Damage Atlas historical Cuenca

S. De Jongh – M. Van Wijnendaele – F. Cardoso – K. Van Balen
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Damage Atlas of historical Cuenca, Ecuador
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Damage patterns found in (mainly earthen) building materials
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Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium :: Universidad de Cuenca, Ecuador :: VLIR‐IUOS :: 2009

Contents
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
2. How to use the Atlas in 3 steps ....................................................................................................... 2
3. Cuenca’s cultural awareness, environment and climate ................................................................ 3
4. Material and its value, damaging cause and damage pattern ........................................................ 4
I. Classification ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1. Classification through material type [Which material is affected?] ................................................ 5
2. Classification through damaging mechanism [What is the cause?] ................................................ 7
3. Classification through damaging pattern [What do you see?] ........................................................ 9
4. Classification through building state [What is the actual state?] ................................................. 12
5. Classification through severity [How bad or threatening is the damage?] .................................. 12
.
II. Case Studies ...................................................................................................................................... 14
.
1. Aesthetical and surface problems ................................................................................................. 14
2. Disintergration (surface to structural problems) .......................................................................... 28
3. Surface cracks ................................................................................................................................ 50
4. Structural cracks ............................................................................................................................ 52
5. Other structural problems ............................................................................................................ 64
.

Damage atlas of historical Cuenca, Ecuador (earthen materials)

1. Introduction

This Damage Atlas wants to be a helpful tool in defining damages and their causes in historical building
materials. Research methods and solutions for occurring problems are integrated as well. More specific,
the center of this book are the materials and buildings in the Unesco World Heritage city of Cuenca
(Ecuador).

A manual will lead the reader through this atlas which should be used preferably in situ and in an active
way. The first questions always should be quot;What do we see?quot; and quot;What are we talking about?quot; since a
proper investigation and correct description are necessary. In a second stage, quot;What are the (physical)
damaging causes?quot; and quot;What is a sustainable precaution or solution?quot; are critical in evaluating the
seriousness and developing right decisions for damages.

SaMat is the Systematical Analysis of these Materials and Their damages through centralizing and
validating data on an engineering level. SaMat comprises the methodology, the database, called SaMat
Doccenter1, and this damage atlas as resulting product. This master piece should lead to our thesis2 in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Applied Sciences and Engineering (Civil
Engineering). The thesis fits within the VLIR IUOS project quot;World Heritage City Preservation and
Managementquot;3.

We have to thank all the people who were involved and extremely helpful for this project. Special
thanks go to prof. Koenraad Van Balen, prof. Fausto Cardoso, arq. Veronica Heras and our families.

Sam De Jongh and Matthias Van Wijnendaele

Cover (left to right, top to bottom): Casa de Los Arcos, Casa de Las Posadas, Iglesia Santo Domingo and Casa de las Palomas, carrying adobes, adobe wall

There are some copylefts to the authors on photos in this book

1
SaMat Doccenter is available online https://ernie.urania.be/oberon/mvwn/Thesis/doccenterV6/ or on the
included CD and is only usable with Internet Explorer (all versions)
2
2009, “Earthquakes and other damaging mechanisms to earth structures (case study Cuenca, Ecuador)”
3
Information on the project can be found on http://vlir iuc.ucuenca.edu.ec/proyectos_detalle.php?proyecto=20

1


2. How to use the Atlas in 3 steps

This book is intended for students and professionals (architects, engineers…) involved in (problems
with) historical buildings in Cuenca. This book is a guide in determining damaging causes and proper
solutions but can’t replace the expert.

Part I of the book comprises definitions, explanations and classifications, while part II (in color) includes
the different case studies.

Step 1    ‐    First, the observed damage has to be classified with the help of the figures in the
cases (part II of the Atlas).  The respective definition of the damage type with the probable
causes of the damage can be found in part I.

Step 2    ‐    Afterwards, the user’s own hypothesis and further analysis can be compared with
the first idea which can be adjusted if needed. Through facts‐analysis and visual inspection, first
assumptions can be made and should be verified or rejected by further laboratory and
literature research.

Step 3    ‐    In a third stage the opinion and help of an expert or the experience and knowledge
of local people can be important since a wrong analysis and treatment can cause further harm
to the building.

Special care should be taken at all times in separating damage and cause clearly from each other.

All data gathered during our expedition to Cuenca can be found in the Doccenter database on the CD
attached to this Atlas. This database comprises photographs from us and other people, all investigated
buildings and damages. Also papers and presentations and references can be found here. This Atlas
refers to Doccenter with following symbols

Referring to buildingID (building identity number)

Referring to photoID (photo identity number)

Referring to damageID (damage identity number)

2


3. Cuenca’s cultural awareness, environment and climate

The historical importance of the city center of Cuenca is big and UNESCO approved this in 1999 by
declaring it as a cultural World Heritage site. The awareness of the local people and governments is
rising but still on a low level. Academic staff, historians and architects are playing a leading role in the
conservation of the historical city. The existing VLIR‐IUOS project is an example of this concern.

Cuenca is lying in a dale of 4 rivers in the high mountains of the Andes at 2500 m above sea level. The
environment is healthy, but due to heavy traffic combined with unrefined oil, local air pollution is a
great threat for the city.

At this height, the climate is not comparable with the tropical weather of the rainforest and coastal
region (e.g. Guayaquil). In contrary, Cuenca has a year‐round mild climate with an average daily
temperature of 16°C. The temperature is not varying much during the year with maxima and minima of
around 20°C and 10°C respectively (see Figure 1Error! Reference source not found.). It is comparable to
the spring season in Belgium. There are no temperatures lower than 0° measured in this period. The
rainy season with periodic afternoon showers, generally lasts from mid‐October until early May. A
maximum of 110 mm monthly rain fall is found in April and May, proving the local saying “Avril, aguas
mil”4. The relative humidity is less than 80 % (comparable to spring and summer in Belgium). Data from
ISMCS v4.0, NOAA National Data Centers (US Department of Commerce) for Cuenca and from Royal
Meteorological Institute (KMI) for Belgium were used.

