Cross-cultural training: a crucial approach to improve the success of expatriate assignment in the United Arab Emirates

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Rizwan Tahir, Gurdal Ertek
Please cite this paper as follows:
Tahir, R., Ertek, G. (2018) Cross-cultural training: a crucial approach to improve
the success of expatriate assignment in the United Arab Emirates. Middle East
Journal of Management 2018 - Vol. 5, No.1 pp. 50 – 74.
Note: This document final draft version of this paper. Please cite this paper as
above. You can download this final draft version from the following website:
http://ertekprojects.com/gurdal-ertek-publications/
The published paper can be accessed from the following url:
http://www.inderscience.com/offer.php?id=88735

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Cross-Cultural Training: A Crucial Approach to Improve
Success of Expatriate Assignment in the United Arab
Emirates
Authors:
Dr. Rizwan Tahir*
Associate Professor
Rochester Institute of Technology,
Dubai Campus, United Arab Emirates
Email: rxtcad@rit.edu
Tel: +97143712054
Dr. Gürdal Ertek
Associate Professor
Abu Dhabi University,
Alain Campus, United Arab Emirates
Email: gurdal.ertek@adu.ac.ae
Tel: +97137090714
* All the correspondence related this paper be send to Rizwan Tahir on this
email address – rxtcad@rit.edu
Biographies
Dr. Rizwan Tahir is currently an Associate Professor of Business at RIT Dubai. Prior to that, he has
held the faculty positions at the University of Auckland and AUT University in New Zealand and
University of Vaasa in Finland. Dr. Tahir has obtained his Ph.D degree in International Business at the
University of Vassa, Finland. His research interests lies in the areas of foreign direct investment,
internationalization and market entry strategies, international human resource management and
businesses in Arab cultures. Dr. Tahir’s research has been published in the Journal of International
Consumer Marketing, European Business Review, Asian Business & Management, Journal of Global
Business Advancement and Global Business Review.
Dr. Gürdal Ertek is an Associate Professor of Business Administration at Abu Dhabi University (ADU).
Before joining ADU, Dr. Ertek served for 12 years at Sabancı University, Istanbul, Turkey, as well as
other organizations in Turkey, USA, Singapore, Kuwait and UAE. He received his Ph.D. as a Fulbright
Scholar from School of Industrial and Systems Engineering at Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta,
GA, in 2001. His research and teaching areas include data analytics, supply chain management, project
management, and practical applications of operations research.

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ABSTRACT
Expatriate training and development is progressively turning into a crucial
human resource development issue for the multinational corporations (MNCs).
The motivation for this study is to explore the impact of cross- cultural training
(CCT) on the adjustment challenges of Western expatriate managers in the UAE.
The findings indicate that the expatriate managers, who were provided with
CCT, adjusted more rapidly in their international assignment in the UAE than the
expatriates who were not provided with any CCT. This research has nevertheless
demonstrated that not only are MNCs in the UAE failing to provide adequate CCT
and support for their expatriates, but they are also providing inadequate CCT
and support to the expatriate’s accompanying family members. The present
study contributes to the discussion about whether MNCs routinely provide their
expatriate managers with sufficient CCT. Furthermore, this study has substantial
implications for managers and proposes areas for future research in this field.
Keywords: Multinational corporations (MNCs), cross-cultural training (CCT),
expatriates, United Arab Emirates (UAE)
1. INTRODUCTION
Expatriate development has lately emerged as a crucial issue for multinational
organizations (MNCs). One of the significant indicators of expatriate success is
how well they adjust and how efficiently they operate in the host country. Past
research (e.g., Black & Mendenhall, 1990) has found that a figure in the region
of 16% to 40% of all expatriate managers (generally Americans) leave their
overseas posts prematurely, without finishing their international assignments,
because either their performance is below expectation or they are unable to
adjust to the new host country and culture. However, even though there is a
growing feeling that the failure rate of expatriate managers is not as high as at
first indicated, it is still considered to be a critical issue (Harzing & Christensen,
2004). This figure becomes even more significant if expatriate manager failures
are considered alongside the cases of expatriate managers who remain at their
overseas postings and subsequently, perform inadequately (Black & Gregersen,
1999). Harzing & Christensen (2004) also contended that the total cost linked
with expatriate failure, along with their poor performance, is more likely to be
much higher, and it is, therefore, critical to pinpoint the approaches that can
decrease and eradicate such failure. Academic scholars and human resource
professionals have been looking for ways of tackling this much-neglected field

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of research and practice into how to help expatriate adjustment during
international assignments (Osman-Gani & Rockstuhl, 2009).
Cross-cultural training (CCT) has been highlighted by many scholars (e.g.,
Dowling & Welch, 2004) as being one of the most crucial and fundamental fields
of both study and practice for international human resource management
(IHRM) in the new global economy. The purpose of the CCT is to teach managers
of one culture to interact successfully with the citizens of another culture and to
support them in their progressive adjustment in their overseas assignments.
However, in past studies (e.g., Kealy & Protheroe, 1996) there has been
uncertainty about its effectiveness. Consequently, the practice of CCT is not yet
widespread throughout MNCs, and the most often repeated and compelling
reason alluded to by MNCs for not offering CCT is that they are not convinced
that CCT is either useful or effective (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985). The United
Arab Emirates (UAE) has lately emerged
as a prospective location for overseas expansion for MNCs. As a newly emerging
and increasingly successful Arabian country, with a strong religious identity and
culture, it has unique characteristics, and it is considered to be a difficult location
by many Western expatriate managers. Therefore, this is the kind of posting
where cross-cultural training is needed.
The motivation behind this study is to explore and investigate the impact of CCT
on the adjustment challenges of Western expatriates in the UAE. Given that no
study could be found regarding this area of research, specifically on this
fundamental issue in the context of the UAE, there is unmistakably a research
gap here. The present study endeavors to fill that research gap and to extend
our comprehension on this underlying theme. Results of the present study may
help global HR executives to produce effective CCT methodologies that can
assist expatriate managers and their families to adapt and conform to the UAE
cultural setting. It may likewise energize further research on this pivotal theme.
This paper is structured as follows: In the next section, we provide information
about the historical setting of the UAE in order to set the context for the present
study and after that, we move into the literature review section that
investigated the existing theories in the areas of expatriate management.
Following this section, we describe the methodology and the sample of the
present study. In the next section, we present and discuss the results of our
empirical analysis. The paper concludes with an investigation into its main

