT SELECT ON DVD TO Craig;
GRANT CREATE TABLE TO Craig;

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Security in ORACLE (cont..)Removing these privileges can be
done using the following SQL statements:
REVOKE SELECT ON MOVIE FROM Craig;
REVOKE CREATE TABLE FROM Craig;
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Security in ORACLE (cont..)A role is simply a collection of
privileges referred to under a single name. The major benefit of
roles is that a DBA can add or revoke privileges from a role at
any time. These changes will then automatically apply to all the
users who have been assigned that role.
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Security in ORACLE (cont..)For example, in the DVD rental
store, the sales staff need to perform SELECT and UPDATE
operations on the CUSTOMER table. The SQL command
CREATE ROLE is used to create the role
STAFF_CUSTOMER_ROLE:CREATE ROLE
STAFF_CUSTOMER_ROLE;Once created, privileges can then
be granted on selected database objects to the new role.
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Security in ORACLE (cont..)For example:
GRANT SELECT ON CUSTOMERS TO
STAFF_CUSTOMER_ROLE;
GRANT UPDATE ON CUSTOMERS TO
STAFF_CUSTOMER_ROLE;The last stage then involves
granting the role to individual users accounts, e.g. Frank:
GRANT STAFF_CUSTOMER_ROLE TO Frank;
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SummaryConceptual database design is where the conceptual
representation of the database is created by producing a data
model which identifies the relevant entities and relationships
within the system.
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Summary (cont..)Logical database design is the second stage in
the Database Life Cycle, where relations are designed based on
each entity and its relationships within the conceptual model.
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Summary (cont..)Physical database design is where the logical
data model is mapped onto the physical database tables to be
implemented in the chosen DBMS. The ultimate goal must be to
ensure that data storage is used effectively, to ensure integrity
and security and to improve efficiency in terms of query
response time.
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Summary (cont…)Selecting a suitable file organization is
important for fast data retrieval and efficient use of storage
space.Indexes are crucial in speeding up data access. Indexes
facilitate searching, sorting, and using aggregate functions and
even join operations.
*
Chap 2.pptx
and Management
CHAPTER 2: DATA MODELS

Database Principles 2nd Ed., Coronel, Morris, Rob & Crockett
© 2013 Cengage Learning EMEA
20/03/2017
1
In this chapter, you will learn:
Why data models are important
About the basic data-modeling building blocks
What business rules are and how they influence database design
How the major data models evolved
How data models can be classified by level of abstraction
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The Importance of Data Models
Data models
Relatively simple representations, usually graphical, of complex
real-world data structures
Facilitate interaction among the designer, the applications
programmer, and the end user
End-users have different views and needs for data
Data model organizes data for various users

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Data Model Basic Building Blocks
Entity - anything about which data are to be collected and
stored
Attribute - a characteristic of an entity
Relationship - describes an association among entities
One-to-many (1:*) relationship
Many-to-many (*:*) relationship
One-to-one (1:1) relationship
Constraint - a restriction placed on the data
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Business Rules
A business rule is a brief, precise, and unambiguous
descriptions of a policies, procedures, or principles within a
specific organization
Apply to any organization that stores and uses data to generate
information
Description of operations that help to create and enforce actions
within that organization’s environment
Must be rendered in writing
Must be kept up to date
Sometimes are external to the organization
Must be easy to understand and widely disseminated

Describe characteristics of the data as viewed by the company
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Discovering Business Rules
Sources of Business Rules:
Company managers
Policy makers
Department managers
Written documentation
Procedures
Standards
Operations manuals
Direct interviews with end users
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Translating Business Rules into Data Model Components
Standardize company’s view of data
Constitute a communications tool between users and designers
Allow designer to understand the nature, role, and scope of data
Allow designer to understand business processes

Allow designer to develop appropriate relationship participation
rules and constraints
Promote creation of an accurate data model
Generally, nouns translate into entities
Verbs translate into relationships among entities
Relationships are bi-directional
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The Evolution of Data Models
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The Evolution of Data Models (cont..)
Hierarchical
Network
Relational
Entity relationship
Object oriented (OO)

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The Hierarchical Model
Developed in the 1960s to manage large amounts of data for
complex manufacturing projects
Basic logical structure is represented by an upside-down “tree”
The hierarchical structure contains levels, or segments
Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:*) relationships between a
parent and its children segments
Each parent can have many children
each child has only one parent
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The Hierarchical Model (cont…)
Advantages
Many of the hierarchical data model’s features formed the
foundation for current data models
Its database application advantages are replicated, though in a
different form, in current database environments
Generated a large installed (mainframe) base, created a pool of
programmers who developed numerous tried-and-true business
applications

