Culture Table Instructions: Complete the following table for your chosen culture. Be sure to cite and reference necessary sources according to APA format, using the last page for your reference list. Name: ______________________________________________________________________ Chosen Culture: _______________________________________________________________ General Overview of Chosen Culture The history of Indian culture dates back at least 4,500 years, making it one of the globe's oldest civilizations. In the seven-nation South Asian Subcontinent, India occupies the greatest portion. The total population of this culture is about 1.3 billion (Zimmermann & Gordon, 2022). Approximately 80% of Indian culture is Hindu, with the remaining percentage comprising various religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism, and Parsis. Different sects of Hinduism hold varying philosophical views and worship different deities. Karma, the rule of conduct and repercussions according to which one's deeds in their past life(s) influence the situations in which they are born and live, is a common element of the Indian culture that influences health choices and communications between the patients, their relatives, and their providers. Consequently, the patient may attribute their condition to karma. There are two significant groups of Indian culture languages, the Indo-Aryan dialects spoken in the north and the Dravidian dialects in the south. Although Hindi is the most common language among Indo-Aryans, there are many more languages spoken by this group. Approximately a third of the population speaks it as their native tongue; English is widely taught as a second dialect and is the de facto international business-standard. Within the Indian culture, membership in a particular group is more important than their individuality when determining who they are. Families are strongly influenced by patriarchal ideologies (fathers as leaders of the families), the patrilineal law of succession, and conventional gender role preferences. There is a clear divide between male and female responsibilities within the families in the Indian culture. Women run the household and handle all the money, familial, and social matters. Most of the time, men are the primary breadwinners and in charge of community-based endeavors like health care, which necessitate engagement with public members. Institutions like tribes, caste, religions, and marriages are part of India's complex social system. It is estimated that 70% of Indians are of Indo-Aryan ancestry, 26% are Dravidian, 4% are Mongoloid, and 2% are of other ancestries (Shekhar Singh, 2019). There are four tiers of society according to The Caste. The Brahmans, or priests, make up the uppermost caste. Sudras, the working class, are the lowest social stratum. Before visiting a temple, it is customary in Indian culture to purify oneself by bathing or at the very least washing one's hands and feet. This is done to rid ones ...

1. Culture Table
Instructions: Complete the following table for your chosen
culture. Be sure to cite and reference necessary sources
according to APA format, using the last page for your reference
list.
Name:
_____________________________________________________
_________________
Chosen Culture:
_____________________________________________________
__________
General Overview of Chosen Culture
The history of Indian culture dates back at least 4,500 years,
making it one of the globe's oldest civilizations. In the seven-
nation South Asian Subcontinent, India occupies the greatest
portion. The total population of this culture is about 1.3 billion
(Zimmermann & Gordon, 2022). Approximately 80% of Indian
culture is Hindu, with the remaining percentage comprising
various religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Sikhism,
Jainism, and Parsis. Different sects of Hinduism hold varying
philosophical views and worship different deities. Karma, the
rule of conduct and repercussions according to which one's
deeds in their past life(s) influence the situations in which they
are born and live, is a common element of the Indian culture
that influences health choices and communications between the
patients, their relatives, and their providers. Consequently, the
patient may attribute their condition to karma.

2. There are two significant groups of Indian culture languages,
the Indo-Aryan dialects spoken in the north and the Dravidian
dialects in the south. Although Hindi is the most common
language among Indo-Aryans, there are many more languages
spoken by this group. Approximately a third of the population
speaks it as their native tongue; English is widely taught as a
second dialect and is the de facto international business-
standard.
Within the Indian culture, membership in a particular group is
more important than their individuality when determining who
they are. Families are strongly influenced by patriarchal
ideologies (fathers as leaders of the families), the patrilineal
law of succession, and conventional gender role preferences.
There is a clear divide between male and female responsibilities
within the families in the Indian culture. Women run the
household and handle all the money, familial, and social
matters. Most of the time, men are the primary breadwinners
and in charge of community-based endeavors like health care,
which necessitate engagement with public members.
Institutions like tribes, caste, religions, and marriages are part
of India's complex social system. It is estimated that 70% of
Indians are of Indo-Aryan ancestry, 26% are Dravidian, 4% are
Mongoloid, and 2% are of other ancestries (Shekhar Singh,
2019). There are four tiers of society according to The Caste.
The Brahmans, or priests, make up the uppermost caste. Sudras,
the working class, are the lowest social stratum. Before visiting
a temple, it is customary in Indian culture to purify oneself by
bathing or at the very least washing one's hands and feet. This
is done to rid oneself of any evil ideas or forces affecting them.
Dressing appropriately, specifically in a manner that shows
respect by displaying modesty, is of the utmost significance.
Values and Beliefs that Impact Health Care
· Indians have perfected the art of healthy lifestyles for
thousands of years through their devotion to vegetarianism,

3. yoga, and Ayurvedic medicine.
· Pain and suffering are seen as natural results of karma in the
Indian culture.
· Death and disease are simply parts of life, and the timing of
one's passing is up to fate.
· Neither euthanasia nor physician-assisted suicide is advocated.
· Blood transfusions are permitted.
· The extended use of artificial life support in vegetative states
for patients near death is not recommended.
(Zimmermann & Gordon, 2022)
· Organ donation and transplantation are legal.
· An autopsy is allowed.
· Except for specific medical circumstances, abortion is not
recommended.
· There is no practice of circumcising newborn boys.
· The use of genetic engineering to find treatments for diseases
is permitted.
· The evil eye is a powerful belief in Indian culture, and some
people attribute mental disease to it.
· Mental disease, along with all other forms of sickness, is
attributed to karma incurred in this or former life.
(Pande, 2017)
Nursing Approaches and Considerations
· Indian culture considers a person to be made up of their mind,
soul, and body, all of which interact with their immediate
surroundings (including their families, culture, and
surroundings). Therefore, the family, social groups (caste), and
surroundings are integral to the individual's identity. Because of
this, nursing interventions should take into account the patient
as a whole.
· An integral part of providing medical treatment in Indian
culture is listening to the patient's wishes and respecting them.
Local traditions in various parts of India may differ, and a
client's traditions must be respected.
· A large number of Indian ladies decorate their foreheads with
a red dot. This indicates that they are married. Additional

4. marriage indications include necklaces, or bracelets, which the
Indian culture requires that they are not removed (Zimmermann
& Gordon, 2022). If the patient's jewellery needs to be removed
for whatever reason, they should be informed beforehand. The
hospital's policy for handling patients must be adhered to at all
times.
· Modesty and privacy are highly valued in Indian culture. It is
therefore important to put in place considerations for women to
get checked by female physicians.
· The sacred thread, given to a child at the Upanayna rite when
he is twelve and thirteen, may be worn by some males in the
Indian culture. At all times, one should have the sacred thread
wrapped around their body (Pande, 2017). Before removing the
sacred thread, the person needs to be consulted about their
wishes.
· Religious Indians may choose to keep a photo, books, or
prayer beads in their hospital rooms. They may also wish to
play religious music, which should be considered to ensure
better healthcare outcomes.
Alignment to Christian Worldview
The best way to care for an Indian patient is to inquire about
their religious and spiritual preferences. Indian culture is
enormous and incredibly varied in its representation. Since
customs and practices differ from one household to another and
one culture to another, it is impossible to define such customs
and preferences (Zimmermann & Gordon, 2022). To offer
proper care, health professionals should discuss various subjects
with their clients, including dietary requirements, astrological
opinions, bathing and purification, and prayers and meditation.
Focusing on providing comprehensive care to all patients of the
Indian culture, clinics and other medical institutions must
provide for their client's spiritual and emotional requirements.
Healthcare facilities need to have chaplains available for
patients and their loved ones. As spiritual leaders and
representatives of various faiths, chaplains draw from
psychological and spiritual tenets in their work. A chaplain's