Since the earth is moving around the sun in a quasi‐circle with a 23°27’ inclination, seasons exist. In
Ecuador however, there is no actual north (where the sun never comes) or no south as we know it. Only
between 23rd of September and 21st of March, the sun is standing in the South. This should be taken
into account for damages caused by the sun (e.g. algae growth). The sun rises and sets in the East and
West, but its path has only a little variation to the South or North during the year. This explains the
stable climate through the year.

120 100
25
Monthly Temperature (° C)

Relative Humidity (%)
100 90
20
Precipitation (mm)

80 80
15

60 70
10

40 60
5

20 50
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Precipitation (Cuenca, 10‐year Average)
Highest Temperature (Cuenca, 7‐year Average)
Precipitation (Belgium)
Highest Temperature (Belgium)
Lowest Temperature (Cuenca, 7‐year Average) Relative humidity (Cuenca, 10‐year Average)
Lowest Temperature (Belgium) Relative Humidity (Belgium)

Figure 1: Climate data for Cuenca (source: ISMCS v 4.0, NOAA National Data Centers) and Belgium (source: KMI)

4
“Avril, aguas mil”, dixit José‐David Heras Barros meaning “A thousand rain showers in April”

3


4. Material and its value, damaging cause and damage pattern

What is damage or deterioration? It’s the reduction of ability to perform up to an anticipated defined
standard due to an unwanted change of any property other than considered normal. This process of
change causes a damage pattern which is determined by the severity of the damaging agent and the
resistance of the material to the damaging mechanism. When this mechanism is more severe than the
material’s resistance and the damage reaction is higher than accepted, one speaks from damage
(Franke & Schumann, 1998).

On the other side, not all changes are unwanted (e.g. renovation) and some changes can be considered
as normal (e.g. renewing outdoor paint). In this last case, weathering or erosion has found place due to
the action of weather and environment which is completely predictable.

Also some damage can be considered faster as damage when the building (or object) is more valuable.
As engineering students, we are not participating in the estimation of the (historical) value of buildings.
However, we are influenced by the enthusiasm of the Cuencanian historians and architects, learning
the importance of colonial earthen dwellings.

The key issue on studying damages is to distinguish damaging patterns from their (primary or
secondary) causes. For example, powdering of bricks is the damaging pattern due to a chemical process
introduced by urine (secondary cause). The primary cause is the biological deposit of human urine (see
Figure 2).

Damaging Damage pattern
Material [3]
mechanism [5] [6]

Figure 2: Building materials are affected by damaging mechanisms resulting in a damage pattern

4


I. Classification
1. Classification through material type [Which material is affected?]

Different types of material are used in the historical buildings of Cuenca. Next to cloth (for ceilings),
paint and glass, this section gives a summation of the most important ones.

Stone (piedra) and marble (mármol) – During the colonial period Pumapungo was declared a public
quarry providing stone for the foundations of colonial churches and houses. Also the 4 rivers were a
reference for round stones (piedra del rio). On the other hand the historical buildings in Cuenca are a
reference for honey‐coloured and pink travertine marble from the Sayausì mines (e.g. actual city hall or
Alcaldìa, 13). In Ingapirca ( 211) diorite stone (intrusive volcanic stone) was found. This stone is
characterized by its visible crystals (> 1mm). But also the finer variant andesite stone (extrusive volcanic
stone) is present in and around Cuenca with crystals invisible for the eye. Other volcanic stones are
from the pyroclastic, tuff or ashstone type containing bigger fragments ( 217).

Wood (madera) – Eucalyptus wood is used as such in roofs, floors or as supporting element in
composite walls (see bahareque). The type, known as Eucalyptus globules, was introduced from
Australia in the 1860s and dominates the landscape of the inter‐Andean valleys (Neill, 2008). It is a
hardwood that earns high marks for strength, durability and excellent weathering characteristics similar
to those of teak wood. Hardwoods have pores or vessel elements that occur among fiber and
parenchyma cells. Cellulose content ranges from 40 to 50% with 15‐25% lignin (less than softwood) and
15‐25% hemicelluloses (more than softwood). The remaining components consist of various
extracellular compounds (Blanchette, 2000).

Reed (carrizo) – The reed in Cuenca is found to be sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) and is locally
called carrizo or sometimes caña (de azucar). They also can make rope or strings with cut and dried
leaves. In Ecuador also the flatter caña guadua and used in construction in the coastal part and the
Oriente. Do not confuse carrizo with the giant cane or bamboo reed Arundo donax (in Ecuador called
carrizo grande or caña brava from which the popular caña drink is made.

Earth (barro) – Earth can be found on the construction site or at local extraction sites. Generally very
little is known about the characteristics of the mud. The properties for different locations near Cuenca
are investigated (De Jongh & Van Wijnendaele, 2009). Earth is used in adobe, tapial and bahareque, as
well as in finishing layers and in mortars for cementation of tiles, stones and (adobe) bricks.

(Polychrome) metal sheets (placas de latón policromado) – Multicoloured sheets of zinc are found a
lot in interior (mainly ceilings) as well as in exterior decoration (Casa de los Arcos, 214). The history
of this from Europe imported sheets is found in the nationwide boom in exports around 1860 (Torres
Hidalgo, 2007).

Wrought iron (hierro forjado) – This iron has a very low carbon content and due to slag inclusions it is
fibrous. It is ductile (not brittle) and easily welded. The material was introduced during the 1860 boom
(Torres Hidalgo, 2007).

5


Fired bricks (ladrillo) – A ceramic material obtained by preparation, moulding (or extrusion) of raw
material (clay) and subsequent drying and firing at an appropriate temperature (Franke & Schumann,
1998). It is widely used as building material in new constructions in the new district of Cuenca (El Ejido).

Roof tiles (teja) – This ceramic material consists mainly of clay but it is not known with the usual glaze
finish. There shape is semi‐cylindrical (called mission or barrel, 207) or flat ( 59).

Trash of tiles (cisco) – Cisco is found and used as protecting layer on bahareque and adobe masonry (
267). Broken tiles are applied in the earthen surface layer (revoque).

Reinforced concrete (hormigón / concreto armado) – A construction material composed of cement,
gravel, sand and water which hardens after a chemical process called hydration. It is mostly reinforced
with steel to increase the tensile strength. It is a modern building material used in Cuenca (Universidad
de Cuenca, 260). A decorative concrete floor, called terrazzo was found in iglesia Santo Domingo (
59 and 379) as well.