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findings and we highlight our suggestions for future research.
2. THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE UAE
The UAE is a small Middle Eastern nation located on the Arabian Peninsula and
neighboring the Persian (or Arabian) Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, Oman, and the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Created in 1971, after the British pullout from the
domain, the UAE comprises of seven Emirates including Abu Dhabi, Dubai,
Ajman, Fujairah, Ras Al Khaimah, Sharjah and Um Al Quwain. The nation is
estimated to possess around 4% of the world’s natural gas reserves and
approximately 10% of its oil reserves (AlMazrourei & Pech, 2014). The Emirate of
Abu Dhabi, which is also the name of the capital city, accounts for over 80% of
the land, and produces 90-95% of the country’s petrochemical output. In the light
of its petroleum wealth, Abu Dhabi is one of the wealthiest cities on the planet.
The Emirate of Dubai does not have such an abundance of oil wealth. It is,
however, better known and it has transformed itself into a business and tourism
hub for the whole of the Middle East. Abu Dhabi and Dubai are the most
powerful and wealthy partners within the union of the UAE. There is no fear of
exaggeration in stating that during the last quarter of the twentieth century, the
UAE experienced an enormous transformation (Heard-Bey, 2004).
The UAE’s vast oil reserves have brought with it unparalleled growth
opportunities. However, in spite of what the newly founded nation possessed
with respect to oil and gas reserves, there was a glaring deficit in the area of
human resources. To develop on an ambitious scale, the UAE still needs to
import significant numbers of foreign workers with the required knowledge and
international expertise. In 1971, at the time of the creation of the UAE, the entire
population of the country was about 500,000 and 35 years later, in July 2016, the
population was estimated to be in the region of slightly more than 6 million
(UAE-Interact, 2016). This rapid development has had the knock-on effect of
considerably altering the young nation’s fragile demographics. There has been a
vast expansion of low-paid, contracted manual laborers (usually single men on
fixed-term contracts) and foreign experts (often accompanied by their families,
on longer contracts and with competitive packages). However, the figure for
Emiratis as a proportion of the overall population of the UAE has been on the
decline. At present, over 80% of the population are expatriates (Hutching,
Michailova & Harrison, 2012). From this figure, more than half of the population
is estimated to come from South Asia, around 25% are from other Arab countries

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and from Iran, and roughly 10% are from Western and East Asian countries
(Central Intelligence Agency, 2016).
As a consequence of globalization, there is an insatiable need to fill key positions
with expatriate managers due to the perceived deficit of skills, qualifications and
experience on the part of UAE nationals, whose profiles in most cases do not
match those that are required to operate successfully and autonomously in
senior positions of responsibility (Al-Kharzraji, 2009). The current UAE model is
dependent upon a long-term commitment to an expatriate workforce and this
blend of workforce comes with an additional cost because of the higher rates of
turnover. As demonstrated by a report (Gulf News, 2008), there is a 21% yearly
turnover among the expatriates, which is a drain on the UAE economy to the
tune of around $3 billion a year. Thus, the cost of this attrition to the UAE
economy is the driving force for the present research, which is both timely and
relevant. The main focus of this research will be to investigate the effectiveness
of CCT programs in facilitating Western expatriate adjustment in the UAE.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1. Cross-cultural adjustment
Adjustment in an overseas posting has been characterized as being a multi-
dimensional procedure. It incorporates the individual’s ability to function
effectively within the differing realms of everyday living, work-related duties and
cooperation with the people of the host country (Takeuchi, Yun & Tesluk, 2009;
Alshanbri, Maqsood & Khalafan, 2016). This encompasses the level of
psychological contentment and understanding that a man has when working in
a different culture. As proposed by Black (1988), there are three variables of
expatriate manager adjustment: (a) “work adjustment”, that consists of duties,
administration and execution; (b) “relational adjustment”, that incorporates
dealing with people from the host nation; and (c) “general adjustment” that
includes the social life environment in an overseas country. Those factors focus
on the individuals, the company and contextual factors. Variables linked to the
individual tie a person’s capacity for change in a new culture with past overseas
experience. Contextual factors involve the duration of the time expended in the
host nation, the company’s logistical support and the spouse’s moral support.
Company related factors incorporate elements identified with company support
(for example: bosses, colleagues and parent-company organization support)
and work-related variables, (for example; role discretion and role clarity). They

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also encompass corporate cultural differences that exist between the host-
nation subsidiary and the home-nation, parent company. Finally, company
related factors include preparations and CCT.
3.2. CCT and its viability for cross-cultural adjustment
The main purpose of CCT is to teach individuals from one culture how to
interrelate with the general population from other culture and to assist them to
adjust expeditiously in their host country. Brislin (1979) distinguishes three main
ways of delivering CCT: cognitive, affective and behavioral. The cognitive
approach endeavors to share information and relevant materials on the new,
overseas culture, utilizing conference sessions or non-participative gatherings.
The affective approach is more interactive. Its purpose is to elicit individual
feedback so that the person can make sense of how to manage critical inter-
cultural scenarios. The behavioral approach aims at enhancing an individual’s
ability to modify their style of communication and to develop positive
relationships with people of other cultures. Various scholars have made use of
Brislin’s framework and have incorporated further, specific, situational factors.
Those include: hardness of communication and hardness of culture (Tung, 1987),
task and supervisor’s job (Black, Gregersen & Mendenhall, 1992), length of
overseas assignment (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) and individual variables; for
example, learning and education goals (Ronen, 1989) and level of contribution
(Black, Mendenhall & Oddou, 1991) in order to understand the challenges of
adjustment more thoroughly.
CCT is one of the MNC’s most important activities, and the potential advantages
of adequate training and development are extensively recognized (see, e.g.,
Okpara & Kabongo, 2011; Tung, 1981). Dowling & Welch (2004) argued that one
of the principal challenges facing MNCs is the ability to retain and leverage their
personnel so that properly qualified expatriate managers are available to work
effectively during their assignments abroad. Once a manager has been given an
overseas posting, then pre-departure CCT is delivered to guarantee that the
candidate has acceptable levels of ability and skill to operate successfully
abroad.
The multifaceted and ever-changing international environment necessitates
adaptability. The MNC’s capability to formulate an effective, strategic response
may be hampered by the absence of appropriately skilled and qualified, globally
oriented managers. Mendenhall, Dunbar & Oddou (1987) and Tung (1981) found