5. duties may include counselling patients and staff members of all
faiths, praying with those who ask, and simply being there for
anyone who needs someone to talk to.
References
Pande, S. (2017). Indian Symbolism: Symbols as Sources of our
Customs and Beliefs. Indian Historical Review, 26(2), 181-184.
https://doi.org/10.3477/037698361702600210
Shekhar Singh, M. (2019). Book Review: Uwe Skoda and Birgit
Lettmann, eds. 2018. India and its Visual Cultures: Community,
Class and Gender in a Symbolic Landscape. Contributions to
Indian Sociology, 53(3), 466-468.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0069966719860369
Zimmermann, K., & Gordon, J. (2022). Indian Culture:
Traditions and Customs of India. livescience.com. Retrieved 11
August 2022, from https://www.livescience.com/28634-indian-
culture.html#:~:text=Some%20estimates%2C%20such%20as%2
0those,largely%20of%20South%20Asian%20descent).
2014
_____________________________________________________
_______
School of Nursing
Na CJ – 643-50-4228 THEORIES OF CRIME AND
DELINQUENCY FALL 2022

6. University of Louisville - Department of Criminal Justice
Dr. Viviana Andreescu
Office: 212B Brigman Hall; Email:[email protected]
Office hours: By appointment (to schedule an online meeting
or a phone conversation, please contact me via email)
Course Description
This is a core graduate-level course in Criminal Justice. The
course examines the major theories of crime and delinquency,
the psychological and sociological factors related to criminal
behavior, and the role of theory in preventing and controlling
crime. The relationship between social institutions and
antisocial behavior will be also discussed in this class.
Course Objectives & Educational Goals
· To help students gain an advanced understanding of the major
crime and delinquency theories, critical aspects included
· To discuss the policy implications of different criminological
theories
· To increase the students’ level of proficiency in written and
verbal communication when applying major theories of crime
and delinquency to real life situations
· To provide students with a set of skills that would enable them
to examine, analyze, and explain different aspects of criminal
behavior
· To increase the students’ ability to critically assess published
materials focusing on crime and delinquency
· To encourage students to think comprehensively about the
solution of social problems, crime and delinquency included
· To provide knowledge that students can use in other courses in
the curriculum and in their professional practice
Required Readings:
Books:

7. Miller, J.M., Schreck, C., Tewksbury, R. & Barnes, J.C. (2015).
Criminological Theory: A Brief Introduction. Fourth Edition.
Boston, MA: Prentice Hall.
Journal articles and book chapters*:
Andreescu, V. (2019a). Gender differences and patterns of
arrest across two generations of Cuban immigrants in United
States. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 17(2), pp. 133-
168. DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2019.1593910.
Andreescu, V. (2019b). Family, school, and peer influences on
alcohol abstinence and use among American Indian and white
female adolescents. Deviant Behavior, 40(1), 56-73.
DOI:10.1080/01639625.2017.1411032
Andreescu, V. & Vito, G. F. (2021) Strain, negative emotions
and turnover intentions among American police managers.
Policing: An International Journal (online first), pp. 1-15. DOI:
10.1108/PIJPSM-01-2021-0014
Barnes, J. C., Boutwell, B. B., & Beaver, K. M. (2016).
Contemporary biosocial criminology: A systematic revi ew of
the
literature, 2000-2012. In A. R. Piquero (Ed.), The handbook of
criminological theory (pp. 75-99). Oxford, UK: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Kaminski, R.J. (2008). Assessing the county-level covariates of
police homicides. Homicide Studies, 12(4),,350-380.
Kubrin, C. E. & Wo, J. C. (2016). Social disorganization
theory’s greatest challenge: Linking structural characteristics to
crime in socially disorganized communities. In A. R. Piquero
(Ed.), The handbook of criminological theory (pp. 121-136),

8. Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Leukfeldt, E. R. & Yar , M. (2016) Applying Routine Activity
Theory to Cybercrime: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis,
Deviant Behavior, 37(3), 263-280, DOI:
10.1080/01639625.2015.1012409
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-
persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy.
Psychological Review, 100(4), 674-701.
Vazsonyi, A. T., Mikuska, J., & Kelley, E. L. (2017). It’s time:
A meta-analysis on the self-control deviance link. Journal of
Criminal Justice, 48, 48-63.
*For your convenience, copies of these articles/book chapters
have been posted on Blackboard at Course Documents.
Class Format & Course Requirements:
This is an online course (see http://blackboard.louisville.edu/).
Announcements, lecture summaries, additional course materials,
and class performance results will be posted on Blackboard.
You will be enrolled in this class on the U of L Blackboard
platform. When accessing Bb from home, the recommended
browser is Internet Explorer 6.0 – 8.0. Once you log on based
on your U of L user ID and password, you will select this
course and will be able to open any section listed on the menu
bar on the left side of your screen. You should contact the
instructor if you need assistance.
Students will work through the assigned reading materials, will
take two exams and will write an analytic review of one of the
assigned journal articles (approx. 1500-2000 words). The exams
will include multiple choice and false/true questions. You may

9. retake once both exams and the highest grade will be recorded.
The exams will be available until the last day of class. The
questions you need to address in your critical review are listed
on page 5 of the syllabus. In addition to your name, course
number, and semester, this short paper has to include the
complete reference for the work you are reviewing and
additional references, if used within the text. The paper will be
graded on the basis of organization and completeness, use of
proper grammar, spelling, and syntax; and proper citation of the
literature. Useful references are: Turabian’s A Manual for
Writers, or the most recent Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (APA) (a summary file is included at
Course Content). It is essential for the successful outcome of
this course that readings and homework assignments be
completed in a timely manner.
As members of the University community and as future
members of the criminal justice profession, you need to set and
to maintain the highest standards of conduct. Please note that
all University policies regarding cheating and plagiarism will be
strictly followed. Papers/exams/written assignments must be
your original work. You may not use reproductions, work
completed by someone else, or purchased work. Students are
expected to take the exams, to complete the reading and written
assignments (i.e., critical review) as scheduled. Only medically
certifiable illness or other equally serious, provable
emergencies constitute acceptable grounds for failure to
complete appropriate course requirements on time.
Feel free to contact me via email with any questions or
concerns. I will do my best to answer your emails as soon as
possible. However, if you don’t hear back from me within 24
hours (Monday – Friday), it means I did not receive your note
or your email did not follow the basic email etiquette rules. For
your information, see: https://www.wikihow.com/Email-a-
Professor . If this is the case, please resubmit your message.

10. Extra credit opportunities
0. Students willing to improve their grades may participate in
one or two discussion forums, which will become available
during the first week of class. For participating in any of them
you may receive up to 5 bonus points [up to 10 bonus points for
participating in both forums] that will be added to the
exam/exams with the lowest grade(s). You may post your
comments until October 13th , 2022 In order to access the
discussion forums, you may select from Discussion Forum,
which is located below Course Documents on the course menu.
A general discussion forum will be available as well; it will
allow you to introduce yourself to your classmates and
exchange information related to the course materials. Although
you will not receive credit for participating in this forum, your
participation is encouraged.
0. Students will find at Assignments a short Student
Questionnaire. Upon completion during the first two weeks of
class, they will receive 3 bonus points to be added to one of the
exams.
0. Completion of course evaluations. Students may receive 3
bonus points to be added to one of the exams or to the written
assignment [if the exam grades are higher than 100] for
completing the course evaluation in a timely manner. In order to
receive the bonus points, students will have to take a snap shot
[with a cell phone] of the U of L page confirming they
completed the student evaluation for this course. The course
number and your name should appear on that page. Students
will attach a page saved on their computer to the corresponding
file that can be found at Assignments on Blackboard.