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Albeit= Bien que , quoique que , though
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The Hierarchical Model (cont..)
Disadvantages
Complex to implement
Difficult to manage
Lacks structural independence
Implementation limitations
Lack of standards
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The Network Model
Created to
Represent complex data relationships more effectively than the
hierarchical model
Improve database performance
Impose a database standard
While the Network model is not used today, the definitions of
standard database concepts are still used by modern data models
such as:
Schema
Conceptual organization of entire database as viewed by the
database administrator

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The Network Model (cont..)
Subschema
Defines database portion “seen” by the application programs
that actually produce the desired information from data
contained within the database
Data Management Language (DML)
Defines the environment in which data can be managed and is
used to work with the data in the database
Schema Data Definition Language (DDL)
Enables database administrator to define schema components
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The Network Model (cont..)
Disadvantages
Too cumbersome
The lack of ad hoc query capability put heavy pressure on
programmers
Any structural change in the database could produce havoc in
all application programs that drew data from the database

Many database old-timers can recall the interminable
information delays
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The Relational Model
Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970
Considered ingenious but impractical in 1970
Conceptually simple
Computers lacked power to implement the relational model
Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated Relational
Database Software called Relational Database Management
System (RDBMS)- Ex: Oracle : mainframe relational software
Performs same basic functions provided by hierarchical and
network DBMS systems, in addition to a host of other functions
Most important advantage of the RDBMS is its ability to hide
the complexities of the relational model from the user
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The Relational Model (cont..)
Table
Matrix consisting of a series of row/column intersections

Related to each other through sharing a common entity
characteristic
Tables, also called relations are related to each other through
the sharing of a common field
Relational diagram
Is a representation of relational database’s entities, attributes
within those entities, and relationships between those entities
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Relational Table
Stores a collection of related entities
Resembles a file
Relational table is purely a logical structure
How data are physically stored in the database is of no concern
to the user or the designer
This property became the source of a real database revolution
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The Relational Model (continued)
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Another raison for the database model’s rise to dominance is its
powerful and flexible query language
Structured Query Language (SQL) allows the user to specify
what must be done without specifying how it must be done
SQL-based relational database application involves 3 parts:
User interface
A set of tables stored in the database
SQL engine
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The Entity Relationship Model
Widely accepted and adapted graphical tool for data modeling
Introduced by Peter Chen in 1976
It was the graphical representation of entities and their
relationships in a database structure.
More recently the class diagram component of the Unified
Modeling Language (UML) has been used to produce entity
relationship models.
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The Entity Relationship Model (cont..)
Entity relationship diagram (ERD)
Uses graphic representations to model database components
Entity is mapped to a relational table
Entity instance (or occurrence) is a row in table
Each entity is described by a set of attributes that describe
particular characteristics of the entity
Entity set is collection of like entities
Connectivity labels types of relationships (1-1, 1- M, M-M)
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Fig 2.4 The basic Crow’s foot ERD
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Data Models: A Summary
Each new data model capitalized on the shortcomings of
previous models
Common characteristics that data models must have in order to
be widely accepted:
Conceptual simplicity without compromising the semantic
completeness of the database
Represent the real world as closely as possible
Representation of real-world transformations (behavior) must
comply with consistency and integrity characteristics of any
data model

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Data Models: A Summary (cont..)
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Degrees of Data Abstraction
Way of classifying data models
Many processes begin at high level of abstraction and proceed
to an ever-increasing level of detail
Designing a usable database follows the same basic process
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Degrees of Data Abstraction (cont..)
In the early 1970s, the American National Standards Institute

(ANSI) Standards Planning and Requirements Committee
(SPARC)
Defined a framework for data modeling based on degrees of
data abstraction:
External
Conceptual
Internal
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Degrees of Data Abstraction (cont..)
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The External Model
End users’ view of the data environment
Requires that the modeler subdivide set of requirements and
constraints into functional modules that can be examined within
the framework of their external models
Advantages:
Easy to identify specific data required to support each business
unit’s operations
Facilitates designer’s job by providing feedback about the

model’s adequacy
Creation of external models helps to ensure security constraints
in the database design
Simplifies application program development
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The External Model (cont..)
Fig 2.9 External Models for Tiny College
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The External Model (cont..)
Fig 2.9 External Models for Tiny College
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The Conceptual Model
Represents global view of the entire database
Representation of data as viewed by the entire organization
The conceptual is the basis for identification and high-level
description of main data objects, avoiding details
Most widely used conceptual model is the entity relationship
(ER) model
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The Conceptual Model (cont..)
Fig 2.10 The Conceptual Model for Tiny College
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The Conceptual Model (cont..)
First, the CM provides a relatively easily understood macro
level view of data environment
Second, the CM is independent of both software and hardware

Does not depend on the DBMS software used to implement the
model
Does not depend on the hardware used in the implementation of
the model
Changes in either hardware or DBMS software have no effect on
the database design at the conceptual level
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The Internal Model
Is the representation of the database as “seen” by the DBMS
The internal model should map the conceptual model to the
DBMS
The internal schema depicts a specific representation of an
internal model
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Fig 2.11 An Internal Model for Tiny College