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a negative relationship between the rigor and thoroughness of an MNC’s CCT
processes and its expatriate failure rates during the overseas assignments. Early
(1987) observed that CCT enables managers to adapt more swiftly to the
different culture and to be more successful in their new overseas assignments.
Caligiuri, Philips, Lazarova, Tarique & Biirgi (2001) found a positive relationship
between the delivery of CCT and how the assignment met the expatriate’s
expectations. They additionally argued that the better that the CCT was, the
stronger was the likelihood that the future expatriate employee would have
either realistic expectations or expectations of the challenges they would face
before the start of their international assignment.
CCT can likewise be considered to be a pre-requisite for MNCs because of its key
role in developing a multi-cultural, organizational culture and in amalgamating
global subsidiaries. Similarly, Barlett & Ghoshal (2000) argued that MNCs have
the ability to enrich their ties between their subsidiaries by developing a global
team of executives with citizenship from any country around the globe. The
fundamental challenge is to determine what level of conduct and behavior is
demonstrated within different CCT programs, and how adaptable those are to
the needs and requirements of various overseas assignments. Pucik (1984)
contended that the major challenge facing many MNCs is the development of a
cohort of potential expatriates, who have a keen awareness of global markets;
bearing in mind that the end goal of the MNC is that their expatriate employees
function effectively during their international assignments. Apparently, given
the astronomical costs of expatriate failures, it is a fundamental principle that
emphasis must be given to suitably and fiscally smart CCT programs (Dowling &
Welch, 2004).
3.3. Motives for not delivering adequate CCT
Although numerous management scholars have stressed the effectiveness of
CCT; it is frequently overlooked and inadequately taken care of in many MNCs.
Similarly, Lainer (1979) argued that in addition to the fact that many MNCs don’t
deliver any formal CCT to their expatriate managers, most MNCs do provide
some language and cultural training and
brief environmental summaries before the start of international assignments. In
most MNCs, the primary focus has been on the advancement of the technical
skills and other job-related competencies of their expatriate managers. Tang
(1981) found that barely 32 percent of the US MNCs examined delivered some

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form of CCT. Similarly, Torbiorn (1982) found that European MNCs deliver more
CCT programs than MNCs from the USA. Around, 50 percent of European MNCs
offer formal CCT and this may be a reason why the expatriate failure rates in the
European MNCs are relatively low. The figures vary from between 5 and 10
percent as indicated by Brewester & Scullion (1997).
The proposition of Dowling & Welch (2004) has been reinforced by a survey of
the practices of USA MNCs in the 1990s by McEnery & DesHarnais (1990). Their
analysis shows that between 50 and 60 percent of the USA MNCs during that
era did not provide any pre- departure CCT to their expatriate managers. The
1997-98 Price Waterhouse study discovered that 13 percent of the European
MNCs reviewed offered their expatriate managers access to courses identified
with cross-cultural understanding. Nevertheless, an additional 47 percent of
MNCs gave some short courses and briefings before the culturally “challenging”
worldwide assignments. To shed more light on the circumstances of the CCT,
most of the preparation that was offered was brief in duration and it generally
lasted just a couple of days (Baumgarten, 1995).
• The standard reasons laid out in the previous studies (see, e.g.,
Baumgarten, 1995; Tung 1982) to explain why MNCs disregard CCT for
overseas assignment are:
• CCT is not considered to be viable  
• Lack of time  
• The temporarily nature of most of the overseas postings, which did not
warrant budget allocations for CCT expenditure  
• Lack of ability concerning how to conduct CCT and lack of knowledge
about which specialized subjects ought to be taught  
• Absence of training specialist and expertise  
• No need for CCT in the light of the way that there is a conviction that
superior technical abilities are the fundamental pre-requisite for success
in the overseas posting  
• The right people don’t require training  
3.4. Sequential CCT  
The intention of CCT is to expand the range of appropriate behaviors that are
suitable and acceptable to the host national culture. Consequently, CCT ought
to be dynamic, progressive, and carefully structured in logical, sequential

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phases; beginning at pre-departure and ongoing to the post-arrival periods.
Sequential CCT would offer the expatriate manager regular, structured learning
opportunities. Those would have the aim of altering the familiar frame of
reference of the expatriate manager and raising their awareness of the cultural
expectations of the host nation.  
The content and timing of the CCT ought to coincide with the conformity stage.
To this end, training happens as the expatriate manager begins to critically
question the operant frame of reference and extend his or her international
perspectives. This process should lead to the shaping of another new frame of
reference and the ability to adapt to new social circumstances. This, in turn
should bolster his trust and confidence in his association with the nationals of
the host country at work. Specific contents and methodologies are suggested
for  the four stages of sequential CCT: pre-departure CCT, CCT at the
ethnocentric stage, CCT at the culture shock period and CCT at the conformist
stage (Selmer, Torbiorn & Leon, 1998).
In the fourth and final stage of cross-cultural adjustment, the expatriate
manager ought to have adapted to a reformed frame of references and to have
developed greater awareness of the host culture. This should lead to more
confidence, trust and certainty in the appropriateness of new behavior and
practices. Eventually, having achieved the feeling of being “at home” in the host
nation, the expat manager is directed towards “independent self- learning.” The
requirement for formal CCT is less than in the earlier stages, because constant
learning happens, without the need for much introspective reflection or overt
guidance.
3.4.1. Pre-departure CCT
During the ethnocentric stage, the managers are not yet psychologically
prepared for their new assignments. Their inability to come to terms with
unfamiliar aspects of a culture that they have still not experienced is partly due
to the fact that they are unable to find a common frame of reference with which
to relate it. This absence of a familiar setting and the brevity of the preparation
can impede the process of assimilation with the new culture.
An individual’s risk-taking tendency can be characterized as his or her orientation
towards taking risks in indeterminate decision-making environments (Koh, 1996;

