Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Business Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jbusres
Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines
Hannah Snyder
BI-Norwegian School of Business, Nydalsveien 37, 0484 Oslo, Norway
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Literature review
Synthesis
Research methodology
Systematic review
Integrative review
A B S T R A C T
Knowledge production within the field of business research is accelerating at a tremendous speed while at the
same time remaining fragmented and interdisciplinary. This makes it hard to keep up with state-of-the-art and to
be at the forefront of research, as well as to assess the collective evidence in a particular area of business
research. This is why the literature review as a research method is more relevant than ever. Traditional literature
reviews often lack thoroughness and rigor and are conducted ad hoc, rather than following a specific metho-
dology. Therefore, questions can be raised about the quality and trustworthiness of these types of reviews. This
paper discusses literature review as a methodology for conducting research and offers an overview of different
types of reviews, as well as some guidelines to how to both conduct and evaluate a literature review paper. It also
discusses common pitfalls and how to get literature reviews published.
1. Introduction
Building your research on and relating it to existing knowledge is
the building block of all academic research activities, regardless of
discipline. Therefore, to do so accurately should be a priority for all
academics. However, this task has become increasingly complex.
Knowledge production within the field of business research is accel-
erating at a tremendous speed while at the same time remaining frag-
mented and interdisciplinary. This makes it hard to keep up with state-
of-the-art research and to be at the forefront, as well as to assess the
collective evidence in a particular research area. This is why the lit-
erature review as a research method is more relevant than ever. A lit-
erature review can broadly be described as a more or less systematic
way of collecting and synthesizing previous research (Baumeister &
Leary, 1997; Tranfield, Denyer, & Smart, 2003). An effective and well-
conducted review as a research method creates a firm foundation for
advancing knowledge and facilitating theory development (Webster &
Watson, 2002). By integrating findings and perspectives from many
empirical findings, a literature review can address research questions
with a power that no single study has.
It can also help to provide an overview of areas in which the re-
search is disparate and interdisciplinary. In addition, a literature review
is an excellent way of synthesizing research findings to show evidence
on a meta-level and to uncover areas in which more research is needed,
which is a critical component of creating theoretical frameworks and
building conceptual mod ...
The Importance of Literature Review in Scientific Research Writing.pptxPubrica
Literature reviews are an important part of the scientific research process and communication. While systematic reviews have become the global standard for evidence synthesis, many literature reviews fall short of these expectations and may present biased or incorrect conclusions. In this post, we discussed common issues with Literature search services methods, provided examples for each, and offered practical solutions for mitigating them.
Visit Here - https://pubrica.com/academy/research/the-importance-of-literature-review-in-scientific-research-writing/
The Importance of Literature Review in Scientific Research Writing.pdfPubrica
Literature reviews are an important part of the scientific research process and communication. While systematic reviews have become the global standard for evidence synthesis, many literature reviews fall short of these expectations and may present biased or incorrect conclusions. In this post, we discussed common issues with Literature search services methods, provided examples for each, and offered practical solutions for mitigating them.
Visit Here - https://pubrica.com/academy/research/the-importance-of-literature-review-in-scientific-research-writing/
The Importance of Literature Review in Scientific Research Writing.pptxPubrica
Literature reviews are an important part of the scientific research process and communication. While systematic reviews have become the global standard for evidence synthesis, many literature reviews fall short of these expectations and may present biased or incorrect conclusions. In this post, we discussed common issues with Literature search services methods, provided examples for each, and offered practical solutions for mitigating them.
Visit Here - https://pubrica.com/academy/research/the-importance-of-literature-review-in-scientific-research-writing/
The Importance of Literature Review in Scientific Research Writing.pdfPubrica
Literature reviews are an important part of the scientific research process and communication. While systematic reviews have become the global standard for evidence synthesis, many literature reviews fall short of these expectations and may present biased or incorrect conclusions. In this post, we discussed common issues with Literature search services methods, provided examples for each, and offered practical solutions for mitigating them.
Visit Here - https://pubrica.com/academy/research/the-importance-of-literature-review-in-scientific-research-writing/
Review of literature is one of the most important steps in the research process.
Literature review helps the researcher to get used to the related material on the study
Gives an overview of the field of inquiry on what has been already said about the topic.
Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research paper’s investigation.
It also provide the knowledge about the problems faced by the previous researchers’ while studying same topic
Stepby-step guide to critiquingresearch. Part 1 quantitati.docxsusanschei
Step'by-step guide to critiquing
research. Part 1: quantitative research
Michaei Coughian, Patricia Cronin, Frances Ryan
Abstract
When caring for patients it is essential that nurses are using the
current best practice. To determine what this is, nurses must be able
to read research critically. But for many qualified and student nurses
the terminology used in research can be difficult to understand
thus making critical reading even more daunting. It is imperative
in nursing that care has its foundations in sound research and it is
essential that all nurses have the ability to critically appraise research
to identify what is best practice. This article is a step-by step-approach
to critiquing quantitative research to help nurses demystify the
process and decode the terminology.
Key words: Quantitative research
methodologies
Review process • Research
]or many qualified nurses and nursing students
research is research, and it is often quite difficult
to grasp what others are referring to when they
discuss the limitations and or strengths within
a research study. Research texts and journals refer to
critiquing the literature, critical analysis, reviewing the
literature, evaluation and appraisal of the literature which
are in essence the same thing (Bassett and Bassett, 2003).
Terminology in research can be confusing for the novice
research reader where a term like 'random' refers to an
organized manner of selecting items or participants, and the
word 'significance' is applied to a degree of chance. Thus
the aim of this article is to take a step-by-step approach to
critiquing research in an attempt to help nurses demystify
the process and decode the terminology.
When caring for patients it is essential that nurses are
using the current best practice. To determine what this is
nurses must be able to read research. The adage 'All that
glitters is not gold' is also true in research. Not all research
is of the same quality or of a high standard and therefore
nurses should not simply take research at face value simply
because it has been published (Cullum and Droogan, 1999;
Rolit and Beck, 2006). Critiquing is a systematic method of
Michael Coughlan, Patricia Cronin and Frances Ryan are Lecturers,
School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Dubhn, Trinity
College, Dublin
Accepted for publication: March 2007
appraising the strengths and limitations of a piece of research
in order to determine its credibility and/or its applicability
to practice (Valente, 2003). Seeking only limitations in a
study is criticism and critiquing and criticism are not the
same (Burns and Grove, 1997). A critique is an impersonal
evaluation of the strengths and limitations of the research
being reviewed and should not be seen as a disparagement
of the researchers ability. Neither should it be regarded as
a jousting match between the researcher and the reviewer.