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The Physical Model
Operates at lowest level of abstraction, describing the way data
are saved on storage media such as disks or tapes
Software and hardware dependent
Requires that database designers have a detailed knowledge of
the hardware and software used to implement database design
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The Physical Model (cont..)
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Summary
A data model is a (relatively) simple abstraction of a complex
real-world data environment
Basic data modeling components are:
Entities

Attributes
Relationships
Constraints
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Summary (cont..)
Hierarchical model
Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:*) relationships between a
parent and its children segments
Network data model
Uses sets to represent 1:* relationships between record types
Relational model
Current database implementation standard
ER model is a popular graphical tool for data modeling that
complements the relational model
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Summary (cont..)
Object is basic modeling structure of object oriented data model
The relational model has adopted many object-oriented
extensions to become the extended relational data model
(ERDM)

Data modeling requirements are a function of different data
views (global vs. local) and level of data abstraction
NoSQL databases are a new generation of databases that do not
use the relational model and are geared to support the very
specific needs of Big Data organizations
Additional slides are next
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The Object Oriented Model
Modeled both data and their relationships in a single structure
known as an object
Object-oriented data model (OODM) is the basis for the object-
oriented database management system (OODBMS)
OODM is said to be a semantic data model
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The Object Oriented Model (cont..)
Object described by its factual content
Like relational model’s entity
Includes information about relationships between facts within
object, and relationships with other objects

Unlike relational model’s entity
Subsequent OODM development allowed an object to also
contain all operations
Object becomes basic building block for autonomous structures
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Object is an abstraction of a real-world entity
Attributes describe the properties of an object
Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped in classes
Classes are organized in a class hierarchy
Inheritance is the ability of an object within the class hierarchy
to inherit the attributes and methods of classes above it
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Fig 2.5 A comparison of the OO model and the ER model

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Other Models
Extended Relational Data Model (ERDM)
Semantic data model developed in response to increasing
complexity of applications
DBMS based on the ERDM often described as an
object/relational database management system (O/RDBMS)
Primarily geared to business applications
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Emerging Data Models: Big Data and NoSQL
Big Data refers to a movement to find new and better ways to
manage large amounts of Web-generated data and derive
business insight from it, while simultaneously providing high
performance and scalability at a reasonable cost.
Emerging Data Models: Big Data and NoSQL (cont…)
The relational approach does not always match the needs of
organizations with Big Data challenges.
It is not always possible to fi t unstructured, social media data
into the conventional relational structure of rows and columns.
Adding millions of rows of multi-format (structured and

nonstructured) data on a daily basis will
inevitably lead to the need for more storage, processing power,
and sophisticated data analysis
tools that may not be available in the relational environment.
The type of high-volume implementations required in the
RDBMS environment
for the Big Data problem comes with a hefty price tag for
expanding hardware, storage, and software licenses.
Data analysis based on OLAP tools has proven to be very
successful in relational environments with highly structured
data.
Database Models and the Internet
Internet drastically changed role and scope of database market
OODM and ERDM-O/RDM have taken a backseat to
development of databases that interface with Internet
Dominance of Web has resulted in growing need to manage
unstructured information
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NoSQL Databases
NoSQL to refer to a new generation of databases that address
the specific challenges of the Big Data era.
They have the following general characteristics:
Not based on the relational model, hence the name NoSQL.

Supports distributed database architectures.
Provides high scalability, high availability, and fault tolerance.
Supports very large amounts of sparse data.
Geared toward performance rather than transaction consistency.
NoSQL Databases (cont..)
The key-value data model is based on a structure composed of
two data elements: a key and a value, in which every key has a
corresponding value or set of values.
The key-value data model is also referred to as the attribute-
value or associative data model.
NoSQL Databases (cont…)
The data type of the “value” column is generally a long string to
accommodate the variety of actual data types of the values
placed in the column.
To add a new entity attribute in the relational model, you need
to modify the table definition.
To add a new attribute in the key-value store, you add a row to
the key-value store, which is why it is said to be “schema-less.”
NoSQL databases do not store or enforce relationships among
entities.

