The document discusses three current challenges facing rural communities in Europe: 1) brain drain as young people migrate to urban areas for work and education, leaving rural areas with older populations; 2) the dangers of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) for agriculture through potential water and soil contamination; and 3) underpayment of farmers by large retailers who wield significant buyer power. It provides background on these issues and possible solutions like improving internet access, regulating fracking, and establishing codes of conduct between suppliers and retailers.

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FE4416
Current Challenges to Rural Communities across Europe and possible
Solutions to those Challenges.
By Dirk Fleischheuer
111719999

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Introduction:
In thisessayI will discussthree currentissuesthatare of concernto the rural communitiesacross
the EuropeanUnion. The examplesIpickedare mainlyfromIrelandandGreatBritainbutare not
unique tothose areas.The discussedissues andchallenges are:The “braindrain”of rural areas,the
dangersof hydraulicFrackingto agriculture andthe underpaymentof agricultural goodsproducers.I
put a slightlystrongerfocusonthe latterissue while alsoincludingsome possiblesolutionstothe
discussed matters.Ialsoprovidedashortconclusiontoeachdiscussionandanoverall conclusion
withrecommendations astohowrural communitiescanovercome the discussedchallenges.
“Brain drain” in rural areas due to the prevailing migrations patterns:
Definitionof braindrain:“The lossof skilledintellectual andtechnical labourthroughthe movement
of suchlabourto more favourable geographic,economic,orprofessionalenvironments.”(The Free
Dictionary,2014)
Rural areasare commonlycharacterisedbythe out-migrationof youngadults.Thisisdue to
employmentand/ortertiaryeducationopportunitiesinurbancentres.Olderage groupsare those
more likelytomigrate inthe reverse directionasemploymentopportunitiesbecomelessrelevant at
or aroundretirementage.(Stockdale&Catney,2012) Thistrendisreflectedinthe age-profile of the
rural populationacrossthe EU whichconsistsof a highernumberof olderpeople andpeople aged
10 -19 but lesspeopleof workingage.(Eurostat,2013) Basedon the analysisof a EuropeanQuality
of Life Studycarriedoutin2003 ShucksmithconcludedthatthroughoutEurope the educational
levelsof people livinginrural areasare lowerthanthose livinginurbanareas.In rural Europe 23% of
people onlyhadprimaryeducation(18%inurbanEurope) andonly13% had a Universitydegree
(22% urban).Thishowevercouldalsobe causedbythe lowerrelevance of thirdleveleducationfor
the majorityof rural employmentopportunities.( Shucksmith, 2007) The above data seemsto
suggestthatthere is a braindrainoccurring inthe rural areas of Europe,especiallywhentakinginto
account that rural areas have much higheremigrationfiguresthanurbanareaswithPortugal and
Irelandbeingthe hardesthitcountriesinEurope.(UCC,2013) While rural-urbanmigrationcanbe
explainedthroughbetteremploymentandeducationopportunitiesinurbanareas,urbanto rural
migrationisoftenexplainedbythe attractivenessof the rural idylliclandscape.BilkerandHaartsen
howeverargue thata more diverse conceptualisationof urban-rural migrationisnecessaryasthere

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are differencesinpopularityamongrural areasformigrationpurposes.Influencingfactorsare,
amongothers, the proximityto urbancentres andcertainlandscape featuressuchasbeachesor
coasts.(Bijker&Haartsen,2012) In the case of migrationfromthe more wealthycountriesof Europe
to rural areasof southernEurope the climate isalsoaninfluencingfactor.(Stone &Stubbs,2007)
Othermotivesincludelivingclosertofriendsandfamilyandlowerhousingcosts.StudiesinSweden
showedthatthe peri-urbancountrysides are more attractive topeople aged19 -40 years,people
withuniversityeducationandhigh-income earnerswhile more remote areasare more popular
amongpeople aged61 or older.(Bijker&Haartsen,2012) Anotherportionof urban-rural migrants
are the “lifestyle-migrants”made upbypeople movingintorural areasforself-employmentand
retirementwhile simultaneouslywantingtoenjoythe idyllicrural landscape. The economicbenefit
to rural areasthroughsuch lifestyle-migrantsisminimal. (Stockdale &MacLeod,2013)
The EuropeanNetworkforRural Development (ENRD) hasidentifiedthreemainareasof
interventiontopromote social inclusioninrural areas.These interventionsshouldarguablyalso
combat the braindrainof rural Europe:The facilitationof diversification tocreate new small
enterprisesandnewjobs.The promotionof local developmentinrural areas.The improvementof
InformationandCommunicationTechnology(ICT) inrural areasintermsof accessibility,qualityand
usage.(ENRD,2014)
In general itcouldbe saidthat urbanareas will alwaysbe more attractive tolarge scale international
and national employers.Likewiseitisnotto be expectedthatanyUniversitieswillbe movingtorural
areas.Howeverthe lossof skilledintellectual andtechnical labourcancertainlybe minimised
throughthe promotionof social inclusioninrural development. The improvementof ICTinrural
areas seemstobe a keypointinstoppingsome of the braindrain inrural Europe. Highspeed
internetaccesswill enable businesseswhichdonotrelyona face to face interactionwithits
customerstoset upand stay inrural areas.By doingso,those businessescanbenefitfromlower
businesscostsaswell aslowercostsof livingfortheiremployees.Additionally,the provisionof high
qualityICTwill enable more peopletoworkfromhome and spendmore moneyinthe local
economy.