Adobe masonry (mamposteria de adobe) – Adobe walls should not be mistaken for tapial or
bahareque even if they are called so in literature (e.g. Guía de arquitectura). Adobe bricks are made of
earth (containing sand and high amounts of clay), water, straw and sometimes animal excrements.
They are made in wooden moulds with dimensions of 25‐60cm by 14‐20cm by 10‐17cm. They can be
reinforced with steel in combination with cement mortar, but in Cuenca only unreinforced adobe is
found (see Figure 3a). Additives such as asphalt, ethyl silicate and other chemical additives are also not
used. Its composition (clay content, type of clay, particle size distribution, soluble salt content…) is
determinant for the adobe properties (colour, compressive strength, durability…) and is investigated by
the authors in their thesis. Finally, the properties of an adobe brick cannot be plainly extrapolated to
the masonry, a combination of earthen joints, wooden reinforcement and adobe bricks.

Rammed earth (tapial) – Although it is not much found in Cuenca, rammed earth is a traditional way
for construction of walls (see Figure 2b). Moist earth is poured into a formwork (encofrado, two
connected parallel plates) in layers of to 15 cm thick, and then compacted by ramming. Since it is
monolithic, a longer life is granted in comparison with adobe (Minke 2006).

Figure 3: (a) An unfinished adobe wall in Cuenca (SaMat Doccenter 206); (b) Shrinkage cracks and production joints of tapial
in Ecuador (Minke 2006) (c) A rural house made of bahareque (SaMat Doccenter 322)

Wattle‐and‐daub (bahareque) – In the wide surroundings of Cuenca, bahareque is made of wood, reed
and earth and is known as bahareque de tierra (see Figure 3c). The primary (diagonal V‐structure or
crossed) and secondary (vertical parallels heart‐to‐heart 40 cm) structures are always made of wood.
Regularity in this framework is rare since windows and doors are introduced in the structure. The reed
is braided on both sides of this structure. Since the cavity between the reed is not filled we are dealing

6


with hollow bahareque (tierra hueco). Afterwards a thick earthen layer (revoque) with straw and a thin
earth‐chalk layer (empaneite) are applied (Ortiz Crespo, 2005).

Lime plaster (empaneite, yeso) – Although earthen surface finishes are found as well, a lot of (adobe
and brick) buildings are finished with lime plasters. Lime plasters are a mixture of calcium hydroxide
and sand.

Cement plaster (cemento) – Cement is regularly used as surface layer and is a mixture of (plaster,)
sand, Portland cement and water. The choice is (often incorrectly) based on its high strength and water
resistant properties.

For an overview of how and where these materials are used in the historical buildings of Cuenca, the
authors are referring to their thesis. Patios and balconies (decorated with wrought iron) with a wooden
structure, ceilings of wood or zinc are typical. A traditional colonial dwelling may consist of river stones
at the basement, adobe masonry on the ground floor (paved with floor tiles or small river stones) and
bahareque for the upper floors (with wooden floors). Tiles on the roof and cisco at the side walls makes
it complete. But also brick masonry is frequently found. Sometimes they are left naked, but often they
are finished with travertine marble or – more common – decorative plasters.

2. Classification through damaging mechanism [What is the cause?]

We can also classify the damages by its cause or damaging mechanism (see Table 1). This gives a
structural overview of the probable risks for the historical buildings in Cuenca. The damages are always
listed per cause from structural (e.g. collapse) to aesthetical (e.g. staining). We should mention that
some damages only can be caused in one time (an impact) and other by a continuous action (erosion).
It is also important to understand the place of a damage pattern in the buildings life cycle starting from
the design (e.g. general error/risk) to the end (e.g. no intervention).

7


Table 1: Classification by damaging mechanisms (or causes)

CAUSE SPECIFIC CAUSE DAMAGE PATTERN
Mechanical (Over)loading Deformation, crack, spalling
Settlement Leaning, deformation, crack
Wind Leaning, erosion, pitting
Use Crack, corrasion, polishing
Impact Chipping, crack, cut
Traffic Crack
Seismic Collapse, crack, loss of material
Design Renovation (/reparation) Destruction (+ new), loss of material, change of impression
Design General error/risk, structural instability, crack, choices
Construction Applied material, technique or system
Maintenance Incorrect use, incorrect / no intervention
Physical Water Bending, erosion, (network) crack, powdering, sanding,
bulging, loss of bond, peeling, blistering, fading, staining,
soiling, rotting, softening
Salt (network) crack, powdering, crumbling, encrustation,
scaling, spalling, delamination, exfoliation,
(crypto)efflorescence, patina, blistering, patina
(Differential) expansion Crack
Chemical Metal corrosion Conversion, crack, loss of bond, staining
Sun (UV) Fading
Fire Destruction, crack, spalling, blackening
Air (pollution) Soiling
Water, gases, acid Crack, conversion, staining
Graffiti Staining
Soot Soiling
Biological People and animals Conversion, deposit
Beetles Structural instability, loss of material, change of impression
Moulds Conversion, visible
Algae Peeling, visible
Lichens, liverwort, Visible
Fern Visible
Higher plants Structural instability, crack, loss of bond, visible
Moss Sanding, visible

8


3. Classification through damaging pattern [What do you see?]

A brief list of damage jargon with description is given here since it is not always easy to describe what
you are seeing in situ in one word. This is the starting point for users of this Damage Atlas since the
causes can be determined out of the observation of the damaging pattern.