NoSQL databases use their own native application programming
interface (API) with simple data access commands, such as put,
read, and delete.
Indexing and searches can be difficult. Because the “value”
column in the key-value data model could contain many
different data types, it is often difficult to create indexes on the
data. At the same time, searches can become very complex.
Lecture7_ch07.ppt
and Management
CHAPTER 7 Normalizing Database Designs
*
ObjectivesIn this chapter, you will learn:What normalization is
and what role it plays in the database design processAbout the
normal forms 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF,
and 4NFHow normal forms can be transformed from lower
normal forms to higher normal formsThat normalization and ER
modeling are used concurrently to produce a good database

designThat some situations require denormalization to generate
information efficiently
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Database Tables and NormalizationNormalization Process for
evaluating and correcting table structures to minimize data
redundanciesReduces data anomaliesWorks through a series of
stages called normal forms: First normal form (1NF)Second
normal form (2NF)Third normal form (3NF)
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Database Tables and Normalization (cont..)Normalization
(cont..)2NF is better than 1NF; 3NF is better than 2NFFor most
business database design purposes, 3NF is as high as needed in
normalizationHighest level of normalization is not always most
desirableDenormalization produces a lower normal formPrice
paid for increased performance is greater data redundancy
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The Need for NormalizationExample: company that manages
building projectsCharges its clients by billing hours spent on
each contractHourly billing rate is dependent on employee’s
positionPeriodically, report is generated that contains
information such as displayed in Table 5.1
The Need for Normalization
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The Need for Normalization
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The Need for Normalization (cont..)Structure of data set in
Figure 7.1 does not handle data very wellTable structure
appears to work; report generated with easeUnfortunately report
may yield different results depending on what data anomaly has
occurredRelational database environment suited to help designer
avoid data integrity problems
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The Normalization ProcessEach table represents a single
subjectNo data item will be unnecessarily stored in more than
one tableAll attributes in a table are dependent on the primary
keyEach table void of insertion, update, deletion anomalies
Void = depourvu de
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The Normalization Process (cont..)
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The Normalization Process (cont..)Objective of normalization is
to ensure all tables in at least 3NFHigher forms not likely to be
encountered in business environmentNormalization works one
relation at a timeProgressively breaks table into new set of
relations based on identified dependencies
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Conversion to First Normal FormRepeating groupDerives its
name from the fact that a group of multiple entries of same type
can exist for any single key attribute occurrenceRelational table
must not contain repeating groupsNormalizing table structure
will reduce data redundanciesNormalization is three-step
procedure
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Conversion to First Normal Form (cont.)Step 1: Eliminate the
Repeating Groups Present data in tabular format, where each
cell has single value and there are no repeating groupsEliminate
nulls: each repeating group attribute contains an appropriate
data value
Step 2: Identify the Primary Key Primary key must uniquely
identify attribute valueNew key must be composed
Conversion to First Normal Form (cont..)
*

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Conversion to First Normal Form (cont..)Step 3: Identify All
Dependencies Dependencies can be depicted with help of a
diagramDependency diagram: Depicts all dependencies found
within given table structureHelpful in getting bird’s-eye view of
all relationships among table’s attributesMakes it less likely
that will overlook an important dependency
*
*
*
Conversion to First Normal Form (cont.)First normal form
describes tabular format in which:All key attributes are
definedThere are no repeating groups in the tableAll attributes
are dependent on primary keyAll relational tables satisfy 1NF
requirementsSome tables contain partial

dependenciesDependencies based on part of the primary
keySometimes used for performance reasons, but should be used
with cautionStill subject to data redundancies
Conversion to Second Normal FormRelational database design
can be improved by converting the database into second normal
form (2NF)Two steps
*
*
Conversion to Second Normal Form (cont..)Step 1: Write Each
Key Component
on a Separate Line Write each key component on separate line,
then write original (composite) key on last lineEach component
will become key in new table
Step 2: Assign Corresponding Dependent Attributes Determine
those attributes that are dependent on other attributesAt this
point, most anomalies have been eliminated
Conversion to Second Normal Form (cont..)
*

*
Conversion to Second Normal Form (cont..)Table is in second
normal form (2NF) when:It is in 1NF and It includes no partial
dependencies:No attribute is dependent on only portion of
primary key
*
Conversion to Third Normal FormData anomalies created are
easily eliminated by completing three stepsStep 1: Identify Each
New Determinant For every transitive dependency, write its
determinant as PK for new tableDeterminant: any attribute
whose value determines other values within a row
Conversion to Third Normal Form (cont..)Step 2: Identify the
Dependent Attributes Identify attributes dependent on each
determinant identified in Step 1 and identify dependency
Name table to reflect its contents and function
*
*
Conversion to Third Normal Form (cont.)Step 3: Remove the
Dependent Attributes from Transitive Dependencies Eliminate
all dependent attributes in transitive relationship(s) from each
of the tablesDraw new dependency diagram to show all tables
defined in Steps 1–3Check new tables as well as tables modified
in Step 3 to make sure that:Each table has a determinant and
thatNo table contains inappropriate dependencies