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The dangers of Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking) to agriculture.
Frackingis “the processof injectingliquidsathighpressure intosubterraneanrocks,boreholes,etc,
so as to force openexistingfissuresandextractoil orgas.” (OxfordDictionary,2014) More detailed
descriptionsof the Frackingprocessanditspotential benefitsonenergyproductionare widely
documented elsewhere;the potential impacts onagriculture howeverinclude watercontamination
(surface andunderground,) soil contaminationandavarietyof otherenvironmental,socialand
economicimpacts. Thisisparticularlyworrisomeaspotential impactson agriculture are not
localised.Agriculturalproduce fromareaswhere Frackingisundertakenmaybe transportedtoother
regions nationallyaswell asinternationallywhile environmentaldegradationof the aquifer,soilor
air doesnotstop at the farm where itoccurred. Thiscouldleadto a situationwhere neighboring
farmswhichdidnot benefitfromFracking(throughroyaltiesorlandsales) couldstill sufferfromthe
negative impacts,maytheybe real orperceived.(Beng,2014) Concernsregardinghumanhealthcan
be directlylinkedtothe risksposedtoagriculture throughFrackingasreportsfromthe US show.In
the oil-richandmostlyrural communitiesinthe USthe contaminationof drinkingwellsthrough
Frackingfluidshasledtoa reportedincrease inrespiratory problems,rashesandnosebleedsamong
the populationandanunusuallyhighnumberof cattle deaths.Farmerswhose personal healthswere
alsoaffectedreportedanimprovementof theirconditionsaftertheystoppedeatingproduce from
theirownfarms.(Royte,2012) The potential contaminationof the groundwatercanoccur at several
stagesof the FrackingprocessandFrackingliquids cancontainwell over300 chemicalswhichcould
have respiratory,dermatological,neurotoxicand,amongothers, carcinogeniceffects.Consumer
awarenessof potential waterand/orsoil contaminationcausedbyFrackingcouldleadto
unwillingnesstobuyandconsume agricultural produce fromfarmsnearFrackingoperations. This
will particularlyhurtsmallerfarmerswholackthe financial meansforenvironmentalcleanupsand
/or extendedlawsuitsagainstoil andgascompanies.(Beng,2014) Unfortunatelythere are atthe
momentnobindingEU-wide lawsregardingthe regulationof Fracking inorderto protectagainst
watercontaminationandotherdangers.Insteaditislefttoeachindividual memberstate toregulate
the industryandto decide whetherexistinglegislationissufficient. While Europeanenvironment
commissionerJanezPotočnikthinksthatexistingEUlegislationcontains”cleargaps”whichneedto
be filled,UKprime ministerDavidCameroonthinksthatthe existingrulesare sufficientandwasat
the forefrontof those lobbyingagainsttighterEU-wide regulations. (Carrington,2014)
Giventhe interdependence of Europeanagricultural trade the attitudesdisplayedbythe opponents
of EU-wide lawsstemmingfromanarguable inclinationtofavourenergyproductionoverfood
productionseemstobe short-sightedandworrisome.