Burns and Grove (1999) call this an 'intellectual critique'
in that it is not the creator but the creati.
A model for handling overloading of literature review process for social scienceSalam Shah
Literature review is an excruciating part in the process of research. It requires an analysis of
published material on the topic on interest. Moreover, for a new researcher, it is challenging
extract a great number of required objectives, including the problem identification,
no more great deal in this era of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), instead
overloading of the literature is a major problem and the great change to be handle. Often
postgraduate research students raise three questions to their peers and supervisors. First, how
many articles are sufficed for a good literature review? Second, how many past years
literature will be enough to meet the required level for a good literature review? And third,
this research paper a novel hypothetical model is proposed to answer first two questions; the
number of articles required for a good and reasonable literature review and number of years
backward the analysis of articles required for the same. Our results indicate that analysis of
data partially support our hypothetical model and its assumptions.
Keywords: literature review; hypothetical model; load reduction; proposal writing;
information systems.
This presentation describes the importance of literature review, how to run literature search, and how to write it. Tools to manage references are also covered.
Synthesizing an Excellent Literature Review - PhdassistancePhD Assistance
A literature review surveys the books, scholarly papers, and any other sources related to a specific issue, field of study, or theory, and provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in connection to the research subject under consideration. Literature reviews are aimed to offer readers an overview of the sources you used when researching a certain issue and to show them how your research fits into a larger field of study.
Learn More:https://bit.ly/3lwRxpq
Contact Us:
Website: https://www.phdassistance.com/
UK: +44 7537144372
India No:+91-9176966446
Assignment 2 Recipe for Success!Every individual approaches life .docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Recipe for Success!
Every individual approaches life and situations differently. We all use communication as a means to express ourselves. However, communication is as much about listening as it is about talking. Communication is a mutual exchange.
Everyone has had a disagreement with someone in which the other person may respond with “You aren’t listening to me!” or “You don’t understand me!” The fact is, you are not validating the other person or are perceived as someone who is not providing validation. Validation can defuse a potentially explosive scenario.
Consider your personal experiences and communication skills.
What are the skills you use to communicate and how do they impact your interactions with others?
How do you plan to manage conflict communication?
Do you set a goal for the outcome you are seeking to achieve?
Do you consider your audience?
What point of view do you try to convey?
What is your message or argument in communication?
Have you ever applied the principles above? Have they worked for you? If not, what has worked for you?
Write your responses in two to three paragraphs
.
Assignment 2 Secure Intranet Portal LoginBackgroundYou are the.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Secure Intranet Portal Login
Background:
You are the security professional for a medium-sized manufacturing company. The organization would like to deploy a secure portal for in-house use only. The portal will be available from the company's intranet. The company is utilizing a Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS) server to run the local intranet website. The portal will be created by in-house programming staff utilizing ASP.NET technology and scripting.
The management requires the login to be protected using Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS). In addition, the management would like to use an integrated login so that users do not have to remember or create a separate username or password for this portal login. The company is using a Windows Server 2012 Active Directory infrastructure. All users logging on to the portal also have existing active directory user accounts. The company also has an in-house Windows Server that serves as a local certificate authority for other existing web applications and services.
Tasks:
Create a 4- to 5-page report that will be shared with the company's board of directors, providing guidance and recommendations on how to best secure the web portal. Your report should cover the following aspects:
Describe what Windows-integrated authentication is and how it could potentially be used to provide secure access control to the portal.
Describe the use of Windows security groups and explain how a connection to active directory could be performed using the existing technology (existing IIS server and Windows Server 2012 Active Directory).
Describe how Windows certificate services work. Recommend a solution that would utilize the in-house Windows certificate authority server to provide a certificate to the new portal.
Explain how users can connect and log on to the portal in a secure fashion using secured socket layer (SSL) or HTTPS to ensure that all login credentials and activities on the portal are secure and encrypted.
Ensure that you write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and display accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Submission Details:
Create your report in a Microsoft Word document.
Save the document as M4_A2_Lastname_Firstname.doc.
By
Wednesday, June 14, 2017
, submit your document to the
M4 Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Described what Windows-integrated authentication is and explained how it could potentially be used to provide secure access control to the portal.
20
Described the use of Windows security groups and how a connection to active directory could be performed using the existing technology (existing IIS server and Windows Server 2012 Active Directory).
20
Described how Windows certificate services work. Recommended a solution that would utilize the in-house Windows certificate authority server to provide a certificate to the ne.
More Related Content
Similar to Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of Busine
Review of literature is one of the most important steps in the research process.
Literature review helps the researcher to get used to the related material on the study
Gives an overview of the field of inquiry on what has been already said about the topic.
Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research paper’s investigation.
It also provide the knowledge about the problems faced by the previous researchers’ while studying same topic
Stepby-step guide to critiquingresearch. Part 1 quantitati.docxsusanschei
Step'by-step guide to critiquing
research. Part 1: quantitative research
Michaei Coughian, Patricia Cronin, Frances Ryan
Abstract
When caring for patients it is essential that nurses are using the
current best practice. To determine what this is, nurses must be able
to read research critically. But for many qualified and student nurses
the terminology used in research can be difficult to understand
thus making critical reading even more daunting. It is imperative
in nursing that care has its foundations in sound research and it is
essential that all nurses have the ability to critically appraise research
to identify what is best practice. This article is a step-by step-approach
to critiquing quantitative research to help nurses demystify the
process and decode the terminology.
Key words: Quantitative research
methodologies
Review process • Research
]or many qualified nurses and nursing students
research is research, and it is often quite difficult
to grasp what others are referring to when they
discuss the limitations and or strengths within
a research study. Research texts and journals refer to
critiquing the literature, critical analysis, reviewing the
literature, evaluation and appraisal of the literature which
are in essence the same thing (Bassett and Bassett, 2003).
Terminology in research can be confusing for the novice
research reader where a term like 'random' refers to an
organized manner of selecting items or participants, and the
word 'significance' is applied to a degree of chance. Thus
the aim of this article is to take a step-by-step approach to
critiquing research in an attempt to help nurses demystify
the process and decode the terminology.