11. Grading:
40% Analytic review (AR); 30% Exam 1 (E1); 30% Exam 2
(E2); GRADE = .40AR + .30E1 + .30E2
A+ [98-100] A [94-97]; A- [90-93]; B+ [87-89]; B [84-86]; B-
[80-83]; C+ [77-79]; C [74-76]; C- [70-73]; D+ [67-69]; D [64-
66]; D- [60-63]; F [< 60]. Letter grades assigned to exams and
papers will be converted to points (e.g., A+ [100], A [95], A-
[92], B+[88], B[85], B-[82], C+[78], C[75], C-[72], D+[68],
D[65], D-[62], F[0].
CRIMINAL JUSTICE
HONOR CODE
As members of the University community and as future
members of the criminal justice profession, we recognize the
need to set and to maintain the highest standards of conduct.
The University of Louisville has set minimum standards of
conduct in various policy statements including, but not limited
to, the Code of Student Conduct and the Code of Student Rights
and Responsibilities. The standards of academic conduct
established by the University of Louisville, as well as those
established by this document, shall constitute the Honor Code
and shall be applicable to all students in the Department of
Criminal Justice at the University of Louisville.
STANDARDS OF CONDUCT
A student who violates any standard of academic conduct
established by the University of Louisville policy may be
disciplined under this Honor Code. The Department of Criminal
Justice will take action against students who violate any
standard of academic conduct. This shall include a
determination of whether the student is fit to continue as a
Criminal Justice Administration major and to receive a
recommendation for future criminal justice employment,
University policies governing non-academic conduct normally
are administered by the Vice President for Student Affairs.
However, the Department of Criminal Justice also retains the

12. right to determine whether a student who has violated non-
academic conduct standards is fit to continue as a Justice
Administration major and to receive a recommendation for
future criminal justice employment.
Any student who commits or attempts to commit any of the
following violations of academic honesty will be disciplined
under this code using the conditions set forth in the Student
Handbook Code of Student Rights and Responsibilities, which
sets a maximum sanction of expulsion from the University.
(NOTE: The term ‘academic exercise' in the following
definition includes all forms of work submitted for academic
credit hours.)
· Cheating: Intentionally using or attempting to use
unauthorized materials, information, or study aids in an
academic exercise.
· Fabrication: Intentional and unauthorized falsifications or
invention of any information or citation in any information or
citation in an academic exercise.
· Facilitating Academic Dishonesty: Intentio nally or knowingly
helping or attempting to help another violate a provision of the
University or school code of academic integrity or failure to
report a violation of the Honor Code.
· Plagiarism: The deliberate adoption or reproduction of ideas
or words or statements of another person as one’s own without
acknowledgement.
· Vandalism and Theft: Intentionally mutilating, defacing,
destroying, removing, or unlawfully taking University property
to include library materials, computer hardware or software.
· Students knowing of a violation of this Honor Code shall:
· Report the violation to the instructor if the violation is limited
to acts within a specific course.
· Report the violation to the Chair of the department if the
violation(s) involve(s) multiple courses, or the vandalism of
University property, or activities that have implications and
consequences beyond the scope of a single course.
DISABILITIES STATEMENT

13. The University of Louisville is committed to providing access
to programs and services for qualified students with disabilities.
Students with disabilities, who need reasonable modifications to
successfully complete assignments and otherwise satisfy course
criteria, are encouraged to meet with the instructor as early in
the course as possible to identify and plan specific
accommodations. If you are a student with a disability and
believe you require accommodation to participate in and
complete requirements for this class, contact the Disability
Resource Center (Robbins Hall, 852-6938) for verification of
eligibility and determination of specific accommodations.
Students may be asked to supply a letter from the Disability
Resource Center or other documentation, which will assist in
modification planning.
SEXUAL MISCONDUCT
Title IX/Clery Act Notification
Sexual misconduct (including sexual harassment, sexual assault,
and any other nonconsensual behavior of a sexual nature) and
sex discrimination violate University policies. Students
experiencing such behavior may obtain confidential
supportfrom the PEACC Program (852-2663), Counseling
Center (852-6585), and Campus Health Services (852-6479). To
report sexual misconduct or sex discrimination, contact the
Dean of Students (852-5787) or University of Louisville Police
(852-6111).
Disclosure to University faculty or instructors of sexual
misconduct, domestic violence, dating violence, or sex
discrimination occurring on campus, in a University-sponsored
program, or involving a campus visitor or University student or
employee (whether current or former) is not confidential under
Title IX. Faculty and instructors must forward such reports,
including names and circumstances, to the University’s Title IX
officer.

14. For more information, see the Sexual Misconduct Resource
Guide
(http://louisville.edu/hr/employeerelations/sexual-misconduct-
brochure).
CODE OF STUDENT CONDUCT – U of L / NON-ACADEMIC
MISCONDUCT
The Code of Student Conduct ("The Code") is U of L’s policy
regarding non-academic misconduct of students and student
organizations. Academic dishonesty is not covered by this Code,
but rather falls within the authority of the individual academic
units of the University. Students have the responsibility to
follow all regulations outlined in this policy. Effective 8/8/2017
http://louisville.edu/dos/students/codeofconduct
Analytic review of a journal article
Your task is to conduct a critical evaluation of one of the peer -
reviewed journal articles assigned for this class (the list is
provided below and, for your convenience, pdf copies of these 5
articles (see the list below) are posted on Bb at Course
Documents]. You may not select a different article to review.
This exercise will help you learn how to extract the most
important information from a scholarly manuscript, an activity
that you should conduct before you start working on a literature
review for your MS thesis or professional paper. Your review
should not be written in an essay format. Copy and paste into
your word document the questions listed below and answer each
of them carefully. Your review should have approximately
1,500 – 2,000 words (or more, if necessary), should be single-
spaced, and should include a title page with your name, course
number, and semester. A list of references should be added after
you answer the last question. A complete reference for the

15. article you are reviewing should be included; if additional
works are used, you should include them in your list as well.
References should be listed using the 7th edition of the APA
style. The paper should be saved in Word [e.g., AR_Misha
Miller.doc or AR_Misha Miller.docx]. The paper should be
posted at Assignments on Bb by the end of the day Sunday,
10/02/2021.
1. What are the authors’ main research question(s) (what is the
paper about?
2. What theory/theories has/have been tested? Briefly describe
the theory/theories; make sure you identify and define the main
concepts of the theory/theories tested in the study. Indicate who
formulated the theory and when; proper references should be
included in the list of references.
3. Give details regarding the methodology used to test
empirically a particular theory, such as sample selection, type
of sample, date of data collection, main variables used in the
analysis, appropriateness of measures, and statistical procedures
used to analyze the data.
4. Identify the main research findings and indicate if the
theory/theories is/are supported by empirical evidence. How do
these results compared to those obtained in other studies that
examined similar issues? [Are results consistent with other
studies or not?] Note: your answers to question #4 represent
the most important part of your review and you should provide
sufficient details, so a person not familiar with the study would
be able to understand not only what the paper is about, but also
what the researchers found]
5. Do you find the authors’ arguments persuasive (did the
arguments fit the evidence)? Why or why not?
6. Can you think of any counterarguments that would
contradict/weaken the authors’ main argument? You may refer
to other readings covered in this class or in other classes.
7. What were the main limitations of the study? [usually,