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Tajeddini & Muller, 2009). Bird (1989) distributes risks into five categories –
which are plainly related to the potential expatriate managers: risks in social
relations, financial risks, risks in career advancement, in addition to health and
psychological risks. Pre-departure CCT ought to lay emphasis on structural
information drawn from familiar, local surroundings. Grove & Torbiorn (1985)
argued that in the buildup to departure, an overload of specific factual
information about the distant overseas country is unlikely to drastically alter a
person’s habits. Indeed, it may be useful to reduce the risks by forewarning the
candidate of the probable stages of adaptation that they will most likely go
through. To this end, CCT materials ought to incorporate a didactic introduction
to the adaptation process, emphasizing the ordinary and constructive stages
that they will probably have to deal with after the early traumas of cultural
shock.
CCT can be used to combat familiar adaptation challenges. Grove & Torbiorn
(1985) indicated that there were fewer early returns or incidents of grievance
from those Swedish expatriate managers in Saudi Arabia who had been given
candid, pre-departure CCT to prepare them for potentially distressing cultural
encounters. The more thorough the level of CCT preparation is, the less
likelihood there will be of disillusionment, misunderstanding and conflict in the
host nation. The expatriate manager will take up the new post armed and ready
for most eventualities and less prone to cultural infelicities and
misunderstandings. With such well-planned and focused preparation, the
expatriate manager will be less anxious and more able to deal with deviations in
the operant frame of references (Selmer, Torbiorn & Leon, 1998).
Before departure, expatriate managers possess insufficient knowledge or
experience to engage meaningfully with the fundamental challenges that they
will face in adapting to the host nation culture. They often do not fully engage
with the CCT as they fail to relate to it in a practical and realistic way and they are
unable to engage meaningfully in the process. They perceive it as an abstract
construct and struggle to deal with its “foreignness” and plausibility.
Furthermore they may lack confidence in their trainers. In spite of all this, Grove
& Torbiorn (1985) concluded that pre-departure CCT ought to shake up and
challenge the embedded ethnocentrism of mono-cultural individuals and
encourage them to reconsider and reevaluate how individuals relate to each
other in different cultures.

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3.4.2. CCT during the ethnocentric stage
Upon their arrival in a foreign country, expatriate managers are faced with a
hectic schedule of adjustment and socialization. If the expatriate managers can
be encouraged to take time off to attend sessions of post-arrival CCT, they will
be able to contribute a significant number of relevant worries and concerns to
be discussed during this training. This timely contribution will further enhance
the quality of the CCT process. Expatriate managers will commit to this training
if it helps them to assimilate to their new surroundings and improve their
understanding of the new cultural environment. If they see its value, they will be
more committed to it and also motivated to contribute to the enhancement of
this process of adaptation in foreign countries (Selmer, 1995b).
More precisely, it can be argued that CCT, soon after arrival in the host country,
ought to lessen the tendency towards ethnocentrism and narrow the gap in
cultural awareness. CCT would be a suitable platform for emphasizing the
similarities and differences between the ways of life at home and in the host
countries (Steward & Bennett, 1991; Selmer, Torbiorn & Leon, 1998).
The conditions for learning are presumably going to be most effective when the
expatriate manager’s dependence on the opinions of the home country culture
have declined, and his openness towards the host culture have been enhanced.
In the light of cultural relativism, the cultural contrast method of training
presents both the notion of culture and a depiction of the differences in cultures
(Brislin, Landis & Brand, 1983). Similarly, the role of fact-oriented training is
significant, as it deals with the pressing concerns and ramifications of day to day
living in the host culture and how to deal effectively with issues relating to work
and home.
3.4.3. CCT during the cultural shock stage
CCT would make a positive contribution to expatriate adjustment to a new
culture if it were introduced during the cultural shock stage. Grove & Torbiorn
(1985) argued that the operant frame of reference at this critical phase
promotes the different behaviors. Consequently, the seeds of doubt that are
planted and the discrepancies that are revealed concerning one’s familiar frame
of reference can enhance the motivation to develop one’s global perspectives.
At this stage, self-confidence in one’s cross-cultural abilities is still low, given the
absence of “instruments” with which to organize the numerous host-culture

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components into a logical frame of reference.
CCT during this critical, transitional phase ought to encourage cognitive
reformation by shedding light on real cross-cultural encounters. CCT ought to
inspire the modeling of the new behaviors, and that could eventually develop
into improved interpersonal interactions or superior performance at work. That
can result in expatriate managers working more proficiently in their new
environment. They can do this without having first to understand and see
everything about the host nation and furthermore, it helps them to figure out
how to read and understand different nuances of the new culture that they find
themselves in (McCaffery, 1986; Selmer, Torbiorn & Leon, 1998).
CCT during the cultural shock stage ought to provide the expatriate managers
with the tools for understanding the experiences and cultural norms of the new
host cultures. Intercultural challenges generally come about when one is
oblivious to the local norms and standards of the host country. Thus, actions
should be taken to enhance and increase the expatriate managers’ repertoire of
social proficiencies (Fumham & Bochner, 1986). Both experiential
and didactic methods of training would be reasonable, as argued by Harrison
(1992, 1994) who suggested the adoption of a blend of techniques. Experiential
learning is one of the best strategies as it encourages the practical application
of appropriate behavior patterns while in the new host culture. Similarly, Brislin
et al., (1983) argued that learning is particularly high during experiential learning,
because situations, exercises, simulations and role-plays are even more
realistically demonstrated when in the host-culture setting.
3.4.4. CCT in the conformist stage
The conformist stage is another appropriate time for the application of CCT,
however it should be presented alongside other core interests and not in
isolation. In spite of the fact that new behaviors have been encouraged and
promoted by an evolving frame of references that has adapted to the host
nation’s cultural values, the person has not yet developed sufficient confidence
in behaving differently with respect to his everyday habits. CCT at this stage
ought to concentrate on “learning by doing as the host-culture individuals do.”
Culturally sensitive skills would be productively absorbed through real exposure
and practice at work, which would similarly, enable the learner to interact
appropriately with other managers from the host country.