When caring for patients it is essential that nurses are
using the current best practice. To determine what this is
nurses must be able to read research. The adage 'All that
glitters is not gold' is also true in research. Not all research
is of the same quality or of a high standard and therefore
nurses should not simply take research at face value simply
because it has been published (Cullum and Droogan, 1999;
Rolit and Beck, 2006). Critiquing is a systematic method of
Michael Coughlan, Patricia Cronin and Frances Ryan are Lecturers,
School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Dubhn, Trinity
College, Dublin
Accepted for publication: March 2007
appraising the strengths and limitations of a piece of research
in order to determine its credibility and/or its applicability
to practice (Valente, 2003). Seeking only limitations in a
study is criticism and critiquing and criticism are not the
same (Burns and Grove, 1997). A critique is an impersonal
evaluation of the strengths and limitations of the research
being reviewed and should not be seen as a disparagement
of the researchers ability. Neither should it be regarded as
a jousting match between the researcher and the reviewer.
Burns and Grove (1999) call this an 'intellectual critique'
in that it is not the creator but the creati.
A model for handling overloading of literature review process for social scienceSalam Shah
Literature review is an excruciating part in the process of research. It requires an analysis of
published material on the topic on interest. Moreover, for a new researcher, it is challenging
extract a great number of required objectives, including the problem identification,
no more great deal in this era of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), instead
overloading of the literature is a major problem and the great change to be handle. Often
postgraduate research students raise three questions to their peers and supervisors. First, how
many articles are sufficed for a good literature review? Second, how many past years
literature will be enough to meet the required level for a good literature review? And third,
this research paper a novel hypothetical model is proposed to answer first two questions; the
number of articles required for a good and reasonable literature review and number of years
backward the analysis of articles required for the same. Our results indicate that analysis of
data partially support our hypothetical model and its assumptions.
Keywords: literature review; hypothetical model; load reduction; proposal writing;
information systems.
This presentation describes the importance of literature review, how to run literature search, and how to write it. Tools to manage references are also covered.
Synthesizing an Excellent Literature Review - PhdassistancePhD Assistance
A literature review surveys the books, scholarly papers, and any other sources related to a specific issue, field of study, or theory, and provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in connection to the research subject under consideration. Literature reviews are aimed to offer readers an overview of the sources you used when researching a certain issue and to show them how your research fits into a larger field of study.
Learn More:https://bit.ly/3lwRxpq
Contact Us:
Website: https://www.phdassistance.com/
UK: +44 7537144372
India No:+91-9176966446
Assignment 2 Recipe for Success!Every individual approaches life .docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Recipe for Success!
Every individual approaches life and situations differently. We all use communication as a means to express ourselves. However, communication is as much about listening as it is about talking. Communication is a mutual exchange.
Everyone has had a disagreement with someone in which the other person may respond with “You aren’t listening to me!” or “You don’t understand me!” The fact is, you are not validating the other person or are perceived as someone who is not providing validation. Validation can defuse a potentially explosive scenario.
Consider your personal experiences and communication skills.
What are the skills you use to communicate and how do they impact your interactions with others?
How do you plan to manage conflict communication?
Do you set a goal for the outcome you are seeking to achieve?
Do you consider your audience?
What point of view do you try to convey?
What is your message or argument in communication?
Have you ever applied the principles above? Have they worked for you? If not, what has worked for you?
Write your responses in two to three paragraphs
.
Assignment 2 Secure Intranet Portal LoginBackgroundYou are the.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Secure Intranet Portal Login
Background:
You are the security professional for a medium-sized manufacturing company. The organization would like to deploy a secure portal for in-house use only. The portal will be available from the company's intranet. The company is utilizing a Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS) server to run the local intranet website. The portal will be created by in-house programming staff utilizing ASP.NET technology and scripting.
The management requires the login to be protected using Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS). In addition, the management would like to use an integrated login so that users do not have to remember or create a separate username or password for this portal login. The company is using a Windows Server 2012 Active Directory infrastructure. All users logging on to the portal also have existing active directory user accounts. The company also has an in-house Windows Server that serves as a local certificate authority for other existing web applications and services.
Tasks:
Create a 4- to 5-page report that will be shared with the company's board of directors, providing guidance and recommendations on how to best secure the web portal. Your report should cover the following aspects:
Describe what Windows-integrated authentication is and how it could potentially be used to provide secure access control to the portal.
Describe the use of Windows security groups and explain how a connection to active directory could be performed using the existing technology (existing IIS server and Windows Server 2012 Active Directory).
Describe how Windows certificate services work. Recommend a solution that would utilize the in-house Windows certificate authority server to provide a certificate to the new portal.
Explain how users can connect and log on to the portal in a secure fashion using secured socket layer (SSL) or HTTPS to ensure that all login credentials and activities on the portal are secure and encrypted.
Ensure that you write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and display accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Submission Details:
Create your report in a Microsoft Word document.
Save the document as M4_A2_Lastname_Firstname.doc.
By
Wednesday, June 14, 2017
, submit your document to the
M4 Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Described what Windows-integrated authentication is and explained how it could potentially be used to provide secure access control to the portal.
20
Described the use of Windows security groups and how a connection to active directory could be performed using the existing technology (existing IIS server and Windows Server 2012 Active Directory).
20
Described how Windows certificate services work. Recommended a solution that would utilize the in-house Windows certificate authority server to provide a certificate to the ne.
Assignment 2 Research proposal1)Introduce the issue a.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Research proposal
1)
Introduce the issue and then present it in question form.
2)
Explain briefly why you are interested in the issue (no need for details here since you have already discussed this in your personal experience paper)
3)
Describe what you already know about the issue. (its general context, history behind it, etc.)
4)
Explain what you need to learn to present an effective argument.
5)
Show your plans for conducting research about this topic.
read the attachment and wright two pages research proposal based on this steps above.
.
Assignment 2 Required Assignment 1—The FMLA in PracticeThe Family.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Required Assignment 1—The FMLA in Practice
The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) was enacted in 1993 and entitles eligible employees of employers covered under it to take unpaid, job-protected leave for specific family and medical reasons. During this leave, group health insurance coverage continues under the same terms and conditions applicable if the employees had not taken leave.
You may access the latest rules covered under the FMLA at the following Web site:
U.S. Department of Labor. (n.d.)
Wage and Hour Division (WHD): Family Leave and Medical Act
. Retrieved from
http://www.dol.gov/whd/fmla/
In this assignment, you will analyze the FMLA policy of an organization to understand the policy's role and importance in employee management.
Tasks:
Click
here
to access and read a portion of the employee handbook of Widgets Inc. that outlines the company's FMLA policy statement. Analyze the handbook on the basis of FMLA guidelines. Identify a minimum of five errors or oversights that relate to the FMLA and list their solutions in a separate document.
In addition, in the same document, include answers to the following questions:
What are three alternative methods of calculating twelve weeks of leave within a twelve-month period? Which method do you believe is the best and why?