Change of impression
Caused by new design due to renovation/reparation 32 and attack of beetles 94

Discoloration
Fading5 : paint ‐ Loss of colour intensity or brightness of colour
Caused by water 49 and ultraviolet radiation (sun) 74

Staining5: a spot of distinct colour
Caused by water 50, polluted water 82, corrosion 73 and graffiti 83

Blackening: caused by fire 78
5
Deposit : material accumulated on the surface; exogenic (dust, dirt) / endogenic (efflorescence)
Caused by people and animals 91

Soiling5: is the exogenic deposit of uncrystalline and unconsolidated material (e.g. dirt, soot…)
Caused by water 51, air pollution 79 and root 85

Encrustation: is the crust‐like deposit with good adherence of whitish and dense mortar constituents
Caused by salts (leading to crust formation) 58

Efflorescence: is the endogenic formation of soluble (white) salts deposited on surface by capillarity
Called crypto‐efflorescence if beneath the surface
Caused by salts 63

Visible biological growth (can be mistaken for a deposit)
Higher plants: building material is used as substratum; determine their type by comparing images
Caused by growth of trees, plants and grasses 109, mosses 110 and fern 105

Lower plants: sometimes mistaken for mosses; determine their type by comparing images

Algae5: lower plants consisting of single cells or groups of cells
Caused by algae growth 102 and lichens (a combination of algae and mould) 103

Mould5: eucariotical micro‐ and macro‐organisms which subsist on dead organic matter
Caused by mould growth 98

Transformation5 involves a chemical conversion of the surface material
Patina5:   change of very thin surface layer protecting the underlying material from degradation


5
(Franke & Schumann, 1998)

9


Caused by oxidation 86

Conversion: chemical alteration of the material (in combination with other damaging patterns)
Caused by moulds 99, water/air pollution 81, people/animals 90 and corrosion 70

Rotting: wood – (hemi‐) cellulose and lignin undergoes chemical alteration by microbes
Caused by water 52

Disintegration, loss of material or loss of cohesion
Caused by beetles on wood 93, caused by design renovation/reparation 31

Pitting:   small pits formed by wind erosion 9

Crumbling5: adobe/bad brick ‐ Falling apart into small shapeless lumps
Caused by water (adobe) 67 and salt (brick) 56

Powdering5: brick – Loss of coherence starting from the surface resulting in fine powder
Caused by water 43 and salt 54
5
Sanding : mortar – Lack of cohesion due to granular disintegration
Caused by water 44, salt 55 and growth of mosses 111

Erosion5:   abrasive wearing away of material creating a relief at the building material’s surface
Caused by wind 8 and water 41

Corrasion5: also called mechanical erosion, erosion by mechanical forces (use or impact)
Caused by an impact 16, mechanical forces during use 13 and polishing 15

Cut5: scratch (superficial loss of material), cut (line of division) or puncture (penetration)
Caused by mechanical impact 18

Layering   subdivided into delamination and exfoliation
Delamination5:  separation of an originally laminated material into one or more layers
Caused by salts 61

Exfoliation5:   separation of an originally homogeneous material into one or more layers
Caused by salts 62

Spalling 5: Detachment of a relatively thick part of surface
Caused by overloading 3, earthquakes 22, salts 60 and fire 77

Scaling5: Scale‐like detachment of a relatively thin part of the surface
Caused by salts 59

Loss of cohesion concerns a type of deterioration where the material is no longer bond
Softening: The transformation of clay minerals changes adobe’s macrostructure by swelling
Caused by (excess of) water 68

10


Loss of adhesion concerns the detachment of one material from another
Peeling5: Detachment due to loss of adherence between surface and paint film or plaster finish
Caused by water 47

Blistering5: Dome‐like detachment of part of surface by local swelling/expansion (paint on plaster)
Caused by water (transport) 48 and salt 66

Loss of bond5: Detachment of mortar or rendering from masonry… (relatively thick layer)
Caused by water 46, corrosion 72 and higher plant growth (roots) 108

Cracks5: Lines of division which will go completely through the material (> 0,15 mm)
Caused by overloading 2, settlement 6, use 12, impact 17, traffic 19, earthquake 21,
design error 35, water 57, diff. expansion 69, corrosion 71, fire 76 and plant growth 107

Crazing5: network cracking, a network of hair cracks < 0,15 mm
Caused by water 42 and salt 53

Deformation
Bulging5: Caused by water 45

Bending5: Caused by overloading 1, settlement 5, water 40

Leaning 5: Caused by settlement 4 and wind 7

Destruction: collapse or by purpose destruction of a (part of a) building
Caused by earthquake 20, design (combined with new construction) 30, fire 75

Risk
Error/risk Caused by error in the design process 33

Instability   Caused by error in design 34, by beetles on wood 92 and higher plant growth 106

Wrong choice of material, technique or system in the design process can cause problems in the future
Caused by error in design 36

Incorrect use is introducing risks for the future
38

Intervention during reparation or the lack of intervention is a risk for future damages
39

11


4. Classification through building state [What is the actual state?]

For the conservator, historian, architect or engineer the actual state of the building is important for her
or his inspection. Some buildings are just renovated and every damage pattern is or structurally solved
or camouflaged by cosmetic repairs. There is of course a difference between extremely altered
dwellings and carefully restored houses ( 50).

Most of the buildings are in a phase of degeneration or consolidation, no interventions are planned.
Some major problems are clearly visible ( 74).

The most interesting observations are made in buildings under renovation. After removal of the surface
layers and ceilings, the structure is visible and it is possible to follow the repairs day by day and to talk
with the handicraftsmen ( 43).

5. Classification through severity [How bad or threatening is the damage?]

Most problems such as graffiti are luckily aesthetical or superficial. But these damage patterns can
evolve to more structural problems and indicate delicate places.

In a lot of other cases, the functionality of the material is lost by disintegration or a general loss of
bond. In the first case, the material is converted by chemical or biological attack often combined with
the presence of water. Material is also lost by different kinds of loss of adhesion (between 2 different
materials) or cohesion (in 1 material). It is an ‐ often slow – irreversible process and should be
prevented.

Cracks are commonly known as a structural and dangerous problem. Cracks often indicate structural
instability, high vulnerability for earthquakes and a future collapse. But also superficial cracks (e.g.
network cracking) can occur.

Structural problems such as deformation of structural construction elements, effects of fire and the
intentional destruction of historical buildings are the most unwanted damages.

The order of the case studies is using this classification, through increasing severity of the damaging
patterns and risks.