16. authors discuss the study limitations in the final section of their
paper]
8. What did the article add to your knowledge of the subject?
Did you enjoy the reading? Why or why not?
9. In your opinion, what was the main contribution of this
article to the literature on crime and deviance?
10. What are the implications for criminal justice policy that
can be derived from this article?
11. References
· Review critically only one of the following peer-reviewed
journal articles*:
1. Andreescu, V. (2019a). Gender differences and patterns of
arrest across two generations of Cuban immigrants in United
States. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 17(2), pp. 133-
168. DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2019.1593910.
2. Andreescu, V. (2019b). Family, school, and peer influences
on alcohol abstinence and use among American Indian and
white female adolescents. Deviant Behavior, 40(1), 56-73. DOI:
10.1080/01639625.2017.1411032.
3. Andreescu, V. & Vito, G. F. (2021) Strain, negative emotions
and turnover intentions among American police managers.
Policing: An International Journal (online first), pp. 1-15. DOI:
10.1108/PIJPSM-01-2021-0014
4. Kaminski, R.J. (2008). Assessing the county-level covariates
of police homicides. Homicide Studies, 12(4),,350-380.
5. Leukfeldt, E. R. & Yar , M. (2016) Applying Routine
Activity Theory to Cybercrime: A Theoretical and Empirical
Analysis, Deviant Behavior, 37:3, 263-280, DOI:
10.1080/01639625.2015.1012409

17. Tentative Course Schedule Fall 2021[footnoteRef:1]
[08/22/2022 – 10/12/2022] [1: The
instructor reserves the right to make changes in the syllabus and
course schedule when necessary to meet learning objectives.]
Topics & Reading Assignments
Suggested timeline & important dates[footnoteRef:2] [2:
Although you may work at your own pace, suggested dates for
the completion of readings are also included. ]
Theoretical Criminology: An Introductory Overview [Miller et
al., 1-12] + ppt summary lecture
8/22/2022
Classical & Neoclassical Theory in Criminology [Miller et al.,
13-26] + ppt summary lecture
8/25/2022
Biosocial Theories of Crime [Miller et al., 27-48; Barnes et al.,
2016] + ppt summary lecture
8/30/2022
Psychological Theories of Crime – Developmental/Life Course
Theories [Miller et al., 52-75; Andreescu, 2019a; Moffitt, 1993]
+ ppt summary lecture
9/2/2022
The Social Ecology of Crime. Social Disorganization Theory
and Routine Activities Theory [Miller et al., 78-97; Kaminski,
2008; Kubrin & Wo, 2016; Leukfeldt & Yar, 2016] + ppt
summary lecture
9/6/2022
Exam 1 (will cover book chapters 1-5 (see Miller et al.) and the

18. assigned readings). The exam is posted at Course documents.
You may retake this exam once, later, until the end of the
course. The highest grade will be recorded.
You may take the exam (1st attempt) at any time until
09/11/2022, end of the day
Learning and Cultural Transmission Theories of Crime [Miller
et al., 99-117; Andreescu, 2019b] + ppt summary lecture
9/16/2022
Strain Theories of Crime [Miller et al., 120-138; Andreescu &
Vito, 2021] + ppt summary lecture
9/20/2022
Control Theories of Crime [Miller et al., 140-160; Andreescu,
2019b; Vazsonyi, 2017] + ppt summary lecture
9/24/2022
Theories of Social Conflict [Miller et al., 163-183] + ppt
summary lecture
9/28//2022
Analytic review of a journal article due date
You may post your assignment earlier if you wish.
October 2, 2022 by midnight
Exam 2 (will cover book chapters 6-9 (see Miller et al.) and the
assigned readings). The exam is posted at Course documents.
You may retake this exam once, later, until the end of the
course. The highest grade will be recorded.
You may take the exam (1st attempt) at any time until
10/09/2022
Discussion board forums – you may post your answers for extra
credit at any time before the end of the class. Exams (2nd
attempt) by the end of the course.
10/12/2022

19. 1
6
1
Social Disorganization Theory’s Greatest Challenge: Linking
Structural Characteristics to Crime in
Socially Disorganized Communities
Charis E. Kubrin and James C. Wo
The Handbook of Criminological Theory, First Edition. Edited
by Alex R. Piquero. © 2016 John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. [pp. 121 – 136]
Why do some neighborhoods have higher crime rates than
others? What is it about certain communities
that consistently generate high crime rates? These are the
central questions of interest for social
disorganization theory, a macro‐ level perspective concerned
with explaining the spatial distribution of
crime across areas. Social disorganization theory has emerged
as the critical framework for understanding

20. the relationship between community characteristics and crime in
urban areas. According to the theory,
certain neighborhood characteristics – most notably poverty,
residential instability, and racial
heterogeneity – can lead to social disorganization. Social
disorganization, in turn, can cause crime. In this
chapter, we first describe social disorganization theory, laying
out the theory’s key principles and
propositions. We then discuss one of the most serious and
enduring challenges confronting the theory –
identifying and empirically verifying the social interactional
mechanisms that link structural characteristics
of communities, such as poverty and residential instability, to
heightened crime rates in socially
disorganized communities. And finally, we present some
promising new directions for the theory by
discussing several theoretical concepts that may be useful for
scholars interested in identifying and
measuring the theory’s interactional mechanisms; these include
social capital, collective efficacy, and
social networks. We conclude the chapter with some remarks
about one additional important theoretical
direction for social disorganization theory: incorporating the
role of neighborhood subculture in

21. explanations of crime and delinquency.
The origins of social disorganization theory date back to the
early 1900s. In 1929, two researchers from
the University of Chicago, Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay,
began a series of studies using official records
which showed that in the city of Chicago, rates of delinquency,
criminality, and commitment to
correctional institutions varied markedly by area. In particular,
rates were highest in slums near the city
center and diminished as distance from the center of the city
increased, except in areas of industry and
commerce just outside of the central district, which had some of
the highest rates.
Shaw and McKay also found that rates of crime and delinquency
exhibited a remarkable consistent
patterning over many decades; in particular, the spatial pattern
of rates revealed significant long‐ term
stability even though the nationality structure of the population
in the inner‐ city areas changed greatly
over time. Shaw and McKay thus determined that crime and
delinquency were not the result of personal
characteristics of the residents who lived in the neighborhoods
but were tied to the neighborhoods

22. themselves. Since areas of high and low crime and delinquency
maintained their relative positions over
many years, a key theoretical task became to explain the
existence and stability of these area differentials
over time.
A fundamental part of their explanation involved the concept of
social disorganization. Social
disorganization refers to the inability of a community to realize
the common values of its members and
maintain effective social controls. As Kornhauser describes,
“Social disorganization exists in the first
instance when the structure and culture of a community are
incapable of implementing and expressing
the values of its own residents.” (Kornhauser, 1978:63)
According to the theory, a common value among
2
neighborhood residents is the desire for a crime‐ free
community. In essence, then, socially disorganized
neighborhoods are ineffective in combating crime. A socially
organized community is characterized by (1)
solidarity, or an internal consensus on essential norms and
values (e.g., residents want and value the same

23. things, such as a crime‐ free neighborhood); (2) cohesion, or a
strong bond among neighbors (e.g.,
residents know and like one another); and (3) integration, with
social interaction occurring on a regular
basis (e.g., residents spend time with one another).
Conversely, a disorganized community has little solidarity
among residents and lacks social cohesion or
integration. Perhaps the greatest difference between socially
organized and disorganized neighborhoods
is the levels of informal social control in those neighborhoods.
Informal social control is defined as the
scope of collective intervention that the community directs
toward local problems, including crime
(Kornhauser, 1978; Shaw & McKay, 1969). It is the informal,
nonofficial actions taken by residents to
combat crime in their communities, such as, for example, when
residents question persons about
suspicious activity or admonish misbehaving youth and inform
parents of their children’s misconduct. In
essence, residents act as the “eyes and ears” of the community
and their informal surveillance, and even
simple presence, deters others from engaging in crime.
According to the theory, socially disorganized neighborhoods