Conversion to Third Normal Form (cont..)
*
*
Conversion to Third Normal Form (cont.)A table is in third
normal form (3NF) when both of the following are true:It is in
2NFIt contains no transitive dependencies
*
Improving the DesignTable structures are cleaned up to
eliminate troublesome initial partial and transitive dependencies
Normalization cannot, by itself, be relied on to make good
designs
It is valuable because its use helps eliminate data redundancies
*
Improving the Design (cont..)Issues to address in order to
produce a good normalized set of tables: Evaluate PK
AssignmentsEvaluate Naming ConventionsRefine Attribute
AtomicityIdentify New AttributesIdentify New
RelationshipsRefine Primary Keys as Required for Data
GranularityMaintain Historical AccuracyEvaluate Using
Derived Attributes

Improving the Design (cont..)
*
*
*
*
Surrogate Key ConsiderationsWhen primary key is considered
to be unsuitable, designers use surrogate keysData entries in
Table 7.3 are inappropriate because they duplicate existing
recordsYet there has been no violation of either entity integrity
or referential integrity
*
Higher-Level Normal FormsTables in 3NF perform suitably in
business transactional databasesHigher order normal forms
useful on occasionTwo special cases of 3NF:Boyce-Codd
normal form (BCNF)Fourth normal form (4NF)

*
The Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)Every determinant in
table is a candidate keyHas same characteristics as primary key,
but for some reason, not chosen to be primary keyWhen table
contains only one candidate key, the 3NF and the BCNF are
equivalentBCNF can be violated only when table contains more
than one candidate key
*
The Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) (cont..)Most designers
consider the BCNF as special case of 3NFTable is in 3NF when
it is in 2NF and there are no transitive dependenciesTable can
be in 3NF and fails to meet BCNFNo partial dependencies, nor
does it contain transitive dependenciesA nonkey attribute is the
determinant of a key attribute
The Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) (cont...)
*
The Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) (cont..)
*

The Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) (cont..)
*
*
SummaryNormalization is used to minimize data
redundanciesFirst three normal forms (1NF, 2NF, and 3NF) are
most commonly encounteredTable is in 1NF when:All key
attributes are definedAll remaining attributes are dependent on
primary key
*
Summary (continued)Table is in 2NF when it is in 1NF and
contains no partial dependenciesTable is in 3NF when it is in
2NF and contains no transitive dependenciesTable that is not in
3NF may be split into new tables until all of the tables meet
3NF requirementsNormalization is important part—but only
part—of the design process
*
Summary (continued)Table in 3NF may contain multivalued
dependencies Numerous null values or redundant dataConvert
3NF table to 4NF by:Splitting table to remove multivalued
dependenciesTables are sometimes denormalized to yield less
I/O, which increases processing speed
Additional SlidesPlease have a look a the following slides

*
*
Fourth Normal Form (4NF)Table is in fourth normal form (4NF)
when both of the following are true:It is in 3NF No multiple
sets of multivalued dependencies4NF is largely academic if
tables conform to following two rules:All attributes dependent
on primary key, independent of each otherNo row contains two
or more multivalued facts about an entity
Fourth Normal Form (4NF) (continued)
*
*
Fourth Normal Form (4NF)
Fourth Normal Form (4NF)
*
*
Normalization and Database DesignNormalization should be
part of the design processMake sure that proposed entities meet

required normal form before table structures are createdMany
real-world databases have been improperly designed or
burdened with anomaliesYou may be asked to redesign and
modify existing databases
*
Normalization and Database Design (cont.)ER diagram Identify
relevant entities, their attributes, and their relationshipsIdentify
additional entities and attributesNormalization procedures
Focus on characteristics of specific entitiesMicro view of
entities within ER diagramDifficult to separate normalization
process from ER modeling processTwo techniques should be
used concurrently
*
Normalization and Database Design (cont.)
*
*

Normalization and Database Design (continued)
*
*
*
*
*
Void = depourvu de
*
*
*
*
*

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Lecture9-Chap10- Database Development Process.pptx

and Management
Lecture9-CHAPTER 10 : Database Development Process
In this chapter, you will learn:
That successful database design must reflect the information
system of which the database is a part
That successful information systems are developed within a
framework known as the Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC)
That within the information system, the most successful
databases are subject to frequent evaluation and revision within
a framework known as the Database Life Cycle (DBLC)
How to conduct evaluation and revision within the SDLC and
DBLC frameworks
2
In this chapter, you will learn (cont..):
About database design strategies: top-down vs. bottom-up
design and centralized vs. decentralized design
Common threats to the security of the data and what security
measures could be put in place
The importance of the database administration in an
organization
The technical and managerial roles of the database
administrator (DBA)

3
The Information System
Provides for data collection, storage, and retrieval
Composed of people, hardware, software, database(s),
application programs, and procedures
Systems analysis
Is the process that establishes the need for and extent of an
information system
Systems development
Is the process of creating information system
4
The Information System (cont..)
Applications
Transform data into information that forms the basis for
decision making
Usually produce the following:
Formal report
Tabulations
Graphic displays
Composed of following two parts:
Data
Code by which data are transformed into information
5