12


13


II. Case Studies
1. Aesthetical and surface problems

Damage:    staining (discoloration)
83
Cause:    chemical ‐ graffiti
Building: Iglesia San Blas ( 1), Pasaje Hortensia Mata ( 27)

Graffiti is typically an (intentional) human intervention, which causes (almost always) aesthetical
unwanted staining. Older graffiti can attract other new ones. The location of the affected building is an
important parameter; degraded neighbourhoods ( 49) or places of manifestation ( 118) are more
suffering.

Solution and Prevention: For plasters, paints and earthen layers, the best solution is to paint over the
graffiti ( 279). For other materials such as brick and natural stone ( 252), there are 3 different
preventive treatments possible (van de Weert, 2004). Epoxy or polyurethane pore filling resins are
permanent, long lasting and resistant but their high diffusion coefficient causes problems in materials
with high water content (such as adobe and bahareque). In contrary, an acrylic emulsion functions as
sacrificing and temporary layer which can be washed off together with the graffiti. It is very useful since
it is not hydrophobic and not preventing diffusion. A combination (semi permanent) is the optimal
solution, but is predicted as more expensive.

Damage: soiling
85
Cause: chemical – soot
Building: Hotel Victoria ( 95) and Catedral de la Inmaculada ( 25)

Although soot can cause unwanted blackening (especially on white painted chimeys, 262), no other
solution is given than washing or repainting. We should mention that candles, where the soot is a
witness ( 452), are a serious threat for the fire safety.

Damage: blackening (discoloration)
78
Cause: chemical ‐ fire
Building: Catedral de la Inmaculada ( 25), Edificio San Agustin ( 24)

This kitchen ( 1469) is blackened during use. During the June 2008 fire the building was partly
destroyed and this wall suffered from blackening ( 1040).

Solution and Prevention: Fire should be prevented as much as possible, but blackening is not a
threatening damage and will not evolve further.

14


49             118       279



252         262
       en

452            1469           1040

15


Damage: deposit
Cause: biological – people and animals 91
Building: Casa de las Palomas ( 74)

Peoples and animals deposit such as faeces and bird nests ( 1105 and 1301) causes just aesthetical
damaging patterns in most cases. Prevention can diminish the future maintenance costs.

Damage: change of impression
94
Cause: biological – beetle / moth
Building: Iglesia de Santo Domingo ( 59)

Beetles can cause structural and disintegration problems, but in a lot of cases, just aesthetical problems
are found ( 340, 377).

Damage: visible lichens
103
Cause: biological – lichens (chlorophyllous)

Lichens exist in unpolluted environments, such as Ingapirca. They are not considered to cause damage.
Since they are grey, they are probably “Diploicia canescens”6 ( 315)

Damage: visible fern
105
Cause: biological – fern (chlorophyllous)
Building: Catedral de la Inmaculada ( 74)

Fern is a protected species and should not be removed therefore. It is not considered to cause damage
( 562).

6
http://www.lichenology.info/

16


1105 1301 340

377 315

562

17


Damage: visible algae
102
Cause: biological – algae (chlorophyllous)
Building: casa Arizaga Guzman ( 39)

These algae are greenish and grow in a shaded place (stairs between two high buildings). No direct sun
radiation and exposition to rainwater are contributing to the growth of algae here ( 246).

In this wet climate, there is a big risk for biological damage. The water source here is waterfall ( 167,
171, 172) and algae grow giving a black shine.

Further research: To be sure, it is recommended to look after the formation of gypsum crust on cement.
The black shine is than caused by air pollution.

Damage: visible higher plant (general)
109
Cause: biological – higher plants (chlorophyllous)
Building: El Chagra’s restaurant ( 207)

This small restaurant is a typical remnant of traditional houses with only a ground floor in the historical
city ( 218). Growth of higher plants is not harmful as such, but can be a witness of general lack of
maintenance of the whole building.

Damage: visible moss (higher plants)
110
Cause: biological – moss (chlorophyllous)

Most occurrences of mosses are not very dangerous ( 227), but they can secrete acids which are
harmful for mortars (see next case).

Damage: sanding of mortar
111
Cause: biological – moss (chlorophyllous)

Mosses do not have genuine roots, but rhizoids that secrete acids which dissolve the mortar binder (
510). In very wet circumstances a relatively weak mortar can be turned into loose sand within one year
(Franke and Schumann, 1998).

Further research: Measuring the pH of the affected mortar can exclude other possible damaging
causes. A low pH in combination with visible mosses, proves the growth of rhizoids. Some mortar tests
were carried out in this building ( 25) (see page 34).

Damage: loss of bond
108
Cause: biological – higher plants (chlorophyllous)
Building: Iglesia de Santo Domingo ( 59)

Higher plants and its roots can cause serious damage growing between tiles and bricks ( 1315).
Maintenance is recommended to prevent higher reparation costs.

18


246       172

218       227

510       1315



19


Damage: efflorescence and blistering/peeling
63, 66
Cause: physical – salts

In the tomb of the main cathedral salts were found in the first half meter above the ground. Rising
damp is the damaging cause since the brick masonry is in contact with the ground. Next to (beautiful)
salt efflorescence ( 449), blistering and peeling of the paint were found as well ( 456 and 694).

Damage: efflorescence
63
Cause: physical – salts
Building: Hotel Victoria ( 95), Catedral de la Inmaculada ( 25)

Although initially designed to be finished with a layer of plaster and paint, naked masonry facades are
characterizing calle Larga. Due to inadequate eaves, rain water is washing the bricks regularly
introducing salt efflorescence after drying ( 257). Furthermore, after cleaning with water under high
pressure, salts crystallized on the domes of the main cathedral immediately ( 516, 2078, see page
34).

It is interesting to mention that salts were only found on bricks and not on earthen materials. However,
it is very probable that high salt contents are present and causing damages to adobe and bahareque.

Damage: peeling (loss of adhesion)
47
Cause: physical – water

Wood exposed to rain or a high content of moisture, will be damaged on its paint. It is known as an
aging process when no maintenance is carried out. Peeling ( 604) and blistering is found.

Solution and Prevention: In the case of wood, we can refer to a publication of Iowa University (1994).