24. have lower levels of informal social control,
and thus experience higher crime rates when compared to more
socially organized neighborhoods.
Ecological characteristics of neighborhoods influence the
degree of social disorganization in the
community. This is because certain characteristics can impede
the development of social ties that
promote the ability to solve common problems, including crime.
Ecological characteristics of greatest
interest to social disorganization researchers include poverty,
joblessness, population mobility or
turnover, racial composition, and family disruption, among
others. Although community characteristics
such as poverty or residential instability are related to crime,
these factors themselves do not directly
cause crime, according to the theory. That is, ecological
characteristics are related to crime only indirectly
through various neighborhood processes such as informal social
control. As such, poverty, residential
instability, and other ecological characteristics are important in
as much as they affect the mediating
processes of social disorganization. In light of the above
discussion, the basic social disorganization causal
model can be expressed as: neighborhood characteristics →

25. social ties → informal social control → crime.
Sampson describes the processes by which neighborhood
characteristics and crime are associated:
Neighborhood characteristics such as family disorganization,
residential mobility, and structural density
weaken informal social control networks; informal social
controls are impeded by weak local social bonds,
lowered community attachment, anonymity, and reduced
capacity for surveillance and guardianship;
other factors such as poverty and racial composition also
probably affect informal control, although their
influence is in all likelihood indirect; residents in areas
characterized by family disorganization, mobility,
and building density are less able to perform guardianship
activities, less likely to report general deviance
to authorities, to intervene in public disturbances, and to
assume responsibility for supervision of youth
activities; the result is that deviance is tolerated and public
norms of social control are not effective
(Sampson, 1987: 109).
Social Disorganization Theory’s Greatest Challenge
Like all other theories discussed in this volume, there are
ongoing challenges facing social disorganization

26. theory, some of which have been resolved more fully than
others. These challenges have been discussed
3
at length in two important assessments of the theory at different
points in time: Bursik (1988) and Kubrin
& Weitzer (2003). Although these scholars identify several
challenges, perhaps the greatest involves
identifying and measuring the social mechanisms that account
for heightened crime rates in socially
disorganized neighborhoods. Stated alternatively, a major
conceptual limitation of social disorganization
research is the relative lack of attention paid to the processes
that mediate the effect of community
characteristics (see also Byrne & Sampson, 1986).
Given the primitive nature of data analysis during the early
1900s, it is not surprising that scholars were
unable to conduct sophisticated analyses that would allow them
to fully test social disorganization
theory’s arguments. Early Chicago school theorists “tested” the
theory by plotting the spatial distribution
of crime in the city to determine whether it was consistent with
the theory’s predictions, and then

27. correlated characteristics of neighborhoods with crime rates.
Studies were able to document, for
example, that poor, mobile, and racially heterogeneous
neighborhoods had the highest crime rates but
they could not specify the mechanisms (e.g., social ties,
informal social control) accounting for this
relationship. This was problematic, in part, because it did not
allow researchers to rule out competing
theoretical explanations such as strain, which also theorize a
poverty–crime association.
Even decades after the early work of Chicago School
researchers, little progress had been made in this
area. Studies included the “front end” of social disorganization
models, that is, attributes of the
community, as well as the “back end” or crime and delinquency
outcomes, but continued to leave out the
crucial middle, or indicators reflecting how much social
disorganization is occurring in a neighborhood
(Kubrin, Stucky, & Krohn, 2009: 91).
Significant progress was finally achieved with the publication
of Robert Sampson and Byron Groves’ 1989
study, which used data from a large national survey of Great
Britain to formally test social disorganization

28. theory. Sampson & Groves (1989) constructed
community‐ level measures of neighborhoods (e.g., low
socio‐ economic status, ethnic heterogeneity, residential
mobility, family disruption, and urbanization) as
well as the mediating dimensions of social disorganization
(e.g., sparse local friendship networks,
unsupervised teenage peer groups, and low organizational
participation) and determined how both sets
of measures impacted neighborhood crime rates. The findings
were largely supportive of social
disorganization theory: communities characterized by strong
social ties and informal control had lower
rates of crime and delinquency.
Moreover, these dimensions of social disorganization were
found to explain, in large part, the effects of
community structural characteristics on crime rates. This latter
finding was important because it verified
for the first time that the structural conditions themselves do
not influence crime; rather, they are
important only inasmuch as they produce social disorganization.
Despite this progress, only a handful of
studies (e.g., Elliott et al., 1996; Sampson & Groves, 1989;
Warner & Rountree, 1997) have fully
documented the theoretical processes laid out by social

29. disorganization theory. Perhaps more
importantly, the findings we do have from this small but critical
literature suggest these processes may
not be so straightforward. An increasing finding emerging from
the literature is that social ties may not
play the expected role (see Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003: 375–379).
As such, researchers are only beginning to
fully identify, understand, and empirically verify the social
interactional mechanisms that link structural
characteristics to crime in neighborhoods. In an attempt to
address this shortcoming, in part, in the
remainder of the chapter we discuss some promising theoretical
developments for social disorganization
theory.
4
Promising Theoretical Developments
For decades following the early Chicago School studies,
research testing social disorganization theory, by
and large, emphasized the critical role of two theoretical
constructs: social ties and informal social control,
as discussed earlier. In more recent years, however, scholars

30. have begun to introduce additional
theoretical concepts that borrow from – but go well beyond –
social ties and informal social control. These
include collective efficacy, social capital, and social networks.
For the remainder of this chapter, we discuss
these promising new theoretical directions in social
disorganization theory.
Collective efficacy
As noted earlier, Sampson and Groves (1989) incited renewed
interest in social disorganization theory and
its ability to explain variations in community crime rates.
Recall their argument emphasized the formation
and utility of social ties in terms of providing effective social
action (i.e., informal social control) to fight
crime. In recent years, scholars have begun to suggest that
perhaps dense social networks of strong ties
might not be sufficient, in and of themselves, to fulfill social
control functions (Browning et al., 2004;
Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003; Pattillo, 1998; Sampson, 2006,
Sampson et al., 1997, Venkatesh, 2000, 2006).
According to some, what appears to be missing is the key factor
of purposive action, that is, just how ties
are activated and resources mobilized to enhance informal
social control (Sampson et al., 1997). Sampson,

31. Raudenbush, & Earls (1997) address this deficiency in their
formulation of the concept of collective
efficacy, which they define as, “the linkage of mutual trust and
the willingness to intervene for the
common good” (921). As is evident from the definition,
collective efficacy integrates cohesion and mutual
trust among residents with a culturally‐ derived neighborhood
dynamic (i.e., shared expectations for
control). The concept advances previous theorizing by taking
into account mechanisms of social action
that may be facilitated by, but do not necessarily require, an
interconnected network of strong ties
(Sampson, 2006: 152). Since “efficacy” refers to the ability to
achieve a desired effect or outcome, in the
context of the theory, collective efficacy is best conceptualized
as a task‐ specific concept that captures
the perceived ability of a neighborhood to solve crime
problems. Importantly, there are two components
of collective efficacy.
The first component is the willingness of residents to intervene
for the common good of the
neighborhood. Such willingness, according to Sampson and
colleagues (1997), is a necessary precursor for

32. establishing informal social control, or the degree to which
actual behaviors are undertaken by residents
as a means to address and prevent crime. To measure this
component of collective efficacy, or the
willingness to intervene, in a survey (The Project on Human
Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, or
PHDCN Survey), Sampson and colleagues asked 8,782 residents
of 343 neighborhoods in Chicago the
likelihood that their neighbors would intervene in the following
(hypothetical) scenarios: (1) if children
were skipping school and hanging out on a street corner; (2) if
children were spray‐ painting graffiti on a
local building; (3) if children were showing disrespect to an
adult; (4) if a fight broke out in the front of
their house; and (5) if the fire station closest to their home was
threatened with budget cuts. Respondents
answered using a five‐ item Likert‐ type scale. The assumption
is that those neighborhoods that score high
on the collective willingness to intervene scale are more likely
to actually intervene when faced with these
and similar situations, thereby reducing the likelihood for crime
in those communities.
The second component of collective efficacy is the combination
of cohesion and mutual trust. The