6
Information system performance depends on triad of factors:
Database design and implementation
Application design and implementation
Administrative procedures
Database development
Is the process of database design and implementation
The primary objective is to create complete, normalized, non-
redundant (to the extent possible), and fully integrated
conceptual, logical, and physical database models
7
The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
Traces history (life cycle) of information system
Provides “big picture” within which database design and
application development can be mapped out and evaluated
Divided into following five phases:
Planning
Analysis
Detailed systems design
Implementation
Maintenance
Iterative rather than sequential process

8
The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) (cont..)
9
Planning
Yields a general overview of the company and its objectives
Is an initial assessment made of information-flow-and-extent
requirements
Must begin to study and evaluate alternate solutions
Technical aspects of hardware and software requirements
System cost
10
Analysis
The problems defined during planning phase are examined in
greater detail during analysis
Thorough audit of user requirements
The existing hardware and software systems are studied
Goal is a better understanding of :
system’s functional areas,
The actual and potential problems,
and opportunities

11
Analysis (cont..)
Includes the creation of logical system design
Must specify appropriate conceptual data model, inputs,
processes, and expected output requirements
Might use tools such as data flow diagrams (DFDs), hierarchical
input process output (HIPO) diagrams, and entity relationship
(ER) diagrams
Yields functional descriptions of system’s components
(modules) for each process within database environment
12
Detailed Systems Design
The designer completes the design of the system’s processes
Includes all necessary technical specifications
The steps are laid out for conversion from old to new system
The training principles and methodologies are also planned
Submitted for management approval
13
Implementation
Hardware, DBMS software, and application programs are

installed,
and the database design is implemented
The system enters into:
A cycle of coding,
Testing, and debugging continues until it is ready to be
delivered
The actual database is created and the system is customized by
creation of tables and views,
and user authorizations
14
Maintenance
Maintenance activities can be grouped into three types:
Corrective maintenance in response to systems errors
Adaptive maintenance due to changes in business environment
Perfective maintenance to enhance system
Computer-assisted systems engineering (CASE)
Make it possible to produce better systems within reasonable
amount of time and at reasonable cost
CASE-produced applications are structured, documented,
standardized
15
16
The Database Life Cycle (DBLC)
Six phases:
Database initial study

Database design
Implementation and loading
Testing and evaluation
Operation
Maintenance and evolution
The Database Life Cycle (DBLC)
17
The Database Initial Study
Overall purpose:
Analyze company situation
Define problems and constraints
Define objectives
Define scope and boundaries
Fig 10.4 in the next slide depicts the interactive and iterative
processes required to complete first phase of DBLC successfully
18
The Database Initial Study (cont..)
19

Analyze the Company Situation
Analysis–To break up any whole into its parts so as to find out
their nature, function, and so on
Company situation
General conditions in which company operates, its
organizational structure, and its mission
Analyze company situation
Discover what company’s operational components are, how they
function, and how they interact
20
Define Problems and Constraints
Managerial view of company’s operation is often different from
that of end users
The Database Designer must continue to carefully probe to
generate additional information that will help define problems
within larger framework of company operations
Finding precise answers is important
Defining problems does not always lead to perfect solution
21
Define Objectives
Designer must ensure that database system objectives
correspond to those envisioned by end user(s)
Designer must begin to address following questions:

What is proposed system’s initial objective?
Will system interface with other existing or future systems in
the company?
Will system share data with other systems or users?
22
Define Scope and Boundaries
Scope
Defines extent of design according to operational requirements
Helps define required data structures, type and number of
entities, and physical size of database
Boundaries
Limits external to system
Often imposed by existing hardware and software
23
Database Design
Necessary to concentrate on data
Characteristics required to build database model
Two views of data within system:
Business view of
data as information source
Designer’s view of
data structure, its access, and activities required to transform
data into information
24

25
Loosely related to analysis and design of larger system
The Systems analysts or systems programmers are in charge of
designing other system components
Their activities create procedures that will help transform data
within database into useful information
Does not constitute sequential process
Iterative process that provides continuous feedback designed to
trace previous steps
26
27
I. Conceptual Design Overview

Data modeling used to create an abstract database structure
that represents real-world objects in most realistic way possible
Must embody clear understanding of business and its functional
areas
Ensure that all data needed are in model, and that all data in the
model are needed
28
I. Conceptual Design Overview (cont..)
Requires four steps
Data analysis and requirements
Discover data element characteristics
Obtains characteristics from different sources
Take into account business rules
Derived from description of operations
Entity relationship modeling and normalization
Designer enforces standards in design documentation
Use of diagrams and symbols, documentation writing style,
layout, other conventions
29
30
3. Data model verification
Verified against proposed system processes
Revision of original design
Careful reevaluation of entities