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The interaction method of learning often takes place in unstructured conditions
relating to the coordinated efforts among learners, host country nationals and
experienced expatriate managers (Brislin, Landis & Brand, 1983). The long-term
impact of CCT at the conformist stage is apparent, because of the proximity of
its application (Selmer, Torbiorn & Leon, 1998). The instant transfer of learning
to practice has the effect of strengthening the behavioral aptitudes up to a point
where the cross-cultural skills are immediately consolidated in the individual’s
behavioral pattern. Sorcher & Spencer’s (1982) longitudinal review discovered
that further beneficial outcomes occurred after a period of twenty weeks than
immediately after the CCT. Thus, this demonstrates how the new behavioral
patterns were absorbed after exposure to routines in an unstructured process
that involved further contemplation and eventual comprehension.
Cross-cultural adaptation involves the reformulation of one’s operant frame of
references, because of the bona fide experiences of cultural differences.
Achieving an agreeable method for relating to a new culture on a regular day-to-
day basis does not involve “going native”. One does not have to mirror or
practice the local norms and values. However, one develops situational
sensitivities that enable one to understand and empathize with one’s
colleagues. This know-how includes better approaches for thinking about and
looking at both others and oneself without passing judgment on the one or the
other’s cultural origin. CCT expands the expatriate manager’s behavior
repertory and his ability to acclimatize in different settings. Furthermore, the
new conduct will not be applied inappropriately when among the nationals of
the home country or after repatriation (Bochner, 1996; Selmer, Torbiorn & Leon,
1998).
4. METHODOLOGY
The qualitative data on which this research is grounded was acquired through
semi-structured interviews with Western expatriate managers in the UAE from
January 2016 to January 2017. From the databases of Expatriate Associations in
the UAE, thirty Western expatriate managers were selected for interviews.
Participants were selected from a range of companies in different industries in
order to avoid the likelihood of industry-specific CCT confusing the findings. Of
the thirty expatriate managers contacted in December 2015, twenty-five
consented to participate in the research. The high response rate was credited to
the author

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having insider standing within the UAE expatriate community because of earlier
research (for relevant points of interest and the advantages of insider status see
Siu (1996)). Random sampling was excluded as a means of gathering data due
to the fact that the return rate is often very low. Instead of that, snowballing
sampling was used. This entailed the leveraging of cooperation from established
individual contacts. This is a system that was also utilized by an international
panel of scholars and which is now considered to be one of the leading practices
in IHRM (Von Glinow, Drost & Teagarden, 2002).
Semi-structured interviews were scheduled, in advance, to take approximately
50 minutes. However, most of the interviews lasted between one and two hours
in duration. The questions on CCT and CCT support were compiled by using the
main elements of cross-cultural proficiency that were extracted from the latest
literature and research findings. Participants were requested at the beginning of
the interview to give UAE-specific examples, if possible, when reacting to the
questions. Occasionally, when requested by expatriate managers, interviews
were not sound recorded. At all stages, throughout the research process,
participants were assured that all data gathered during those interviews would
be kept strictly confidential.
In this study, we describe “Western” expatriate managers as the people who
have nationality in, and association with Anglo-Saxon countries and who have
been selected for our research. We observe that there is considerable diversity
in those countries and they don’t exemplify a homogenous group. For instance,
since the 1950s, all six of the nations in the study had encountered high levels of
immigration, and in this respect, are considered to be multi- cultural societies.
(Hutchings, Michailova & Harrison, 2012). In order to have a diverse sample of
interviewees, in term of age, gender and experiences, purposeful sampling was
used as a method of selecting the participants (Seidman, 1998). Purposeful
sampling encourages the scholars to select interviewees who can provide an
abundance of information for an exploratory study like ours. The participants of
our study were general managers, departmental heads, project managers and
all were managers in MNCs operating in the UAE. Our participants came from
different backgrounds and displayed a diversity of gender, age, marital status,
family type, professional experiences and education. The average age of the
respondents was around 50. On average, they had been working with their
companies for almost eight years. Of the participants that were selected, 40%
(n=10) were British, 24% (n=6) Americans, 20% (n=4) were Australians, 20% (n=4)

of 37
were New Zealanders, and 4% (n=1) were South Africans. A sample of expatriates
of various nationalities was sought, as it was normal that more cross-cultural
differences may arise. In addition, their cultural backgrounds were probably
going to affect their approach towards everyday life.
Table 1: Background of the participants of the present study:
Cases Industry Years as an expatriate in
UAE
Designation Age Gender Home country
Participant 1 Hospitality 2 Department Head 45 M UK
Participant 2 Construction 3 Project Manager 62 F UK
Participant 3 Tourism 1 General Manager 53 M Australian
Participant 4 Hospitality 2 CFO/Departmental
Head
58 M UK
Participant 5 Engineering 4 Senior Manager 55 M USA
Participant 6 Construction 3 Vice Presidents 41 M Australian
Participant 7 Real Estate 2 Managers 48 M UK
Participant 8 Consulting 5 Senior consultant 57 F USA
Participant 9 Education 2 Departmental Head 51 M Australian
Participant
10
Hospitality 1 Manager 39 M UK
Participant
11
Engineering 1 Production Manager 46 M New Zealander
Participant
12
Engineering 2 Logistics Manager 63 M USA
Participant
13
Tourism 3 CEO 61 M UK
Participant
14
Hospitality 2 General Manager 54 M South African
Participant
15
Construction 4 Project Manager 37 M Australian
Participant
16
Consulting 1 Manager 44 M USA
Participant
17
Finance 2 Manager 42 F UK
Participant
18
Tourism 5 Departmental Head 49 M New Zealander
Participant
19
Accounting 3 Manager 58 M South African
Participant
20
Engineering 1 General Manager 53 M UK
Participant
21
Construction 1 Manager 52 M USA
Participant
22
Real Estate 3 Manager 59 M New Zealander
Participant
23
Engineering 1 General Manager 53 M New Zealander
Participant
24
Training 3 Manager 54 M UK
Participant
25
Construction 3 Manager 46 M UAS
Triangulation was used in the current research with the objective of enriching
the precision of the results (McEvoy & Richard, 2006). The interview protocol
was left intentionally wide open, in order to allow participants to expand on the
matters that they considered to be crucial in connection to their CCT and to their