33. importance of common values and similar goals among residents
dates back to the earliest social
disorganization research (Park & Burgess, 1925; Shaw &
McKay, 1942). When residents are mostly self‐
5
interested and care little about the community at large, it is
inherently difficult for the neighborhood to
procure resources and to activate social ties to prevent crime.
However, when there is cohesion and
mutual trust among residents, there is a greater likelihood that
residents will acknowledge problems in
the community, will achieve consensus on how to address them,
and will solve the problems in a more
collective fashion. In this sense, cohesion and mutual trust are
precursors to problem solving.
Sampson and colleagues measure this component of collective
efficacy by asking respondents in their
survey the extent to which they agree with the following
statements: (1) people around here are willing
to help their neighbors; (2) this is a close‐ knit neighborhood;
(3) people in this neighborhood can be
trusted; (4) people in this neighborhood generally don’t get

34. along with each other; and (5) people in this
neighborhood do not share the same values.
Not surprisingly, measures of social cohesion and shared
expectations for control were highly correlated
across neighborhoods in Chicago. The two components were
combined to create a summary measure of
collective efficacy.
Sampson and colleagues (1997) contribute to social
disorganization theory in two fundamental ways; first,
they empirically demonstrate that collective efficacy has a
significant negative effect on violent crime, in
line with what social disorganization theory would predict, and
second, they show that associations of
concentrated disadvantage and residential instability with
violent crime are largely mediated by collective
efficacy.
The second contribution is arguably the most significant as it
implies that neighborhood characteristics
are relevant to crime insofar as they produce (or fail to produce)
collective efficacy. In the years since
Sampson and colleagues (1997) introduced the concept, studies
examining collective efficacy in Chicago
and beyond have proliferated. In general, findings from this

35. literature echo what Sampson and colleagues
documented – communities with greater levels of collective
efficacy have lower rates of crime and
violence, controlling for other factors, and that collective
efficacy mediates the effects of ecological
characteristics on crime and violence (Browning 2009;
Browning, Feinberg, & Dietz, 2004; Mazerolle,
Wickes, & Mc Broom, 2010; Sampson & Raudenbush, 1999).
Moreover, given an emphasis on purposive action, the
prevailing assumption has become that the
explanatory power of collective efficacy is not limited to just
certain types of crime or violence. For
example, Browning (2002) examines the impact of collective
efficacy on partner violence. Using Sampson
et al.’s survey data, as well as other data sources, he
demonstrates that collective efficacy has a crime‐
reducing impact on partner violence, independent of individual
and relationship characteristics that
heighten domestic violence risk.
Another study by Dekeseredy, Alvi, & Tomaszewski (2003),
which examines women’s victimization in
Ontario public housing, also documents support for collective
efficacy’s impact. In essence, it is becoming

36. clearer that collective efficacy likely impacts a range of crimes
and delinquent behaviors, as well as other
related outcomes such as social disorder (see, e.g., Sampson &
Raudenbush, 1999).
In recent years, collective efficacy scholars have turned their
attention to the role of peers and the extent
to which parental supervision of teenage peer groups may
matter for crime. Maimon & Browning (2010)
once again utilize PHDCN survey data to identify whether
collective efficacy modifies the effect that
unstructured peer socialization has on violent behavior. Their
multilevel models, involving 842 Chicago
6
residents in 78 neighborhoods, confirm that collective efficacy
has a negative (independent) influence on
violence. More importantly, they find that an “individual’s
unstructured socializing with peers is less likely
to result in violence within high collective efficacy
neighborhoods” (466). Their results provide evidence
that collective efficacy can attenuate the deleterious effects of
other social pressures on crime. Of course
in assessing collective efficacy’s usefulness for social

37. disorganization theory, and impact in the field more
generally, one should consider the concept’s predictive validity
in relation to other correlates of crime –
a task that Pratt & Cullen (2005) undertake in their
meta‐ analysis of macro‐ level crime predictors. Pratt
and Cullen identify over 200 studies from 1960 to 1999 that
have examined the ecological correlates of
crime, and perform a meta‐ analysis to determine which
predictors have strong and stable effects on crime
rates. Their findings reveal that relative to the other predictors,
collective efficacy ranks fourth (out of 23)
in weighted effect size. Sampson (2006) argues this finding
supports the notion that collective efficacy is
a robust predictor of crime rates, and is fundamental to social
disorganization theory. In his presidential
address at the 2012 annual meeting of the American Society of
Criminology, Robert J. Sampson suggested
that collective efficacy, in effect, helps neighborhoods mitigate
several problems – most notably, crime
and violence. Findings from the small but growing literature
indicate he might be right. Yet there remain
only a limited number of studies that have empirically assessed
just how collective efficacy affects crime
and related outcomes (for a more detailed discussion on this

38. point, see Pratt & Cullen, 2005). For this
reason, researchers must continue to explore how collective
efficacy impacts crime at varying points of
time and in varying social contexts. This will entail applying
sophisticated and innovative methodological
approaches. Currently, we know very little about, for example,
the longitudinal or reciprocal relationship
between collective efficacy and crime.
Social capital
One source in which scholars have recognized immense
potential for understanding variation in
community crime rates is the impact of local organizations.
Social disorganization theory presumes that
local organizations conducive to pro‐ social interaction such as
churches, youth groups, charities, civic
associations, and political groups, can enhance neighborhood
informal social control. This is because civic
and social organizations facilitate the sharing of common values
and goals among residents, thereby
increasing the collective ability to disseminate information,
mobilize resources, and utilize social networks
towards combating crime (Peterson, Krivo, & Harris, 2000;
Triplett, Gainey, & Sun, 2003; Wilson, 1987).

39. Recently, criminologists have adopted the concept of social
capital, defined as “the investment in social
relations with expected returns” (Lin, 1999:30), in order to
argue that civically engaged communities yield
crime‐ control benefits. Scholars posit that the investment in
communal social relations (i.e., civic
engagement) is reflected by residents’ participation in civic and
social organizations. Prosocial interaction
that originates within organizational settings extends to other
settings in the greater community,
ultimately providing the expected return: the emergence or
enhancement of informal social control. In
this sense, social capital refers to the potential for effective
social action, as it does not directly
encapsulate purposive action. In criminology, social capital’s
operationalization most frequently reflects
Lin’s (1999) higher‐ order conceptualization, specifically, with
respect to the investment in communal
social relations. Previous studies have measured social capital
using at least one of the following types of
indicators: (1) a simple count of the number of civic and social
organizations in the neighborhood; (2)
residents’ participation in these types of organizations; and (3)
the level of trust among residents. The

40. simple count reflects investment in terms of the availability and
opportunity for residents to participate
in pro‐ social organizational settings. Residents’ organizational
participation signifies the actual investment
7
made in these organizations. Finally, residents’ trust levels
reveal the emotional investment that underlies
interpersonal relationships. Studies typically combine these
indicators into a summary measure of social
capital or alternatively use one of them as a single‐ measure
construct (Beyerlein & Hipp, 2005; Lee, 2008;
Peterson, Krivo, & Harris, 2000; Putnam, 2000; Rosenfeld,
Messner, & Baumer, 2001). The seminal work
of Putnam (1995, 2000) is arguably considered the standard
research on social capital to date. For Putnam,
social capital is conceived as a multidimensional concept
reflected by two general forms: trust and social
participation. The concept primarily features indices of political
participation, civic participation, religious
participation, workplace connections, informal social ties,
philanthropy, altruism, and volunteering.
According to Putnam (1995), levels of social capital in the