An employee should give as much notice as possible to his or her employer. The Department of Labor suggests a minimum notice of thirty days. What if an employee needs emergency FMLA leave? Is the employee still allowed to take FMLA leave, although he or she was unable to give the thirty-day notice?
What are the legal ramifications if the same position is not available to an employee on his or her returning from FMLA leave?
During an employee's FMLA leave, Widgets Inc. downsizes and closes the department in which the employee works. What will happen to the employee? What are the legal ramifications?
Submission Details:
Save your final document as M3_A2_Lastname_Firstname.doc and, by
Wednesday, February 1, 2017
, submit it to the
M3: Assignment 2 RA 1 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Identified a minimum of five errors or oversights on the basis of the FMLA policy and suggested practical solutions for each.
56
Evaluated alternative methods of calculating twelve weeks of leave within a twelve-month period.
32
Explained the stand of the FMLA policy if an employee needs emergency FMLA leave without giving the thirty-day notice.
24
Explained the legal ramifications if the same position is not available to an employee on his or her returning from FMLA leave.
24
Explained the legal ramifications if a company downsizes and closes the department in which the employee works during the employee’s FMLA leave.
24
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
40
Total:
200
WIDGETS FAMILY LEAVE HANDBOOK.
Assignment 2 Research ProjectThis assignment consists of two pa.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Research Project
This assignment consists of two parts. The first part consists of the third installment for the research paper and is worth 20 points out of the 200 points allotted for this assignment. The second part requires application of concepts learned in
Weeks 1–3
and is worth significantly more than previous assignments and more than the first part of the assignment.
Part I—Research Paper
This week, you will research laws or regulations related to the topic you selected. The information may require research of federal and/or state laws, as well as administrative agency laws. Compare the laws of two states, if applicable. For example, if you are writing about gender discrimination, compare the federal law with law from one of the states that also provides protection at the state level. State laws often provide more protection than the federal law. Summarize the information about the laws or regulations you found related to your topic.
Compile your response to Part I in a Microsoft Word document
Part II—Legal and Ethical Challenges in Business Organizations
Read the scenarios and the questions that follow. Identify the legal issue(s) and apply legal concepts and possible arguments for each question. After reading the scenarios, prepare a resolution for each question using laws, cases, examples, and/or other relevant materials. Consider using short headings (consult APA materials) to separate the topics. Summarize the facts; do not copy the scenarios into the paper. After you have answered the questions and before the conclusion, identify potential ethical issues and propose recommendations to help the organization avoid future occurrences of the legal and ethical issues discussed in the assignment. Support your answers with information from the textbook and at least five scholarly sources other than the text and course lectures.
Prepare an 8- to 12-page paper that identifies the legal issues and potential solutions and answers all questions presented, supported by relevant legal authority. Properly cite all sources using APA format. Do not exceed the page length by more than two pages, as the instructor is not required to read excess pages.
Compile your response to Part II in a Microsoft Word document
Overview
Famous Subs and Pizza Company (FSPC) is a publicly traded corporation headquartered in Tallahassee, Florida, operating restaurants in ten states. The company also owns a food processing and distribution facility in Jackson, Mississippi. Approximately 20% of the employees work full time; however, FSPC primarily hires part-time employees as delivery drivers, cooks, and sandwich makers. FSPC leases space for most of its restaurants in shopping centers, but the company owns a few of the properties, as well as its headquarters office and the distribution facility. The company has experienced explosive growth over the last three years, but the growth has been accompanied by an increase in legal issues. The CEO, C.
Assignment 2 Required Assignment 2—Implementation of Sustainability.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Required Assignment 2—Implementation of Sustainability in an Organization
All consumers and firms affect sustainability in different ways, either directly or indirectly. In practicing sustainability, a firm could create value for consumers, investors, and other stakeholders, such as the community in which the firm operates within its value chain. In addition, a firm engaging in good sustainable practices can fulfill the needs of its customers, earn a profit, and preserve the environment. This assignment will allow you, as a consumer, to explore how you can impact sustainability.
Tasks:
Propose a sustainability investment plan to improve the performance of your work group or organization or an organization you hope to work for. The investment can be made in human resources, in expansion of tangible or intangible assets toward new uses, or in capital equipment or new technology.
Analyze how the investment plan achieves the following:
Contributes to the mission of the company
Expands rewards for all major components of the value chain, which should include the company, employees, suppliers, and customers
Generates wealth or value and is sustainable over time
Evaluates and anticipates risks associated with the investment
Organize your work to create a 2- to 3-page professional memo in a Microsoft Word document outlining your investment plan to the director and an 8- to 10-slide Microsoft PowerPoint presentation script with complete endnotes explaining your recommendations to employees in your work group. Follow APA standards for citation of sources.
Submission Details:
.
Assignment 2: Required Assignment 1—Intercultural Employee Motivation and Rewards
Culture plays a major role in the motivation of employees. Consider that though you have a mix of ethnicities on your team, you also need to be aware of cultural differences including gender, generation, and other categories of human differences.
Write an 8–10-page report on employee motivation, including a recommendation for an employee reward system that will meet the needs of the variety of cultural groups you manage based on the following motivation factors:
Job security
Professional development
Job performance
Goal setting
Employee recognition
Compensation
Discuss employee motivation as it relates to culture, and consider how you might develop a reward system that recognizes diversity and is equitable and legally sound. Support your recommendations with scholarly references.
Write an 8–10-page report in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M3_A2.doc.
.
Assignment 2 Rape and PornographyA long-standing question in the .docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Rape and Pornography
A long-standing question in the field of psychology concerns the relationship between exposure to sexually explicit material, pornography, and criminal behavior. One of the most significant issues focuses on the impact that pornography has on an individual’s propensity to commit rape.
Select
two
peer-reviewed journal articles to examine the correlation between rape and pornography.
Write a paper that includes the following:
Analyze the selected journal articles and identify any correlation between rape and pornography. Provide statistical information in support.
Synthesize your research and conclude, with reasons, whether pornography leads to sexual violence. If not, state the factors that contribute to sexual violence.
Analyze whether the regulation of pornography is warranted based on the evidence so far.
Give reasons for your responses. Support your statements with appropriate examples.
.
Assignment 2 Rape and Pornography Due Tuesday January 3rd, 2.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Rape and Pornography Due: Tuesday January 3
rd
, 2017
A long-standing question in the field of psychology concerns the relationship between exposure to sexually explicit material, pornography, and criminal behavior. One of the most significant issues focuses on the impact that pornography has on an individual’s propensity to commit rape.