Damage: blistering (loss of adhesion)
48
Building: Iglesia de Deleg ( 228)

Blisters mostly occur on paints with low vapour diffusivity attached on earthen materials such as adobe
( 694). Water (coming from condensation or drying processes, rain infiltration…) is prevented from
evaporation by this paint and small spaces (bubbles) filled with vapour are growing. Paint is detached
from the substrate and if the spots burst (already visible here), more water is introduced behind the
paint. This is how the damaging pattern will evolve from innocent blisters to paint peeling and adobe
softening.

Prevention: Prevention is easy by using paint that allows vapour transport and by protection against
water contact (rain and other sources).

20


449         456

694          516

604       257           2078

21


Damage: fading (discoloration)
49
Cause: physical ‐ water

The ceilings of the first floor of casa de las Palomas are made of zinc. Water infiltration from above
introduces discoloration of the paint on this metal sheets ( 600).

50
Building: Iglesia de Santo Domingo ( 59), casa de las Posadas ( 50),
la Bella de Paris ( 221) and la casa del coco ( 41)

Red paint is washed out and deposited on the white paint on the wall ( 343).

685 of casa de las Posadas is made outside the project area. The road is in poor condition and on very
rainy days with heavy traffic water is splashed onto the façade (up to 2m high). The plaster on this
recently restored colonial house (adobe) is in good condition which is accredited to the choice of good
paint (allowing vapour diffusion).

Rain water infiltration in patios is also a known problem though in this case watering the plants can also
be an explanation ( 177).

The restoration of la Bella de Paris is in many ways very successful. However, dealing with rising ground
water is essential in the design. Inside walls are showing sever moisture stains immediately after
construction ( 410). Furthermore, rising damp is not solved by applying cement mortar on the lower
part of the wall ( 414). The ground water will rise above this plaster resulting in staining, loss of
bond… A cement layer can only serve as protecting layer against splashing.

Solution and Prevention: An impermeable membrane (or chiva) on the bottom is needed to stop the
water transport.

73
Cause: chemical – metal corrosion

The statue of Holy Santa Anna on the main cathedral is made of bronze and placed on brick masonry.
The green staining is caused by corrosion of this statue ( 479). The powdering of the bricks is not
correlated with the corrosion process (see page 32).

22


600        343         685



410         414



177          479

23


Damage: polishing
15
Cause: mechanical – use

Stairs or steps are the most popular place to find polishing. The frequent and abrasive use of natural
stone ( 592) has led to this shiny and slippery erosion. It is not considered as damage, but as a
predictable weathering process. Therefore, solutions and prevention are not an issue here.

32
Cause: design – renovation/reparation
Building: Hotel Crespo ( 108), Casa de las Palomas ( 74)

The structural stability isn’t affected while introducing a new entrance in this hotel on calle Larga, but
other effects are not less important ( 238). The total concept and harmony are changed forever while
the functionality will probably increase. This operation gives a full view of the brick masonry that is
hidden behind plaster and natural stone in normal conditions.

Though lime plaster is frequently used without problems, the application of lime plaster is sometimes a
debatable intervention ( 2028). We refer to the thesis for a more detailed discussion.

Damage: loss of original materials
31
Cause: design – renovation

It is thought that the light blue tiled domes – a symbol of Cuenca – of the main cathedral were
completely covered. A closer look is showing cracks in the tiles (see II.3) and absence of tiles in the
corners ( 504). Instead, we found cement mortar which, in first place, is only an aesthetical issue.

32
Cause: design – renovation / reparation
Building: casa municipal de Gualaceo ( 245)

New constructions in historical valuable dwellings need to be designed very carefully. This colonial
building with typical patio and walkway is mutilated by a new concrete stair case which combines the
wrong choice of location, material and geometry. The stair case is removed again after structural
bearing problems ( 1638).

The renovation of the old municipality of Gualaceo included new materials and techniques instead of
the old ones, a doubtful new concrete stair case, the broadening of the entrance and the removal of
bearing walls. All these interventions caused cracks and instability and therefore we refer to the case on
page (see page 56).

24


     592



238           2028



1638         504

25


32
Cause: design – renovation / reparation
Building: Corte Superior de Justicia ( 19), casa del Coco ( 41) and
casa Sempertegui ( 119)

Patios are typical for the colonial style and are used in nearly every dwelling in the historical city. The
last decades, patios were covered by modern steel or wood constructions containing glass. The result
doesn’t have to be an architectural disaster. One can judge for its one whether the dome on the Court
was a good choice or not ( 21, 24, 22, 208). Mind the rebars to take the thrust and tensile forces in
the corners ( 24). Also casa del Coco has a covered patio of metal and glass ( 180).

Houses such as casa Sempertegui ( 838) and casa de las Palomas still have their original patio.

Research: Some research was done by prof. arch. Pacurucu (thesis about patios in Cuenca). The aerial
views by local promoter prof. arch. Cardoso make it possible to discover changes in time of patios… that
are invisible from the street.

26


838        180

21          24

22          208

27


2. Disintergration (surface to structural problems)

Damage: patina, spalling
65, 3
Cause: mechanical – overloading
Building: Incan ruins of Ingapirca, Cañar ( 211)

Different magmatic stone (igneous rock) types occur in this highly volcanic region. This volcanic rock
(magma didn’t reach the surface) is the intrusive diorite stone because the crystals are visible ( 320).

The green colour is a patina which indicates the presence and oxidation of copper. Due to stress
concentrations caused by tourists walking on the remnants of the ruin in combination with very small
or no joints, the stone was overloaded and developed cracks. A thick surface layer is pushed off finally (
320).

Further research: Biological growth is also a possible cause, but in that case the color is deposited onto
instead of into the surface. Organic materials can be identified by heating it with fire.

Damage: erosion, pitting
8, 9
Cause: mechanical – wind
Building: Iglesia de la Virgen del Rosario de Biblian ( 217)

This volcanic andesite stone developed small pits at the most vulnerable spots ( 333). The church is
situated on a steep hill where an intensive wind blows. This wind is the main cause of the erosion.

Damage: corrasion (= mechanical erosion)
13
Cause: mechanical – use
Building: Convento del Buen Pastor ( 3)

The corner of this adobe building is situated at calle Simon Bolivar and plazoleta de San Blas ( 73). The
corner is protected by the use of hard natural stone whereby only the painted cement plaster is
affected. At the corner of the Mariscal Sucre and General Torres street, it is more visible how natural
stones are used for corrasion protection (   814).