of 37
expatriate experiences in the UAE. The author of the present study carried out
all the interviews. When possible, the participants were audio recorded. In the
few cases where respondents did not agree to be audio recorded (six
individuals), extensive notes were taken during the interviews. In addition, brief
observational notes were made regarding the interviewee’s working
environment, outside communications and facial expressions. It enriched the
quality of the data and gave better analysis quality.
In presenting the results of the data analysis, we endeavored to introduce an
account of the thoughts that were shared instead of a consolidation of data into
the quantitative counts of measures. Essentially, there are two leading
clarifications for this. Firstly, we didn’t seek to examine the connection between
independent and dependent variables. We just desired that the participants
should enlighten us concerning the effects of the CCT programs on their
adjustment challenges in the UAE. Secondly, we wanted the results to illuminate
the full richness of the insights contained within the stories that we had
compiled from these Western expatriates. As Miesel & Karlawish (2011)
commented, the strength of the narrative is in deciphering the participant’s
account of the information in such a way that a neutral observer can easily
comprehend. Evidently, it is impractical to convey everything that was
understood from the interviews and a degree of selectivity was required when
presenting the findings. Along those lines, we have extracted the principal,
recurring, major themes and observations, from which there was agreement
amongst all the participants.
5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Concerning CCT preparations, expatriate managers were asked to discuss the
nature of pre- departure and post-arrival, practical and language training, CCT
and executive briefings. There was compelling evidence presented in the
literature of academic studies, highlighting the importance of CCT in
contributing positively to the subsequent success of the expatriates and their
companies. In spite of that, the MNCs that were selected in the present study
were still offering minimal and unsystematic CCT preparation and opportunities
to their expatriate managers.
5.1. CCT and challenges:
Of the twenty-five participants in the study, only nineteen received some formal

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CCT either prior to their arrival or during their stay in the UAE. Six of those who
didn’t receive any CCT from their companies work for relatively small scale
MNCs. It would be normal to expect that those companies would not give any
CCT because of the monetary costs. On the other hand, our findings
demonstrate that medium and large-sized MNCs are more inclined to provide
some form of CCT to their expatriate managers. Most of the participants felt that
some form of CCT was necessary to enhance the quality and effectiveness of the
expatriate experience in the UAE.
A clear majority of the participants in this study (twenty-three) were confronted
with challenges of both a professional as well as a social nature. Most of those
expatriate managers were of the opinion that those challenges could have been
partially circumvented or dealt with if they had received more CCT than they did.
A significant amount of those challenges can be predicted or anticipated. They
are brought about by transition and conformity challenges and adjustment
stresses and are clearly displayed in both work and social settings. Reaction to
this question included remarks, for example:
The former subsidiary head left the UAE out of the blue, and therefore
there was no possibility for a proper changeover. It meant a lot of
challenges for me as the incoming subsidiary head. So, a ton of
problems for us like where to shop, how to bargain, where to find
things, schools for the kids, etc. I realize now that these social needs
must be taken care of before you start working.
All participants who had encountered issues during their adaptation to living and
working in the UAE contended that the adjustment challenges would have been
somewhat lessened had they received some CCT. Although a number (n=9)
believed that CCT could never completely set you up for another culture until
you experience it, most suggested (n=15) that some CCT would have provided
them with some understanding of what was in store. The real day-to-day issues
that they were confronted with included challenges of where to find essential
services and food that they were used to having at home, as well as work issues
connected with different cultural etiquettes. The majority of the participants
(n=14) expressed sentiments of frustration and alienation, identified with
cultural shock, during their first few months of working and living in the UAE.
One of the interviewees summed up the remarks of many in proposing that:
I have discovered that I should be straight, legitimate, and amenable

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and don't criticize anybody before others – it is simply an issue of what
is considered culturally incorrect. When you have the wastaa
[acceptance into the social circles], you can function effectively in the
UAE.
All the interviewees conceded that their MNCs did not have any comprehensive
framework for the developing the expatriate managers for the important
assignment like UAE. Certainly, the practice is by all accounts ambivalent on the
effectiveness of CCT, evidently expecting that “right person always manages”
favoring a learning by doing approach.
5.2. Pre-departure CCT
None of our participants had been given any training about the unique aspects
of the Arab and the UAE culture. Most of the participants (n=18) thought that
their underlying acclimation to the UAE and their intercultural effectiveness at
both work and social levels would have been enhanced by having received some
pre-departure CCT that focused on the issue and challenges of cultural
awareness.
However, a few participants (n=3) were skeptical about whether any CCT could
have prepared them for the challenges and experiences of managing in such a
unique cultural environment as the UAE. A majority of the respondents (n=17)
argued that there was a definite need for some exposure to the UAE’s unique
culture prior to their arrival in the country. This would have given them a head
start at work and a positive professional advantage in familiarizing themselves
with the accepted local business practices. It was contended by most of the
respondents (n=15) that a thorough understanding of those differences in
cultural practices could lessen the probability of committing severe cultural
blunders because of their obliviousness to what was viewed as inadequate and
unsuitable conduct in particular situations. It was noted that a considerable
number of participants (n=19) had some pre-departure CCT. Still, the issue of CCT
training for family members tended to have been neglected by the MNCs. As one
interviewee remarked:
My wife was not working, had left her excellent job to be in the UAE
with me and she was having bigger challenges of adjusting than I was.
I was away on the work most of the time, and she was the one who

of 37
was expected to do all kinds of negotiations outside of work. At that
point, there was no help made accessible to her, and I now think that
some help would have had a remarkable effect on her adjustment in
UAE.
Previous studies (e.g., Wilson, 2011) on the international assignment over the last
decades have demonstrated that the most well-known reason behind the failure
or “brownout” of an expat is the disenchantment of his partner or spouse with
the everyday encounters of living abroad. This is particularly correct if the
partner or spouse was working back home, yet can’t find a suitable job in the
UAE. This pre-departure CCT must incorporate sections dedicated to partners or
spouses, and it must give careful consideration to the day-to-day challenges of
the spouses and their approaches for adjustment and possible fulfillment with
living in UAE.
Support in relocation and short exploratory visit before commencing an
assignment:
Out of the many forms of training that were analyzed, the one concerning help
during the relocation process was given the most attention by the MNCs. All our
participants (n=25) received some help with relocation and resettlement.
Relocation, for the most part, secured financial support for the expatriate
manager and his/her family if needed. For some expatriate managers (n=5), their
companies assisted helping them to settle into the UAE by giving information
about housing, hospitals, schools and shopping. One of our interviewees was
used by his MNC to act as an on-going liaison consultant to new expatriates and
their families.
None of our participants had been sent to the UAE for a short visit before the
start of their assignment, although most of them had been to the UAE
beforehand whether on short working visits with other companies or as tourists.
All participants (n=25) contended, nonetheless, that it was appropriate and
desirable for the MNC to send expatriate managers on such a short trip to the
host country to ensure, as much as was possible, that they would have some
cultural understanding of that country before the start of their international
assignment and be less prone to the effects of cultural shock. One interviewee
commented:
No, I was never asked to go on a short trip to the UAE before my