Select
two
peer-reviewed journal articles to examine the correlation between rape and pornography.
Write a paper that includes the following:
Analyze the selected journal articles and identify any correlation between rape and pornography. Provide statistical information in support.
Synthesize your research and conclude, with reasons, whether pornography leads to sexual violence. If not, state the factors that contribute to sexual violence.
Analyze whether the regulation of pornography is warranted based on the evidence so far.
Give reasons for your responses. Support your statements with appropriate examples.
Write a 3–4-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Be sure to include a tile page and reference page in APA format.
.
Assignment 2 RA 2 Case ScenarioBackgroundThe defendant is a f.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: RA 2: Case Scenario
Background:
The defendant is a forty-year-old, single, black female charged with a first-degree assault. Specifically, she is alleged to have splashed liquid fire, a liquid drain cleaner, onto another woman's face, thus incidentally splashing five bystanders. Per the court order you received, Ms. Tyler was referred some time after the alleged crime for evaluation of her criminal responsibility. Her competency to stand trial (CST) was also at issue. At the time of the evaluation, Ms. Tyler was being held at the Southern County Detention Center. You met with Ms. Tyler. The defendant was informed that the results of the evaluation will be released to the court and that the results may be used against her in the court. Ms. Tyler gave her written consent to be evaluated.
Psychosocial History:
Only limited information is available regarding Ms. Tyler's background. She is a lifetime resident of the state. Her mother died of cancer at the age of seventy-nine years. Her father, L. Defendant, is eighty-four years old and is a retired farmer. Ms. Tyler has five living sisters, four living brothers, and two deceased siblings. Three of her sisters have received inpatient psychiatric treatment. One sister lives in Close Town, one in Europe with her husband who is in the military, and one sister died in a drowning accident. One brother committed suicide by hanging himself. There is no history of psychiatric problems among the other brothers.
Ms. Tyler has completed the tenth grade. She is literate. Ms. Tyler has worked on an assembly line for five years until 1988 when the factory closed. She then did an office-cleaning job. Her reasons for leaving this position are vague. She was unemployed for several years and was supported by her family. She lives in rent-free government housing. Her church pastor, A. Reverend, arranged for her to get employment at Helpful Industries through a vocational office at the State Psychiatric Hospital. She was employed at Helpful Industries for approximately two months prior to the incident. Ms. Tyler has never married. She has a thirteen-year-old son who lives with his father.
Psychiatric History:
Ms. Tyler denies any previous psychiatric treatment. Family members and individuals who know Ms. Tyler state that she has a long history of psychiatric symptoms such as loose associations and persecutory delusions. Ms. Tyler's sister, Ms. Sister, reports that Ms. Tyler has been violent in the past, threatening her niece with a knife. Her emotional difficulties were also apparently common knowledge among her congregation. As stated above, Ms. Tyler has a positive family history for psychiatric illness. Ms. Tyler is currently on haloperidol, an antipsychotic medication.
Ms. Tyler denies any alcohol or substance abuse. She states that she has one previous arrest for prostitution in 1975. She spent six months in jail for this offense.
Report of the Crime:
When asked to report what happened, Ms. Tyler st.
Assignment 2 RA 2 Characteristics of Effective Treatment Programs.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: RA 2: Characteristics of Effective Treatment Programs
Several types of intervention and treatment approaches have been presented in your course textbook. In addition, evidence-based treatment programs are presented on the recommended government website,
http://www.crimesolutions.gov/
. The Office of Justice Programs' Crime
Solution
s.gov uses rigorous research to determine what works in criminal justice, juvenile justice, and crime victim services. On Crime
.
Assignment 2 Pay Increase Demands of EmployeesYou are an HR manag.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Pay Increase Demands of Employees
You are an HR manager with Spring Valley Laboratories. The organization pays its employees according to specific pay grades and ranges but maintains secrecy surrounding the specific numbers.
Nancy Lopez, a highly skilled medical technician, discovers that a male employee whose qualifications, experience, and job profile are similar to Nancy's is getting a considerably better package than she. Nancy serves a notice to the executive director, John Morrison, and threatens to resign if the organization does not grant her an immediate pay increase.
John does not want to lose Nancy because she is a skilled employee who has performed well in her eight-month career with the organization. John writes you an e-mail and seeks your advice on the case. You check Nancy's employment records and find that Nancy was given the compensation package that she had asked for during her final interview. You also find that Nancy's package is toward the lower limit of the pay range applicable for her job position. Nancy's salary is due for review after four months.
Based on this information frame your response to John. The response should answer the following:
Is Nancy's case a situation where a pay increase is called for? Why or why not? Justify your response with facts.
Is Nancy's case eligible as a pay inequity grievance? Why or why not? Explain.
How should Spring Valley Laboratories handle the situation? Provide John with a detailed plan of how the situation should be handled.
What impact would granting or not granting Nancy an immediate pay increase have on other employees? Why?
Articulate your response to John's e-mail. Your response should be in e-mail format and approximately two pages in MSWord. Use structured text (bolding, headings, bulleted lists, tables/charts) where appropriate to improve communicating your points. Send your email response to the
M4: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Wednesday, April 19, 2017
. Ensure that the tone of your response is formal and appropriate for the audience and use references to support your response.
.
Assignment 2 Policy and Client Impact DevelopmentFor this assig.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Policy and Client Impact Development
For this assignment
, you are expected to identify a sub-population within the field agency, then research and discuss with your field coordinator the state
(Idaho)
and federal policies that may impact the identified clients. Finally, discuss if there is a possibility for you to advocate on behalf of those clients.
The Assignment, submit a 2-3 page paper in which you:
o
Identify the subpopulation (Sexual Assault Victims)
o
Identify State and federal policies and discuss their impact on the clients identified
o
Provide suggestions for the agency
o
Discuss possibilities to advocate for the clients
References (use 3 or more)
Garthwait, C. L. (2017).
The social work practicum: A guide and workbook for students
(7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
.
Assignment 2 Public Health Administration Modern medical an.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2:
Public Health Administration
Modern medical and public health education was defined by two early 20
th
Century landmark documents: the
Flexner Report
and the
Welch-Rose Report
. These created two parallel and sometimes divergent systems. Review this 2008
NPR interview
about the Flexner Report and Pages 49-55 of the
Welch-Rose Report
. Then, expand your research to how (and if) medical care and public health intersect. Are they mutually supportive or do they operate in silos? Is there room for improvement?
Submit your critical analysis in a 4-5 page paper (not including your title page and references) with appropriate supporting references
.