Damage: mechanical
16
Cause: mechanical – impact
Building: casa Herederos Bravo Narea ( 32)

Making holes with a drill (impact) has led to the loss of cement plaster attached to brick masonry. This
example also illustrates that nearly every building in calle Simon Bolivar is made of brick ( 150).

28


320              333

73

814       150
29


Damage: staining, bulging, loss of bond
50, 45, 46
Building: iglesia de Santo Domingo ( 59)

Water infiltration caused pull off of the paint ( 338). Moisture staining and bulging initiated this
damage to the surface layer. At first, this damage doesn’t seem to cause further harm. But other beams
suffered from structural instability after rotting of the end of the beam. At all time, contact of structural
wooden elements with water should be prevented. Above this beam, a tiled roof in bad condition is
found.

Damage: visible mould
98
Cause: biological ‐ mould (non‐chlorophyllous)
Building: iglesia Santo Domingo ( 59), iglesia San Francisco ( 114)

The fruitbody of a mould is visible on this painted wooden ceiling ( 344 and 756). The type of mould is
not known and further research is possible, but it is most probably the dangerous Serpula Lacrimans. It
is not easy to treat this wood‐attacking mould, careful removal is recommended.

Damage: rotting and bending
52, 40
Building: iglesia de Santo Domingo ( 59), casa Manosalvos ( 242)

The wooden floor of this church is constantly wet. The source is definitely the ground in direct contact
with the floor. The problem also exists where a cavity between the floor and the ground is made. This is
due to the absence of natural ventilation. Stress concentration by swelling of the wood7 introduced
deformation and bending of the elements ( 1318).

The wood seems to be in a constant wet condition, there is no cyclical drying and wetting. In
combination with the applied wax, there is no contact with the air which declares that there is – at first
surprisingly – no gradual rotting process is found. Other damages will certainly be introduced when
interventions to dry the floor are made.

In casa Manosalvos water penetration has severely deteriorated the wooden bearing structure (
1160). This picture is made at the basement beneath an overloaded and demolished balcony (see page
54).

Damage: disintegration of material
93
Cause: biological ‐ beetle
Building: casa municipal de Gualaceo ( 245)

Beetles were allowed to damage this wooden door as far as you can see through it now ( 615). The
structural stability was investigated in a wooden column ( 2101) by removing the affected parts and
estimating the remaining section. The pops and eggs became visible.


7
Water and high humidity result in frequent wetting and drying cycles, which promote swelling and cracking of
wood (Hughes et al, 2000)

30


338           344           756

1318       1160

615           2101

31


Damage: sanding and erosion of mortar
44, 41
Building: catedral de la Inmaculada ( 25),  iglesia de San Blas ( 1)

The composition of the mortar in the main cathedral ( 1483) is investigated, as well as the
deterioration by mosses (by measuring the pH, see page 34). Where the rain can penetrate, the mortar
is leached or washed away ( 547, reservoir is flooded, see page 38). Water and soiling exist together.
The upper 4 layers are disjointed from the base structure; collapse is possible in the near future (
512). At some places whitish material, most likely precipitated calcite from dissolution of the mortar, is
deposited as well ( 46, mind also the drainage pipe).

Further research: Pointing hardness can be measured with the Schmidt Pointing Hardness tester (PM,
PROCEQ SA, Swiss) providing a measuring head having a cylinder‐like shape (8 mm) and rounded at the
measuring end (MDDS Compass, 2008).

The characterization of mortar can be done by determination of the dry density and porosity (RILEM
CPC 11.3 method) and by microscopical and petrographical analysis (covering optical microscopy, X‐ray
diffraction analysis, SEM‐EDAX…) to determine the type and volume fractions of aggregate, binder and
additions (Compass, 2008).

Damage: softening and erosion of adobe
68, 41
Building: 200 and casa municipal de Gualaceo ( 245)

Adobe has to be protected against excess of water. The main reasons for water infiltration are rain,
splashing, rising damp or high relative humidity. This adobe wall ( 205) is protected against rain water
by brick layers at the top. Splashing and ground or street water rise is not prevented. The deterioration
starts from the foot by softening and erosion of the adobe. In most cases, the foot is protected by
stones, bricks, tiles or a combination ( 673).

Another threat for adobe are the built in drainage pipes. The risks are high and the damage is always
big and the reparations are expensive. In this house, the problem was discovered after softening and
erosion of the adobe wall ( 1483).

32




205           1483

1483        547 46



512        673

33


Damage: conversion
90
Cause: biological – people and animals
Building: catedral de San Blas ( 1), monasterio de Nuestra Señora de
la Concepción ( 99)

People in Cuenca have the bad habit to pee where (small corners are preferred and churches are not
skipped) and when they want. This man was caught on picture in action ( 44). Afterwards, the
powdered brick and eroded mortar is clear together with the remnants of a cross. Also the pavement is
renewed, but affected again. Only the river stone is inert to this attack ( 48).

Prevention: The problem can be solved by installing public toilets or – more effective – by constructing
crosses on high‐risk places ( 270).

Damage: powdering of brick, erosion of mortar
43, 41
Building: catedral de la Inmaculada ( 25)

Regularly rain water is standing in the reservoir, bricks and mortar are severely attacked ( 513, 514).
The whitish deposit can be efflorescence of salts, but also precipitated calcite from the dissolved
mortar.
Powdering of brick will happen faster when the firing has found place at low temperature. This means
that there was only little vitrification and the material was not completely converted into the necessary
glass‐like amorphous solid. The clay particles are only loosely bonded and contact with water will
dissolve them and wash them away.

Damage1: powdering of brick, erosion of mortar
43, 41
Cause1: physical – water
Damage2: efflorescence
63
Cause2: physical – salt
Damage3: erosion
8
Cause3: mechanical – wind
Building: catedral de la Inmaculada ( 25)

This wall (back of the pedestal of Saint Anna’s statue on the main cathedral) is affected clearly by rain
and wind erosion ( 554). Salt efflorescence is also visible and joining the deterioration process. Don’t
mind the green stain at the right; they are caused by corrosion of the statue. The remark on brick
powdering and vitrification in the previous case is also valid in this case.