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posting, but rather I would have loved it. I had just only two-week’s
notice for this assignment in the UAE – more time, preparations and
training would have provided me much better understanding of UAE
unique culture, and this would have obviously helped my initial
transition enormously.
Expatriate relocation training programs can immensely improve an expatriate’s
understanding and effectiveness when working and living in a foreign country.
Support and training assist in preparing expatriate managers and their families
for the overseas relocation and furnishes them with a comprehensive worldwide
understanding of norms, values, and cultures in a host foreign country.
Executive briefing:
Of the twenty-five interviewees, fifteen (n=15) received some form of executive
briefing about the operations of their company in the UAE. However, only four
(n=4) of these employees received a further detailed presentation about the
economy, the political situation and the history of the UAE. Of the remaining ten
interviewees, three (n=3) were given some presentations about the UAE’s
economic and political history, but they were given few relevant details about
the subsidiary’s operations in the UAE. Of the fifteen that received a briefing
about their subsidiary’s operations in the UAE, most of them felt that the
presentation had been genuinely far-reaching and that it had depicted the
MNC’s long haul strategies within both the UAE and the Middle East region; with
particular emphasis on the crucial role that the expatriate manager was
expected to play during his/her assignment in the UAE. Nevertheless, other
interviewees asserted that, while they had received some presentation about
the general, strategic, long-term plan of the MNC, there was a feeling that the
presentation focused more on the day-to-day operational side of the subsidiary’s
activities. As argued by Alshanbri et al., (2016) that the employee substitution
procedure is a crucial issue that may cause loss of learning which is thought to
be a significant form of intellectual capital for the MNCs. Thus, HR departments
have a significant role in transference of this knowledge to new expatriate
manager and this implies changing essential actions.
Period of notice given about international assignment:
The majority of the participants maintained that they had been given very short
notice of their international assignments and consequently, there had been

of 37
insufficient time for their company to thoroughly train and prepare them for the
unique cultural environment of the UAE. Out of twenty-five interviewees, only
three received two months’ notice, five received five weeks’ notice, and thirteen
received three weeks’ notice, and the remaining four received approximately
two weeks’ notice of their assignment in the UAE. Similarly, Klaus (1995) noted
that there is often a rush to send an expatriate manager to the overseas country
to fill an urgent opening in a principal subsidiary. As expected, a majority of the
interviewees complained that they had not been given sufficient time to
organize themselves for the relocation or to prepare themselves emotionally.
Additionally, they had insufficient time to receive a satisfactory level of CCT that
would have enabled them to adjust to the new work and social environment in
the UAE. For example, one interviewee stated:
I was only asked as to whether I would like to take an assignment in
Dubai for three years and I replied, “maybe.” I was then asked to
attend a three- day training workshop about Arab culture and history,
and four weeks later I arrived in the UAE.
5.3 CCT and support during the International Assignment
Participants were questioned about whether they were provided with any CCT
or support by their parent company during their assignment in the UAE. They
were likewise asked whether they thought that their companies could have
given more CCT or support and, if this was the case, what it should have involved.
Very few of the expatriate managers in this sample received any support during
their international assignment, be it from the parent company or less formally
from another fellow expatriate in the subsidiary in the UAE. None of our
interviewees had any formal CCT after their arrival in the UAE. Indeed, only five
(n=5) of the participants said that they had received some support after the start
of their assignment, and in all cases, that was taken care of by the appointment
of a former expatriate manager to be their mentor. Those expatriates, who were
provided with formal mentor support, communicated that the main role of the
mentor was to pass on information about the parent company and performance
expectations. The mentor also gave some help with practical local information;
for instance, about schools, shopping, and medical facilities. It is astounding to
see that none of those expatriate managers and their accompanying spouses in
this cohort had received any CCT training after their arrival in the UAE to help
them adapt to this transition of living and working in such a unique Arab and

of 37
Muslim culture.
Most participants (n=22) contended that some post-arrival CCT, even if only on
a casual basis was required. The greater part of expatriates (n=24) also
concurred that in any event having another experienced expatriate manager to
facilitate the move and to assist during the settling-in period was needed in
order that people could adjust on a social level and to help them to understand
the cultural sensitivities in business and social circles. With regards, as to
whether they considered that their MNC should provide them with formal CCT
and support during their assignment in the UAE, most participants (n=24) agreed
that this was highly desirable. One interviewee commented:
In the case of expatriates, there is always an issue of “out of sight and
out of mind”, and it is believed in my company that they give the
international posting to the best people and so, as an expatriate
manager, you ought to know how to deal with the challenges in a
foreign country. However, I think that there is a genuine need for a
support hotline in corporate headquarter with someone who has lived
in the UAE understands the challenges here, and it would help.
CCT expects to expand the applicability of new practices that are more suitable
in the host country. Subsequently, CCT may ideally be sequential, advancing in
steps beginning at pre-departure and proceeding to the post-arrival period.
Selmer (2002) argued that sequential CCT proposed that content and timing
ought to be coherent with the psychological receptivity of the expat, as it
progresses during the international assignment.
6. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The results of the present study demonstrate the significance of CCT to Western
expatriate managers traveling to a different and unique culture like the UAE. The
UAE has a very multi-cultural environment and it is governed by a unique cultural
and traditional structure (AlMazrouei & Pech, 2014). The Western expatriate
managers may end up managing staff from different cultures and nationalities.
They, therefore, require an in-depth and functional understanding of both the
local and the various other cultures of the neighboring countries. They must
reach a stage where they are able to win the trust of their local and foreign
colleagues in order to be able to function efficiently in a respectful and
professional environment. Without developing such awareness, an expatriate