Assignment 2 Nuclear MedicineNuclear medicine is a specialized br.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Nuclear Medicine
Nuclear medicine is a specialized branch of modern medicine that exploits the process of radioactivity for imaging, diagnosis, and treatment. Many imaging techniques inject small amounts of radioactive material into the body, which are then tracked by a sensing device specific to the type of radiation emitted from that material. Radiation has also been used to destroy diseased tissue, typically beyond the reach of standard surgical techniques.
Using the readings for this module, the Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet, write a paper on nuclear medicine. Address the following:
Explain the scientific and technical concepts related to nuclear medicine. Consider the following questions when you construct your response:
What type of radiation is typically exploited in most nuclear medicine procedures?
How are patients prepared for nuclear medicine procedures?
What are the advantages and limitations of nuclear medicine?
What ailments are typically diagnosed and treated via nuclear medicine procedures?
Evaluate a minimum of three applications of nuclear medicine relating to any of the following topics:
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans
Gallium scans
Indium white blood cell scans
Iobenguane scans (MIBG)
Octreotide scans
Hybrid scanning techniques employing X-ray computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Nuclear medicine therapy using radiopharmaceuticals
Support your statements with examples. Provide a minimum of three scholarly references.
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M4_A2.doc.
By
Wednesday, April 19, 2017
, deliver your assignment to the
M4: Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Demonstrated an understanding of the basic scientific and technical concepts of nuclear medicine.
28
Evaluated current or future applications of nuclear medicine with three real-world examples.
32
Provided at least three reliable references to support examples of current and future nuclear medicine applications.
20
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
.
Assignment 2 RA 1 Human Service Needs Assessment ReportOver the .docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: RA 1: Human Service Needs Assessment Report
Over the past two decades, the terms "accountability" and "program evaluation" have become the focus within the human services arena. Due to budgetary constraints and decrease in availability of public funding, the competition for scarce resources has increased. This increased competition has subjected human services agencies to an intense examination where requests for resources are scrutinized carefully.
The first step to conducting a program evaluation is to conduct a
needs assessment
to determine and justify the reason for carrying out the evaluation of a particular program. A need can be defined as the gap between what is and what should be and can be experienced by an individual, a group, or an entire community.
Tasks:
Using at least 3–5 scholarly resources from the professional literature, research human service needs assessment. The literature may include the Argosy University online library resources, relevant textbooks, peer-reviewed journal articles, and websites created by professional organizations, agencies, or institutions (.edu, .org, or .gov).
Create a 7- to 9-page report in a Microsoft Word document, including the following:
Identify a program at a social agency or other human services program to which you have access and provide a description of the organizational context including the mission and objectives of the program and why an evaluation is being considered.
Conduct a
needs assessment
using concepts presented previously to confirm and explain the scope of the problem, the perceived versus actual gap in service, the affected population, whether the need is changing, and in what manner the need may be changing.
Identify possible resources to meet the perceived needs. Discuss what existing resources can be used, what additional information would be needed, and what sources for obtaining data you would use.
Identify the stakeholders who need to be included in the assessment and subsequent evaluation.
Analyze the interpersonal, political, and ethical considerations of interacting with decision makers and stakeholders who may have conflicting priorities and determine strategies for reconciling those priorities.
.
Assignment 2 Music Analysis 3 pages pleasePURPOSE The purp.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Music Analysis 3 pages please
PURPOSE:
The purpose of this assignment is to use content analysis to critically analyze how one social issue/problem is discussed and represented in popular culture through music lyrics.
BACKGROUND:
There are many agents of popular culture though which the messages, themes and symbols of popular culture are produced and consumed. Media is a key agent of popular culture, and within it music is one mode for the production and consumption of popular culture. The music of the 1960s marked a key period of transition in the United States as themes of social problems and dissidence started to fill the radio waves. This assignment will allow you to explore one social issue or problem in music today.
See below (NOTE THAT THERE ARE TWO OPTIONS: OPTION 1 AND OPTION 2) for a detailed assignment description.
Option 1 Instructions:
1) Choose one social issue or social problem (i.e. drugs, the environment, war, teenage pregnancy, hate crimes, etc.).
2) Find at least 5 songs with lyrics that address your chosen social issue/problem. You will need to cite these songs using proper APA formatting (see below).
3) Analyze the songs for similarities and differences in how they address the social issue/problem. You may:
- look for themes within and among the songs (i.e. songs about war that talk about ‘ending war’
- consider the year the songs were copyrighted
- consider the genre the song fits in
- is the song directed at a particular audience? (think socio-demographic characteristics: age, race/ethnicity, gender, socio-economic status (SES), and sexuality)
- what type of vocabulary, words, grammar, euphemisms, vernacular is used for the lyrics?
- Consider the actual production of the song as well: tempo, emotion, male/female singer, individual singer/band, etc.
4) Find at least two sources that address music and your social problem (i.e. the sources are providing similar analysis or commentary on how your social problem is addressed through music). These may be popular sources (i.e. magazine articles or websites), but Wikipedia is not acceptable.
5) Find at least one peer-reviewed article (see attached Finding Peer Reviewed Journals guidelines) that discusses your social issue problem and how it is portrayed by the media (ideally this would be focused on your social issue and problem, but this may be difficult to find – so an article on TV, radio, internet, movies is OK).
6) Write-up your paper
a) Cover Page
b) Clearly identify your chosen social issue/problem.
a. Why are you interested in studying this?
c) Write-up your analysis of how this social issue/problem is addressed in the 5 songs you chose
a.
NOTE:
this is the majority of your paper. It is a ‘comparative critical’ analysis of how your chosen social issue/problem is addressed in these songs. It is NOT a summary of each song, and it should not include cutting and pastin.
Assignment 2 Methods of InquiryThe principle methods of inquiry.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2:
Methods of Inquiry
The principle methods of inquiry are divided into two broad, distinct categories: those that reconstruct the past and those that discover or create new knowledge. Based on your reading answer the following questions:
What are methods of inquiry and how are they used in criminal investigation?
Describe the steps to reconstruct a case and use an example to illustrate the concepts.
Describe how reconstructing a crime scene can aid in understanding the fundamentals of criminal investigations. Keep in mind the fundamentals are identifying witnesses, offenders, connecting evidence from the scene to the offender and victim, and but not limited to apprehending the offender(s).
Requirements
APA format and Style
5 pages, include Title and Reference page
1 resource, can include textbook
Standard American English Grammar, sustained point of view throughout the writing
.