Detailed examination of attributes describing entities
Define design’s major components as modules:
Module: information system component that handles specific
function
31
Data model verification (cont…)
Verification process
Select central (most important) entity
Defined in terms of its participation in most of model’s
relationships
Identify module or subsystem to which central entity belongs
and define boundaries and scope
Place central entity within module’s framework
32
I. Conceptual Design Overview(cont..)
Distributed database design
Portions of the database may reside in different physical
locations
Processes accessing the database vary from one location to
another
The Designer must also develop data distribution and allocation
strategies
II. DBMS Software Selection
Critical to information system’s smooth operation
Common factors affecting purchasing decisions:
Cost
DBMS features and tools
Underlying model

Portability
DBMS hardware requirements
Advantages and disadvantages should be carefully studied
33
III. Logical Design Overview
Used to translate conceptual design into internal model for
selected database management system
Logical design is software-dependent
Requires that all objects in model be mapped to specific
constructs used by selected database software
Definition of attribute domains, design of required tables,
access restriction formats
Tables must correspond to entities in conceptual design
Translates software-independent conceptual model into
software-dependent logical model
34
III. Logical Design Overview (cont..)
The logical design stage consists of the following phases:
Creating the logical data model.
Validating the logical data model using normalization.
Assigning and validating integrity constraints.
Merging logical models constructed for different parts for the

database together.
Reviewing the logical data model with the use
35
IV. Physical Design Overview
Is the Process of selecting data storage and data access
characteristics of database
Storage characteristics are function of device types supported
by hardware, type of data access methods supported by system,
and DBMS
Particularly important in older hierarchical and network models
Becomes more complex when data are distributed at different
locations
36
IV. Physical Design Overview (cont..)
Physical database design can be broken down into a number of
stages:
Analyze data volume and database usage.
Translate each relation identified in the logical data model into
tables.
Determine a suitable file organization.
Define indexes.
Define user views.
Estimate data storage requirements.
Determine database security for users.

37
Implementation and Loading
New database implementation requires creation of special
storage-related constructs to house end-user tables
38
Performance
Is one of the most important factors in certain database
implementations
Not all DBMSs have performance-monitoring and fine-tuning
tools embedded in their software
Performance evaluation is rendered more difficult as there is no
standard measurement for database performance
39
Backup and Recovery
Database can be subject to data loss through unintended data
deletion and power outages
Data backup and recovery procedures
Create safety valve
Allow database administrator to ensure availability of consistent

data
Integrity
Enforced through proper use of primary and foreign key rules
40
Company Standards
May partially define database standards
Database administrator must implement and enforce such
standards
Database Security
Data must be protected from access by unauthorized users
Establish security goals
- What are we trying to protect the database from?
- What security related problems are we trying to prevent?
The most common security goals relate to the integrity,
confidentiality and the availability of data.
41
Data Security Measures
Physical security allows only authorized personnel physical
access to specific areas.
User authentication is a way of identifying the user and
verifying that the user is allowed to access some restricted data
or application.
achieved through the use of passwords and access rights.
Audit trails are usually provided by the DBMS to check for
access violations.

42
Data Security Measures (cont..)
Data encryption
Can be used to render data useless to unauthorised users.
ORACLE DBMS has a Transparent Data Encryption
User-defined policies and procedures
Backup and recovery strategies should be in place in the event
of a disaster occurring
Antivirus software
Firewalls are systems comprising of hardware devices or
software applications which act as gatekeepers to an
organisation’s network.
For more details on security measures read the slides after the
chapter summary
43
Testing and Evaluation
This phase occurs in parallel with applications programming
Programmers use database tools to prototype applications
during coding of the programs
If the DB implementation fails to meet some of system’s
evaluation criteria, several options may be considered to
enhance the system:
Fine-tune specific system and DBMS configuration parameters
Modify physical design

Modify logical design
Upgrade or change DBMS software and/or hardware platform
44
Operation
Once the database has passed the evaluation stage, it is
considered operational
The beginning of the operational phase starts the process of
system maintenance and evolution
45
Maintenance and Evolution
Required periodic maintenance:
Preventive maintenance (backup)
Corrective maintenance (recovery)
Adaptive maintenance
Assignment of access permissions and their maintenance for
new and old users
Generation of database access statistics
Periodic security audits
Periodic system-usage summaries
46
Parallel Activities in the DBLC and the SDLC

47
Summary
Information system is designed to facilitate transformation of
data into information and to manage both data and information
SDLC traces history (life cycle) of an application within the
information system
DBLC describes history of database within the information
system
Database design and implementation process moves through
series of well-defined stages
Conceptual portion of design may be subject to several
variations, based on two design philosophies
48
Summary (cont..)
Threats to database security include the loss of integrity,
confidentiality and availability of data.
The database administrator (DBA) is responsible for managing
the corporate database.
The development of the data administration strategy is closely
related to the company’s mission and objectives.
49

Threats to Security
Threats are any set of circumstances that have the potential to
cause loss, misuse or harm to the system and/or its data.
Threats can cause:
The loss of the integrity of data through unauthorized
modification.
For example a person gaining unauthorized access to a bank
account and removing some money from the account.
50
Threats to Security
The loss of availability of the data.
For example some adversary causes the database system from
being operational which stops authorized users of the data from
accessing it.
The loss of confidentiality of the data (also referred to as the
privacy of data).
This could be caused by a person gaining access to private
information such as a password or a bank account balance.
51
Examples of Threats
Theft and fraud of data.
Human error which causes accidental loss of data.