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Under payment of farmers for agricultural produce.
In August2014 some hundredIrishFarmersstagedanation-wide protestoverongoingbeefprice
cuts by leadingretailers.Asfarm-gatepricesforcattle have fallenbynearly17% in the last12
monthsleadinguptothe protest,the IrishFarmersAssociation(IFA) haswarnedthatif beef prices
do notimprove withinthe nearfuture alarge numberof Irishfarmerswill nolongerbe able to
survive inthe market.(Sheehan,2014) The farmerswere especiallyfrustratedbecauseintheir
opinionthese price cutscut were notjustifiedasthe beef pricesintheirmainmarketsacrossEurope
and the UK had recentlyrecoveredandstabilised.(Donohoe,2014) Neitherhave theseprice cuts
beenpassedonto the consumerwiththe Irishretail price forbeef onlydecreasingby 0.6%.
(Sheehan,2014) This ledIFA presidentEddieDowneytoaccuse retailersof “unacceptable behaviour
and lackof corporate responsibility.”(Donohoe,2014) InneighbouringBritainitisestimatedthat
that between2000 and 2010, 3000 small tomedium-scale farmershave beenforcedoutof business
or intopovertythroughsuchpractices.(Renton,2011)
The above example highlightsone of the challengescurrentlyfacedbyrural societies:The potential
abuse of buyer-powerbyfoodretailersandthe effects thisabuse hasonitsrural suppliers.This
behaviourispossible becauseof the marketfragmentationonthe upstreamside of agricultural
produce and the small numbersof supermarketscontrollingthe downstreamflowof suchproduce.
In the UK for example fourmajorsupermarketswithacombinedmarketshare of 76% standas
“gatekeepers”between7000 suppliersand25 millionhouseholds.Thissituationgivesmassive
buying,retail andbargainingpowertothe supermarketsandputsthe (rural) suppliersof agricultural
productsat a disadvantage.Furthertothat, rural producersface an array of financial abusesthrough
retailerssuchas“listingfees”,threatof “de-listing”,“slottingfees”andretrospective changesto
previouslyagreedterms.(Nicholson&Young,2012) Retailersonthe otherhanddenyallegationsof
buyer-powerabuse andspeakof a workingcode of practise (Renton,2011); insteadtheyblame the
price cuts on fallingEuropeanprices.(Sheehan,2014) Possible solutionstothese problemsinclude
the appointmentof anombudsmanasan adjudicatorindisputesbetweensuppliersandretailers,
Governmentlegislationenforcingacode of conducton retailers(stronglyopposedbyretailers) orby
supplierssellingmore produce toco-ops.(Renton,2011) Anothersolutionwhichisgaining
increasingpopularityisthe use of farmersmarketsasan outletforagricultural produce.Farmers’
marketsprovide anopportunitytosell locallyproducedfoodandtherebycreatingtiesbetween
farmersand consumers.Consumerswhoregularlybuytheirfood atfarmersmarketsplace great
importance onproductqualitysafetyandfreshness.The farmerwhomeetsthese expectationsgains
nearly100% of the moneythe customerspendsonthe farmersproducts.Thiscan improve farm

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profitabilityandkeeplandinproductiveuse.(Conneretal,2010) Furtherto thatMoroney etal
arguesthat the adaptationof a cooperative structure by(Irish) farmersmarketscanfurtherincrease
the producer/farmersmarketcontrol andthe brand-buildingandsustainabilityof the individual
markets.(Moroneyetal,2009) Sadlythere seemtobe no concrete political strategiestoimplement
or supportEU-wide initiativesthatwouldbe beneficial toagricultural goodsproducers,andin
extensiontothe consumersof these products.
The documentedhighvolume of allegationsof buyer-powerandfinancialabusesof producers
throughretailersmake the explanationsforprice cutsgivenbyretailerssoundsomewhathollow,
especiallywhentheyrefuse acode of conductand the establishmentof anindependentadjudicator.
Thisbehaviourseemsarguablysomewhatshort-sightedasitsacrificeslong-termbusiness
relationshipsforshort-termeconomicgains.Italsojeopardisescustomerloyaltyasproducersmay
feel forcedtocut cornersand mayimplementsavingsthatcouldseriouslyaffectproductqualityand
safetyas witnessedrepeatedlyduringrecentfoodscandals.Farmerswill have topresentanunited
and well organisedfrontinordertostandup successfullyagainstfinancial abusesandunreasonable
demandsfromfoodretailers.The organisationof farmersinco-opstructurescannegate the
negative effectsof producerfragmentationandstrengthentheirhandinthe demandfor
governmentlegislationregardingacode of conduct forretailers.Furtherto thatincreased
collaborationamongfarmerscanopenupalternative waysof bringingproduce tothe consumers,
while atthe same time sharingthe financial burdenassociatedwithsuchundertakings.
Conclusion
The problems andchallengesforrural communitiesacrossEurope whichIlistedabove are certainly
worrisome andcouldpresentseriousobstaclesinasuccessful rural developmentprocess.Itseems
evenmore worrisome that there are noclear governmental-strategiestothe challengesof Fracking
and under-paymentof farmers.Onthe thirdsubject,the ongoingbraindrainof rural Europe the
ENRD has introducedcertainmeasurements;the implementationof these measurementshowever
islargelylefttothe individualstates.Inthe case of Irelandthe recommendedimprovementof ICT
serviceshasarguablybeenratherslow.Itseemsthatthe rural populationwill be betteradvisednot
to relyongovernmentinitiativesbuttotake mattersintotheirownhandsand tackle the challenges
throughan increasedbottom-updevelopmentapproach.Thismeansincreasednetworkingand
organisationamongthe communitiesanditsmembers.Rural communitiesneedtodisplayanunited
frontif theywant to fightFrackingoperationsintheirlocal areas.The organisationinco-operative

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structurescan give farmersandagricultural producersthe negotiatingpowertogetbetterdealsfor
theirproduce.The improvementof ICTinrural areascouldalso be drivenforwardthroughorganised
local initiativesandthe foundationof anICT-servicesco-opmaywell be analternative toprivate
providers.Collaborationandcommunicationamongthose affectedare the keyingredientsin
masteringthe challengesfacedbyrural communitiesacrossEurope.

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