Assignment 2 Legislator Communication Friday 01072 Tasks.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Legislator Communication Friday 01/07
2
Tasks:
This written assignment requires the student to investigate his/her local, state and federal legislators and explore their assigned committees and legislative commitments. The student is expected to investigate current and actual legislative initiatives that have either passed or pending approval by the house, senate or Governor’s office. The student will draft a letter to a specific legislator and offer support or constructive argument against pending policy or legislation. The letter must be supported with a minimum of 3 evidence based primary citations.
My state is Florida
.
Assignment 2 Last MileThe last mile is a term that is used to e.docxMerrileeDelvalle969
Assignment 2: Last Mile
The "last mile" is a term that is used to explain how the end user ultimately connects to a network. Regardless of which Internet service provider (ISP) a business or an individual uses, a network's connectivity, signal, noise ratios, and other network components are often determined by the last mile provider. Usually, there is only one, which makes it nearly impossible to have any form of true redundancy. It is an important element to understand while you study networking.
In this assignment, you will research and study the concept of the last mile and T1 communications.
Tasks:
Develop a 4- to 5-page paper and address the following:
Evaluate the last mile connection in terms of a link that is used between an end user and an ISP.
Explain the last mile link options that are typically available to most end users (such as cable and digital subscriber line [DSL] services). Keep in mind that these options are usually missing in small rural communities.
Identify two to three of the more common connections and summarize their associated data rates, typical uses, and approximate costs. Obtain the exact cost information from at least one of the service providers.
Examine the role that T1 communications lines play in long-distance communications in conjunction with repeaters.
Compare different carriers used by service providers (such as a telecommunication company versus a cable service provider). Also, differentiate the types of equipment used as carriers by these service providers.
Note
: Your paper should utilize at least three scholarly or professional sources (beyond your textbook). Your paper should be written in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources (i.e., in APA format); and display accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Submission Details:
By
Wednesday, March 1, 2017
, save your paper as M4_A2_Lastname_Firstname.doc and submit it to the
M4 Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Evaluated the last mile connection.
20
Explained the last mile link options that are typically available to most end users.
20
Identified two to three of the more common connections and summarized their associated data rates, typical uses, and approximate costs.
20
Examined the role that T1 communications lines play in long-distance communications in conjunction with repeaters.
12
Compared different carriers used by service providers.
8
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of Busine
1. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Business Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jbusres
Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and
guidelines
Hannah Snyder
BI-Norwegian School of Business, Nydalsveien 37, 0484 Oslo,
Norway
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Literature review
Synthesis
Research methodology
Systematic review
Integrative review
A B S T R A C T
Knowledge production within the field of business research is
accelerating at a tremendous speed while at the
same time remaining fragmented and interdisciplinary. This
makes it hard to keep up with state-of-the-art and to
be at the forefront of research, as well as to assess the
collective evidence in a particular area of business
research. This is why the literature review as a research method
is more relevant than ever. Traditional literature
2. reviews often lack thoroughness and rigor and are conducted ad
hoc, rather than following a specific metho-
dology. Therefore, questions can be raised about the quality and
trustworthiness of these types of reviews. This
paper discusses literature review as a methodology for
conducting research and offers an overview of different
types of reviews, as well as some guidelines to how to both
conduct and evaluate a literature review paper. It also
discusses common pitfalls and how to get literature reviews
published.
1. Introduction
Building your research on and relating it to existing knowledge
is
the building block of all academic research activities, regardless
of
discipline. Therefore, to do so accurately should be a priority
for all
academics. However, this task has become increasingly
complex.
Knowledge production within the field of business research is
accel-
erating at a tremendous speed while at the same time remaining
frag-
mented and interdisciplinary. This makes it hard to keep up with
state-
of-the-art research and to be at the forefront, as well as to
assess the
collective evidence in a particular research area. This is why the
lit-
erature review as a research method is more relevant than ever.
A lit-
erature review can broadly be described as a more or less
systematic
way of collecting and synthesizing previous research
3. (Baumeister &
Leary, 1997; Tranfield, Denyer, & Smart, 2003). An effective
and well-
conducted review as a research method creates a firm
foundation for
advancing knowledge and facilitating theory development
(Webster &
Watson, 2002). By integrating findings and perspectives from
many
empirical findings, a literature review can address research
questions
with a power that no single study has.
It can also help to provide an overview of areas in which the re -
search is disparate and interdisciplinary. In addition, a literature
review
is an excellent way of synthesizing research findings to show
evidence
on a meta-level and to uncover areas in which more research is
needed,
which is a critical component of creating theoretical
frameworks and
building conceptual models. However, traditional ways of
describing
and portraying the literature often lack thoroughness and are not
un-
dertaken systematically (Tranfield et al., 2003). This results in a
lack of
knowledge of what the collection of studies is actually saying or
to what
it is pointing at. As a result, there is a great chance that authors
build
their research on flawed assumptions. When researchers are
selective of
the evidence on which to build their research, ignoring research
4. that
points the other way, serious problems can be faced. In
addition, even
when the methodology of the reviews is valid, there are often
issues
with what constitutes a good contribution.
Of course, there already exist some guidelines for conducting
lit-
erature reviews that suggest different types of reviews, such as
narrative
or integrative reviews (e.g., Baumeister & Leary, 1997; Wong,
Greenhalgh, Westhorp, Buckingham, & Pawson, 2013),
systematic re-
views, and meta-analysis (e.g., Davis, Mengersen, Bennett, &
Mazerolle,
2014; Liberati et al., 2009; Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman,
2009)
or integrative reviews (e.g., Torraco, 2005). There have also
been some
attempts to develop guidelines specifically for business or
management
research (e.g., Palmatier, Houston, & Hulland, 2018; Tranfield
et al.,
2003). By building on and synthesizing these different types of
litera-
ture reviews, this paper takes a broader view by summarizing
and in-
tegrating the different guidelines, including how to apply them
in
business research. More specifically, the purpose of this paper
is to
provide an overview of and guidelines for different types of
literature
reviews as a research method in businesses research.
6. semi-systematic and integrative approaches and argues that
depending
on purpose and the quality of execution, each type of approach
can be
very effective. While systematic reviews have strict
requirements for
search strategy and selecting articles for inclusion in the
review, they
are effective in synthesizing what the collection of studies are
showing
in a particular question and can provide evidence of effect that
can
inform policy and practice. However, systematic reviews are not
always
the best strategy. Instead, when wanting to study a broader topic
that
has been conceptualized differently and studied within diverse
dis-
ciplines, this can hinder a full systematic review process.