41. United States have declined significantly since
the 1960s. Putnam’s evidence in support of this claim includes
declining participation rates in bowling
leagues, church attendance, The Boy Scouts, labor unions, and
parent– teacher associations. Putnam
maintains this decline is problematic to the extent that
“successful outcomes are more likely in civically
engaged communities” (Putnam 1995: 65).
In support of this contention, state‐ level analyses of archival
and survey data reveal both trust and social
participation to be negatively associated with crime (Putnam,
2000). Thus, consistent with social
disorganization theory, civically active communities have a
greater ability to solve and prevent crime, all
else equal. Recent research has built on Putnam by
incorporating diverse measures of social capital into
analyses. Beyerlein & Hipp (2005), for example, investigate the
religious component of civic engagement
on crime in US counties. Acknowledging differences in social
networks among religious traditions, their
models specify the number of congregations per 100,000 for
several denominations of Christianity,
including mainline Protestantism, evangelical Protestantism,
and Catholicism. Beyerlein and Hipp find that

42. greater numbers of congregations per capita – regardless of the
denomination – are associated with lower
crime rates across counties.
In another study, Lee (2008) develops a civic engagement index
that not only includes the number of
religious congregations, but also the number of civic
associations, sport leagues, and hobby and special
interest groups in his analysis of rural US counties. Lee (2008)
finds that areas with higher levels of civic
engagement have lower crime rates.
And in a third study, Peterson, Krivo, & Harris (2000) examine
whether the presence of recreation centers
and libraries impact crime rates in neighborhoods in Columbus,
Ohio. Peterson and colleagues discover
that while libraries have little impact on crime, the presence of
recreation centers appears to mitigate
violent crime in the most disadvantaged Columbus
neighborhoods.
Two key challenges for researchers have been assessing the
reciprocal influence that crime has on social
capital and determining social capital’s spatial effects. One
study by Rosenfeld, Messner, & Baumer (2001)
examines the reciprocal nature of the social capital –crime

43. relationship. Rosenfeld and colleagues perform
a series of structural equation models (SEM), which reveal that
their latent variable of social capital (which
includes a dimension for both organizational participation and
trust) is negatively associated with
homicide rates across a sample of metropolitan and
nonmetropolitan counties. This protective effect is
unaffected by standard correlates of crime as well as the
reciprocal influence that homicide has on social
capital.
Hipp, Petersilia, & Turner (2010) address the spatial effects of
social capital in their investigation of how
the availability of social capital (oriented) organizations affects
the likelihood of recidivism for California
8
parolees. Examining the number of such organizations within
two miles of the parolee’s current address,
Hipp and colleagues find that a one standard deviation increase
in the availability of social capital oriented
organizations decreases the likelihood of recidivating by more
than 40%. Although the analysis estimates

44. an individual‐ level outcome (recidivism of individual
parolees), it is not unreasonable to suggest that this
protective effect applies at the community level as well.
As previously alluded, social capital can be theorized along
several dimensions as well as using a variety
of methodological approaches. Yet, there is a pressing need to
identify the general effect that social capital
has on crime rates across aggregate units of analysis. Pratt &
Cullen (2005) begin to address this need by
providing a (quasi) quantitative synthesis of studies associated
with social capital. They focus explicitly on
the impact of noneconomic institutions, which capture those
studies that examine the level of religious
and political participation within communities – two indicators
frequently applied in the
operationalization of social capital. They find that the strength
of noneconomic institutions ranks first (out
of 23) in weighted effect size and, in line with predictions, such
institutions are negatively associated with
crime. Although their measure is only a proxy for social capital,
the strength of the effect size suggests
that social capital is potentially a robust predictor of lower
crime rates, and therefore crucial to
understanding the establishment of social control. The studies

45. building upon Putnam’s seminal work are
generally supportive of an inverse relationship between social
capital and crime. However, we suggest it
would be premature to conclude that social capital is a robust
predictor of lower crime rates, mainly
because current studies differ so drastically with respect to
units of analysis, research settings, time‐
periods, and estimated outcomes. Moreover, there is a
developing concern regarding the extent to which
social capital is theoretically distinct from collective efficacy
and social networks (Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003).
Scholars have identified mutual trust as a dimension of both
social capital and collective efficacy. Similarly,
mutual trust may condition the relationship between social
networks and crime. In summary, although
social capital presents the opportunity to better understand the
emergence of social control in
communities, more research must be done before it is fully
incorporated into social disorganization
theory.
Social ties and neighborhood networks
From the earliest formulations of social disorganization theory,
the concept of social ties has occupied a

46. central place in the theory. An enduring assumption is that
socially disorganized neighborhoods lack the
social ties that activate mechanisms of informal social control
(Kornhauser, 1978; Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003;
Park & Burgess, 1925; Sampson, 2006; Sampson & Groves,
1989; Shaw & McKay, 1942). So when crime
problems emerge, the theory reasons, residents are unable to
effectively respond via the dissemination
of information, the implementation of guardianship behavior,
the mobilization of resources, and the
coordination of civic events. According to the theory, the
formation and maintenance of informal social
control thus requires the neighborhood to have an abundant
supply of strong ties that connect residents
to one another. Accordingly, criminologists have long examined
how the presence of social ties as well as
their utility and content are related to neighborhood crime rates.
Despite substantial work in this area, the measurement of social
ties is generally limited to two types of
indicators: (1) the quantity of social ties, and (2) the content of
those ties. Such information is typically
ascertained via survey questions which instruct respondents to
provide information about their social
exchanges and interactions with fellow neighbors. The first

47. indicator reflects an assumption that there is
9
a high correspondence between an abundance of social ties and
the activation of informal social control
mechanisms.
In contrast, the second indicator suggests that the type of social
ties among residents (e.g., family, friends,
acquaintances, or strangers) will differentially impact the
ability to prevent crime. According to the theory,
those social ties that represent emotional investment and reflect
frequent interaction are deemed to be
“strong,” while those ties that exhibit less familiarity and
interaction are considered to be “weak.”
Accordingly, the strength of neighborhood ties is considered
fundamental to the informal control of crime.
Despite the theory’s predictions, the collective body of research
suggests that the evidence in support of
social ties’ impact is mixed with respect to crime reduction.
Some studies identify social ties as a catalyst
for effective social action to fight crime (e.g., Sampson &
Groves, 1989) while others demonstrate that

48. social ties may actually facilitate crime (e.g., Pattillo, 1998). In
regards to the former, the seminal article
by Sampson and Groves, discussed earlier, lends considerable
support to the notion that an
interconnected network of strong ties characterizes
lower‐ crime neighborhoods. Recall they used data
from a large national survey of Great Britain. The survey
included a question instructing respondents to
indicate how many of their friends reside in their local
community, from which Sampson and Groves
constructed a community measure of local friendship networks
defined as “the mean level of local
friendships” (784). Their network measure captures the
abundance of social ties characterized by frequent
interaction and emotional investment. Also recall that Sampson
and Groves show that the mediating
dimension of local friendship networks has an independent
effect on crime and delinquency outcomes,
net of (exogenous) neighborhood characteristics. This finding
suggests that neighborhood networks do
appear to activate and maintain mechanisms of informal social
control. The promise of social ties for social
disorganization theory is less apparent in Bellair’s (1997) study,
which explicitly assesses how the