Damage: scaling (exfoliation), crumbling, efflorescence
59, 56, 63
Cause: physical – salt
Building: iglesia de Santo Domingo ( 59)

The bottom of these tiles is affected by penetration of rain water. Small surface layers are scaled, the
tile is crumbling and efflorescence of the deteriorating salts is visible on the tiles and on the mortar (
1227).

34


44          48             270



513          514



1227          554

35


Damage: Erosion (mortar), powdering (brick), soiling
41, 43, 51, 79
Cause: Combination of air pollution, rain and wind

Some roofs are made of brick masonry comprising brick and mortar (e.g. 59 and 25). The roof of la
catedral de la Inmaculada is entirely exposed to rain since it is unprotected. Mark the difference in
exposure and therefore also brick vulnerability between vertical walls and, in our case, horizontal roofs.

On the other hand, air pollution is a major problem due to the burning of fossil fuels of traffic.
Compared to other South‐American cities (Quito, Sao Paulo, Santiago…) the problem is less severe in
this smaller and relatively isolated city.  Also the high altitude which allows lower octane fuels and thus
lower aromatic components is an advantage. But the problem is bigger than in Europe or other
developed countries. Use of leaded oil, more limited refinery capabilities and not adopted cars are
leading to dangerous exhaust and bad air quality. SO2 and NOx are the primary and most harmful
components (Sollars & Gee, 1997).

First the mortar is leached out; afterwards the bricks can start powdering but generally remain in good
condition ( 482). The influence of orientation of wind and rain is clear ( 1484 where the left side is
exposed and severely attacked unlike the right side). Typical black soiling is occurring at both the bricks
and joints ( 482).

Research: The pH of the soiling deposit is measured ( 1729, resulting in pH 6). A simple pull‐off test is
carried out to determine the state of the bricks by the cohesion and tensile strength ( 2079). Both
tests are carried out by arch. Wilson Pacurucu (Universidad de Azuay). It is also recommended to
investigate the damaging mechanisms more in deep. The concentration of different contaminants in
the air and rain as well as the engine exhausts can be a future thesis topic.

Solution and Prevention: Although soiling is not a structural damage, it is unwanted on one of the
symbols of the city. Cleaning with water under high pressure seems to be the only possibility but not
without danger ( 478, see next case study). Soiling can be prevented on different levels. On national
level legislations for better oil refinement and cars is needed, on local level the city center can be made
car free. Since these long term options are not likely to get implemented soon, prevention with surface
treatments should be considered.

Damage: Incorrect intervention
39
Cause: Maintenance

Since the black soiling is unwanted, high‐pressure water treatment is used to successfully remove it (
478). It is likely that the soiling served as protecting layer for the bricks against weathering processes
which is now lost.  Furthermore the porous bricks are extremely wet and due to the wet climate, it is
impossible to dry profoundly (especially for the second and slow drying period of a brick). Efflorescence
( 2087 and 63) is proving this problem. The planned application of hydro repellent will have a
disastrous effect. The water will evaporate at the interior side of the dome, causing moisture spots and
spalling of the plaster since no effective outside repellent can have a higher diffusion coefficient than
the plaster. The solution is a (temporary) shelter and (natural) ventilation to allow drying.

36


1484 1729

482

2087

478
2079

37


Damage: loss of bond
46
Building: convento de Buen Pastor ( 3), casa de las Palomas ( 74)

Problems with drainage and eaves are very common. The main reasons are broken tiles or drainage
pipes. Traditionally the eaves are built up from wood and finished with reed (carrizo) and (cement or
lime) plaster (see page 42). When (rain) water infiltrates, these materials cannot cope with this; the
reed starts rotting (presence of water and oxygen) and the plaster softens and falls of under its own
load. The examples are plentiful and diverse ( 72, 632).

Damage 1: loss of bond
46
Cause 1: physical – water
Damage 2: bending (deformation)
1
Cause 2: mechanical – overloading
Building: casa de las Palomas ( 74)

Also inside the dwellings, water infiltration causes harm to traditional ceilings from wood, reed and
plaster ( 2140). The plaster comes off and, when badly repaired with cement, suffers from
overloading ( 2160).

Damage 1: loss of bond
46
Cause 1: physical – water
Damage 2: no intervention
39
Cause 2: design – maintenance
Building: casa Eljuri ( 16) and Vieja hospital de Gualaceo ( 247)

Brick ( 102 and other examples 152 and 301).

It is not sure if there was ever an earthen layer (revoque) applied on this bahareque side wall ( 204).
Anyway this protection should have been applied, especially when such small eaves (corrugated steel
plates) are found. Water washes away the earthen layer when exposed to rain. In this case, the primary
and secondary structure of bahareque is visible.

It seems that this bahareque wall was filled. The protecting earthen layer is lost due to a lack of
maintenance. Rain water washed the exposed earthen layer away ( 1956).

38


72 632


      2160
2140

          204
102 1956

39

Damage atlas of historic
cal Cuenca, E
Ecuador (ear
rthen materials)

Damage 1: Choice off material and technnique
36
Cause 1: Design
Damage 2: Staining, loss of bond   50, 46
Cause 2: Physical –
– water
Building: Catedral dde la Inmaaculada ( 25)

The rain fro om the dome es is first collected in triangle reserv voirs ( 17447 and diago onal arrows o on plan),
but these a getting o
are obstructed r regularly resulting in undesired water flowing ( 550). Aft terwards
canals of ro tiles, bricks and cem
oof ment mortar ( 551 and vertical ar
r rrows on pla lead to drainage
an) d
pipes at the e border. Als
so extra rain water from the bows ru uns through tthese underdimensioned d canals.
With both t reservoirs ( 493) and the canals ( 531 and 536) sta
the aining and s
spalling of th inside
he
plaster is occcurring after floods and due to bad c choice of ma aterial.

Figuur 1: R
Roof plan of cat
tedral de la Inm
maculada with indications of ra
ain water flow (
(adapted from Cardenas & Cordero)



40


1747
551

493
531 (and 536)

550

41

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Damage Atlas historical Cuenca

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