of 37
manager may perceive life in the UAE to be somewhat perplexing and
infuriating. When local norms of behavior have been comprehended, absorbed
and taken on board, the expatriate manager will be significantly more
productive and valuable to his or her employer and in addition to the UAE.
More precisely, the results of this exploratory study of Western expatriate
managers in the UAE reveals that the managers who were given CCT adjusted
more quickly in their assignments and were relatively happier and more satisfied
than those managers who were not given any CCT. Furthermore, CCT decreases
the severity of cultural shock and reduces the time required to adjust to and feel
comfortable in the new culture. It also shortens the time required to become
more productive on the job during the assignment in the UAE. Our results are in
tune with previous studies, which have contended that CCT has a substantial and
positive impact on the process of expatriate adjustment (see, e.g., Okpara &
Kabongo, 2011; Waxin & Panaccio, 2005).
Most the MNCs chosen for this study did not give sufficient pre-departure CCT
to their expatriates, their partners, spouses, and accompanying family. Those
companies do not appear to be convinced about the effectiveness of CCT. Their
collective mindset suggests that they expect that a “competent person always
knows how to manage himself”. This attitude favours the “learning by doing”
approach. None of the MNCs selected for this study provided any formal CCT
during the overseas assignment. However, a few of them gave some
unstructured or informal support during the assignment in the UAE.
It has been argued by Selmer, Torbiorn, & de Leon (1998) that if CCT were
provided during the ethnocentric, cultural shock and conformist stages of
adaptation, it would help bring together the practice and theory. This, in turn
would facilitate an immediate connection between the learning and the
expatriates’ practical, day-to-day, operational experiences. Experiential and
interactional strategies ought to provide a large body of practical information
from which to be able to comprehend the fundamentals of the host culture.
Furthermore, the dialogue in the group would provide inspiration for a shift in
the person’s frame of reference as well as bolstering their new social skills.
We believe that the findings of the present study have substantial ramifications
for the practice of CCT as well as for its theory. We propose three key
recommendations that have emerged from this current study. First, the present
study demonstrates that specific components of CCT that enhance the training

of 37
of an expatriate manager can naturally raise the overall quality of the whole CCT
program. More precisely, as our research concentrated on the viability of all
kinds of CCT, a conceivable practical ramification is that future expatriates
should get sequential CCT as prescribed by Selmer et al. (1998). CCT in the host
country may enhance the effectiveness of CCT, since it permits timely
interventions in real life and real-time circumstances. Accordingly, future studies
ought to analyze the adequacy of sequential CCT in home and host countries.
Secondly, we believe that MNCs may need to develop additional tools, based on
local practice, to help their expatriate managers adjust to the unique culture in
the UAE. Possible advances in CCT could incorporate MNC-wide management
information systems designed specifically to help managers in the UAE, as well
as in other Arab countries also. Managers coming back from the UAE may
likewise record their encounters in both work and life circumstances. The HR
department ought to gather this data, process it and summarize its key points
for incorporation into CCT for its future expatriate managers in the UAE. Our last
recommendation is for the MNC to provide more than simply CCT to enhance
the expatriate manager’s pre-departure expectations about the host country.
For instance, MNCs can also provide a trip to the host country before the
manager undertakes the international assignment. The purpose of this would be
to give them both a formal and a casual opportunity to talk about their move
with the other expatriates in the overseas subsidiary. As discussed previously,
the MNCs ought to think carefully about the way the information that they
provide to the expatriate manager, before his overseas assignment, will impact
his/her adjustment process once in the host nation. Finally, for the MNCs
assigning expatriates to the UAE, the conclusions of the present study are
twofold. First, providing CCT to the expatriate manager is a better option rather
than not to provide any CCT and second CCT ought to be sequential. Meanwhile
the adequacy of the sequential CCT was observed to be limited, it might be
fitting to apply complementary means to fortify expatriates’ ability.
7. AVENUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
A weakness of the current research is the dependence on the subjective
readings of a small number of expatriate managers in the UAE. However,
qualitative studies contribute to a profound comprehension of the subject
prompting innovation and theory-building, blended-method research studies
can accommodate opposing demands of theory advancement and the

of 37
utilization of rigorous research methodologies (Srnka & Koeszegi 2007; Tajeddini
& Mueller 2011). In the present study, only expatriates from Anglo-Saxon
countries were chosen; namely British, Americans, Australians, New Zealanders
and South Africans. Given its importance, we suggest that future research may
study more expatriate managers from different nations, as with the expanded
pace of globalization, MNCs from many countries have now invested in the UAE.
The present study can likewise be replicated in other Arab countries like Saudi
Arabia, Qatar, Oman, and so forth, to compare the similarities and differences
with these results, and in this manner endeavor to develop a broader theoretical
model for the Gulf countries.
Future research may likewise incorporate other appropriate issues, (such as
organizational culture, size, and so on), in studying the impact of aspects of CCT
that have not been covered in the present study. This will help us to expand this
research further and it will ideally give more information to HR managers in
designing and planning more suitable CCT programs with the aim of ameliorating
the way expatriates acclimatize to different cultural environments.
In addition, more demographic variables (such as language proficiency, the age
of the expatriate manager, the age of the spouse, the number of children, etc.)
ought to be investigated in the future. It would likewise be intriguing to
empirically examine the responses of HR managers, consultants and non-
managerial employees about the CCT and its impact on expatriate adjustment.
Furthermore, additional extensive research may be undertaken in the future by
utilizing quantitative research methodologies to add more variables, and this will
give more insights into the findings of the present study. More precisely,
quantitative empirical research could likewise be utilized for analyzing the
different variables and their relations with CCT and its impact on expatriate
adjustment.
Finally, at this point, this is the first qualitative study undertaken for recognizing
the connections between CCT and expatriate adjustment in the UAE. It is hoped,
that this present study will prompt more research interest around this area in
future.
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