49. frequency of interaction among neighborhood residents
influences crime. Using survey data from
residents of 60 urban neighborhoods (spanning three states),
Bellair finds that social interaction, here
defined as the percentage of community residents who get
together once a year or more, reduces
community rates of burglary, motor vehicle theft, and robbery.
He also finds that social interaction largely
mediates the effect of neighborhood characteristics on
community crime, in support of social
disorganization theory. Yet Bellair’s findings ultimately raise
questions regarding the value of social ties
for the theory. Although social interaction is significantly
associated with community crime rates in the
direction the theory predicts, the fact that even infrequent
interaction can reduce community crime rates
challenges the theory’s assumption that strong and dense ties
are what matter most; Bellair’s “once a
year or more” definition reflects a level of interaction that is
arguably less than what the perspective
theorizes.
Other studies produce conflicting evidence regarding the impact
of social ties. For example, using survey
data from the city of Seattle, Warner & Rountree (1997)

50. document mixed support for social ties’ crime
reducing impact. Their measure of social ties, or what they refer
to as “local ties,” reflects the extent to
which respondents had done each of the following: (1) borrowed
tools or food from neighbors; (2) had
lunch or dinner with neighbors; and (3) had helped neighbors
with problems. While Warner and Rountree
find that local ties are associated with lower rates of assault in
Seattle neighborhoods, they contrastingly
find that these ties are associated with higher rates of burglary.
As a result, Warner and Rountree question
the assumption that social ties automatically translate into
greater levels of informal social control, as the
theory predicts.
10
Even more troubling are findings from studies which suggest
that social ties may, in fact, serve as a source
of social capital for offenders, thereby increasing the likelihood
of offending. Browning, Feinberg, & Dietz
(2004) arrive at this conclusion in their study of the impact of
collective efficacy and social ties on violent

51. crime rates in Chicago neighborhoods. Using Sampson’s
PHDCN survey data, they discover that while
collective efficacy is associated with diminished rates of
violence, social ties and exchange between
residents appears to diminish neighborho od social control.
Browning and colleagues also conclude that
the “regulatory effects of collective efficacy on violence are
substantially reduced in neighborhoods
characterized by high levels of network interaction and
reciprocated exchange” (503).
Questionable findings regarding social ties’ impact are not
limited to quantitative analyses. A study by
Pattillo (1998) qualitatively documents the complex
relationships among social ties, informal social
control, and crime. Through participant observation and
face‐ to‐ face interviews in a middle‐ class black
neighborhood in Chicago, she finds that residents are highly
connected to one another and that these
strong ties are characterized by emotional investment and
frequent interaction. As a result, and in support
of social disorganization theory, the neighborhood is able to
keep crime to a relatively acceptable level
through the supervision of youth, the identification of strangers,
and the mobilization of community

52. organizations. However, the value of these ties comes with a
trade‐ off; Pattillo also finds that the social
ties frequently connect law abiding residents and criminals,
thereby making it more challenging for the
neighborhood to eradicate criminal activity. This occurs
because residents are reluctant to publicly shame
or legally sanction those with whom they are closely tied (even
in the face of illegal behavior). Once again
these findings, which reveal that social ties can simultaneously
enhance and undermine informal social
control, question the relevance of this concept for social
disorganization theory. Although the evidence in
support of social ties is mixed, we do not mean to suggest that
criminology should abandon studying the
impact of neighborhood networks on crime. Instead, the present
challenge is to pinpoint the specific
characteristics of networks that precipitate and mitigate crime.
Doing this will require scholars to
recognize, as Sampson (2006: 164) points out, that “not all
networks are created equal.” In the context of
social disorganization theory, this means acknowledging that
while neighborhood networks may be
capable of facilitating effective social action, they are likely not
sufficient, in and of themselves, to fulfill

53. social control functions.
Sampson (2006) lists three reasons why neighborhood networks
should not be equated with effective
social control: (1) weak ties can be equally important in the
activation of informal social control (see also
Granovetter, 1973); (2) strong ties can undermine social control
efforts; and, (3) social ties may connect
law‐ abiding citizens with criminals and vice versa. In
extending and refining the concepts of social ties and
neighborhood networks for social disorganization theory,
researchers must account for these “social
facts.”
Conclusion
Social disorganization theory has long occupied an important
place in criminological thought and
continues to do so well into the 21st century. But as with all
theories, in order to survive it must be
continuously subjected to testing and then reevaluated in light
of the empirical evidence. Despite the
theory’s predictive power, in this chapter, we have suggested
there is room for improvement, particularly
when it comes to specifying the social interactional mechanisms
that link structural characteristics of

54. communities, such as poverty and residential instability, to
heightened crime rates in socially disorganized
communities. We have also suggested that such improvement
may occur by attending to more recent
11
theoretical concepts that borrow from, but go beyond, social ties
and informal social control. These
include collective efficacy, social capital, and social networks.
In this chapter, we have defined these
concepts, explicated their usefulness for social disorganization
theory, and reviewed the empirical
literature on their effectiveness. We believe these concepts hold
significant promise. We conclude with
one final suggestion regarding the fundamental challenge
involved in linking structural characteristics to
crime in socially disorganized communities.
This final suggestion is related to the role that neighborhood
culture/ subculture likely occupies for social
disorganization theory. Although often downplayed (and even
ignored) by scholars today, neighborhood
subculture was of key interest to Shaw and McKay and other
early social disorganization theorists.

55. A central question for these scholars centered on how
neighborhood subcultures became entrenched and
affected rates of delinquency. They posed the question: Under
what economic and social conditions does
crime develop as a social tradition and become embodied in a
system of criminal values? Shaw and McKay
found evidence regarding the impact of neighborhood
subculture on crime and delinquency. Of particular
interest is their finding that areas of low economic status were
characterized by diversity in norms and
standards of behavior, rather than uniformity (recall that
solidarity, or an internal consensus on norms
and values, is critical for social organization). Shaw and McKay
found that in poor communities, youth
were exposed to a wide variety of contradictory (and sometimes
unlawful) standards rather than to a
relatively consistent and conventional pattern of norms. It was
also determined that in these
communities, children were exposed to adult criminals, from
whom they could learn (illegal) behavior.
In essence then, alongside social ties and informal social
control, neighborhood subculture constituted a
critical component of social disorganization theory, and helped
to account for why crime rates were higher

56. in disorganized neighborhoods. Decades following Shaw and
McKay, researchers continued to examine
how neighborhood subculture impacted crime and delinquency,
as well as how it was itself impacted by
neighborhood conditions (e.g., Miller, 1958; Cloward & Ohlin,
1960; Kornhauser, 1978).
Unfortunately, for reasons that have been explicated elsewhere
(see Sampson & Bean, 2006),
neighborhood subculture increasingly became irrelevant to the
theory. Discussions regarding
neighborhood subculture’s impact became obsolete and
empirical examinations of the theory did not
include measures reflecting local subculture.
Most recently, however, cultural explanations have been
resurrected in neighborhood research, which
we argue is a positive development. Scholars are both
theorizing culture’s potential impact on community
crime rates (Anderson, 1999; Fagan & Wilkinson, 1998; Kubrin
& Weitzer, 2003; Sampson & Bean, 2006)
as well as empirically examining just how culture and crime are
associated in both organized and
disorganized communities (Berg et al., 2012; Kirk &
Papachristos, 2011; Sampson & Bartusch, 1998;

57. Stewart & Simons, 2006; Warner, 2003). Research on cultural
effects is relatively new, so there is much
to be worked out with respect to the precise role that subculture
occupies in social disorganization theory.
But scholars are beginning to sort out the issues and progress in
occurring. Although we are unable to
review the important findings from this nascent but growing
literature, what we can say here is that it is
becoming abundantly clear that, in the words of Kubrin &
Weitzer (2003: 380), “cultural factors deserve
greater attention” and can no longer be ignored. As Shaw and
McKay and other early theorists believed,
we cannot understand variations in crime rates across
communities without also understanding the role
that neighborhood subcultures occupy in the calculus. Along
with greater attention to the concepts of
12
collective efficacy, social capital, and social networks, future
work must continue to specify subculture’s
critical role.
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