Electronic infections
Viruses
Email Viruses
Worms
Trojan Horses
52
Examples of Threats (cont..)
The occurrence of natural disasters such as hurricanes, fires or
floods.
Unauthorized access and modification of data.
Employee sabotage is concerned with the deliberate acts of
malice against the organization.
Poor database administration.
53
Examples of Threats (cont..)
54
Database Design Strategies
Two classical approaches to database design:
Top-down design

Identifies data sets
Defines data elements for each of those sets
Bottom-up design
Identifies data elements (items)
Groups them together in data sets
55
Database Design Strategies Top-down vs. bottom-up design
sequencing
56
Centralized vs. Decentralized Design
Database design may be based on two very different design
philosophies:
Centralized design
Productive when data component is composed of relatively
small number of objects and procedures
Decentralized design
Used when data component of system has considerable number
of entities and complex relations on which very complex
operations are performed
57

Centralized vs. Decentralized Design Centralized Design
58
Decentralized Design
59
Centralized vs. Decentralized Design (cont..)
Aggregation process
Requires designer to create single model in which various
aggregation problems must be addressed:
Synonyms and homonyms
Entity and entity subtypes
Conflicting object definitions
60
Centralized vs. Decentralized Design Summary of aggregation
problems
61

Database Administration
Data management is a complex job
Led to the development of the database administration function.
The person responsible for the control of the centralized and
shared database is the database administrator (DBA).
62
DBA Activities
Database planning, including the definition of standards,
procedures and enforcement.
Database requirements gathering and conceptual design.
Database logical design and transaction design.
63
DBA Activities (cont..)
Database physical design and implementation.
Database testing and debugging.
Database operations and maintenance, including installation,
conversion and migration.
Database training and support.
64

The DBA in the Organisation
65
DBA Skills
66
The Managerial Role of the DBA
67
The Managerial Role of the DBA (cont..)
End-User Support
Gathering user requirements
Building end-user confidence.
Resolving conflicts and problems.
Finding solutions to information needs.
Ensuring quality and integrity of applications and data.
Managing the training and support of DBMS users.
68

Policies, Procedures and Standards
Policies are general statements of direction or action that
communicate and support DBA goals.
Standards are more detailed and specific than policies and
describe the minimum requirements of a given DBA activity.
Procedures are written instructions that describe a series of
steps to be followed during the performance of a given activity.
69
Data Security, Privacy and Integrity
Protecting the security and privacy of the data in the database is
a function of authorization management.
Authorization management defines procedures to protect and
guarantee database security and integrity.
Includes: user access management, view definition, DBMS
access control and DBMS usage monitoring.
70
Data Backup and Recovery
Many DBA departments have created a position staffed by the
database security officer (DSO).

The DSO’s activities are often classified as disaster
management.
Disaster management includes all of the DBA activities
designed to secure data availability following a physical
disaster or a database integrity failure.
Disaster management includes all planning, organizing and
testing of database contingency plans and recovery procedures.
71
Data Distribution and Use
The DBA is responsible for ensuring that the data are
distributed to the right people, at the right time and in the right
format.
72
The Technical Role of the DBA
Evaluating, selecting and installing the DBMS and related
utilities.
Designing and implementing databases and applications.
Testing and evaluating databases and applications.
Operating the DBMS, utilities and applications.
Training and supporting users.
Maintaining the DBMS, utilities and applications.

73
Evaluating, Selecting and Installing the DBMS and Utilities
(DBA)
Covers the selection of the database management system, utility
software and supporting hardware for use in the organization.
Must be based primarily on the organization’s needs
The DBA would be wise to develop a checklist of desired
DBMS features.
74
Designing and Implementing Databases and Applications (DBA)
Covers data modelling and design services to the end-user
community
Determine and enforce standards and procedures to be used.
DBA then provides the necessary assistance and support during
the design of the database at the conceptual, logical and
physical levels
75
Testing and Evaluating Databases and Applications (DBA)
The DBA must also provide testing and evaluation services for
all of the database and end-user applications.
Those services are the logical extension of the design,
development and implementation services.

DBF-Lecture11-Chapter12.pptDatabase Principles Fundam.docx

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