Instead, a
semi-systematic review approach could be a good strategy for
example
map theoretical approaches or themes as well as identifying
knowledge
gaps within the literature. In some cases, a research question
requires a
more creative collection of data, in these cases; an integrative
review
approach can be useful when the purpose of the review is not to
cover
all articles ever published on the topic but rather to combine
perspec-
tives to create new theoretical models. Second, the current
paper ad-
dresses practical issues that may be encountered when
conducting a
7. literature review in business research. These issues, for
example, can
relate to selecting the appropriate review methodology for the
targeted
research question, deciding on eligibility criteria, determining
appro-
priate boundaries for the review, choosing what data to extract
from the
paper, or concluding what type of contribution should be made.
Third,
this paper provides context and guidance to researchers seeking
to use
the literature review as a method to synthesize research in their
own
domains, to inform their own research, or to provide guidance
for social
policy. Last, this paper also aims to provide some guidelines for
how to
assess quality when evaluating review papers which hopefully
will be
helpful to editors, reviewers, and authors, as well as to any
reader of a
review paper.
2. Why you should write a literature review
Consideration of prior, relevant literature is essential for all
research
disciplines and all research projects. When reading an article,
in-
dependent of discipline, the author begins by describing
previous re-
search to map and assess the research area to motivate the aim
of the
study and justify the research question and hypotheses. This is
generally
8. referred to as the “literature review,” “theoretical framework,”
or “re-
search background.” However, for a literature review to become
a
proper research methodology, as with any other research, follow
proper
steps need to be followed and action taken to ensure the review
is ac-
curate, precise, and trustworthy. As with all research, the value
of an
academic review depends on what was done, what was found,
and the
clarity of reporting (Moher et al., 2009). Depending on the
purpose of
the review, the researcher can use a number of strategies,
standards,
and guidelines developed especially for conducting a literature
review.
Then, when should a literature review be used as a research
method?
For a number of research questions, a literature review may be
the
best methodological tool to provide answers. For example,
reviews are
useful when the researcher wants to evaluate theory or evidence
in a
certain area or to examine the validity or accuracy of a certain
theory or
competing theories (Tranfield et al., 2003). This approach can
be
narrow, such as investigating the effect of or relationship
between two
specific variables, or it can be broader, such as exploring the
collective
9. evidence in a certain research area. In addition, literature
reviews are
useful when the aim is to provide an overview of a certain issue
or
research problem. Typically, this type of literature review is
conducted
to evaluate the state of knowledge on a particular topic. It can
be used,
for example, to create research agendas, identify gaps in
research, or
simply discuss a particular matter. Literature reviews can also
be useful
if the aim is to engage in theory development (Baumeister &
Leary,
1997; Torraco, 2005). In these cases, a literature review
provides the
basis for building a new conceptual model or theory, and it can
be
valuable when aiming to map the development of a particular
research
field over time. However, it is important to note that depending
on the
goal of the literature review, the method that should be used
will vary.
2.1. Different approaches to conducting a literature review
As mentioned previously, there are a number of existing
guidelines
for literature reviews. Depending on the methodology needed to
achieve the purpose of the review, all types can be helpful and
appro-
priate to reach a specific goal (for examples, please see Table
1). These
approaches can be qualitative, quantitative, or have a mixed
design
10. depending on the phase of the review. In the following, three
broad
types of methods commonly used will be described, as
summarized in
Table 2. The broad types that will be presented and di scussed
include
the systematic review, the semi-systematic review, and the
integrative
review. Under the right circumstances, all of these review
strategies can
be of significant help to answer a particular research question.
How-
ever, it should be noted that there are many other forms of
literature
reviews, and elements from different approaches are often
combined.
As these approaches are quite wide, it should be noted that they
might
require further adaptation for a particular research project.
2.1.1. Systematic literature review
What is it and when should we use it? Systematic reviews have
fore-
most been developed within medical science as a way to
synthesize
research findings in a systematic, transparent, and reproducible
way
and have been referred to as the gold standard among reviews
(Davis
et al., 2014). Despite all the advantages of this method, its use
has not
been overly prevalent in business research, but it is increasing
(e.g.,
Snyder, Witell, Gustafsson, Fombelle, & Kristensson, 2016;
Verlegh &
11. Steenkamp, 1999; Witell, Snyder, Gustafsson, Fombelle, &
Kristensson,
2016). A systematic review can be explained as a research
method and
process for identifying and critically appraising relevant
research, as
well as for collecting and analyzing data from said research
(Liberati
et al., 2009). The aim of a systematic review is to identify all
empirical
evidence that fits the pre-specified inclusion criteria to answer a
par-
ticular research question or hypothesis. By using explicit and
systematic
methods when reviewing articles and all available evidence,
bias can be
Table 1
Approaches to literature reviews.
Approach Systematic Semi-systematic Integrative
Typical purpose Synthesize and compare evidence Overview
research area and track development over time Critique and
synthesize
Research questions Specific Broad Narrow or broad
Search strategy Systematic May or may not be systematic
Usually not systematic
Sample characteristics Quantitative articles Research articles
Research articles, books, and other published texts
Analysis and evaluation Quantitative Qualitative/quantitative
Qualitative
Examples of contribution Evidence of effect
Inform policy and practice
State of knowledge
12. Themes in literature
Historical overview
Research agenda
Theoretical model
Taxonomy or classification
Theoretical model or framework
H. Snyder Journal of Business Research 104 (2019) 333–339
334
minimized, thus providing reliable findings from which
conclusions can
be drawn and decisions made (Moher et al., 2009).
What type of analysis can be conducted? Often, but not always,
sta-
tistical methods, such as the meta-analysis, are used to integrate
the
results of the included studies. A meta-analysis is a statistical
method of
combining results from different studies to weigh and compare
and to
identify patterns, disagreements, or relationships that appear in
the
context of multiple studies on the same topic (Davis et al.,
2014). With
the meta-analysis approach, each primary study is abstracted
and
coded, and findings are subsequently transformed into a
common me-
tric to calculate an overall effect size (Glass, 1976). However,
to be able
13. to perform a meta-analysis, the included studies must share
statistical
measures (effect size) to compare results (DerSimonian &
Laird, 1986).
Therefore, it is challenging to perform a meta-analysis on
studies with
different methodological approaches (Tranfield et al., 2003).
Even
though the systematic review method was developed in medical
sci-
ence, attempts have been made create guidelines within the
social
sciences (Davis et al., 2014; Palmatier et al., 2018; Tranfield et
al.,
2003). In addition, there are several published meta-analyses in
higher-
ranked business journals (Carrillat, Legoux, & Hadida, 2018;
Chang &
Taylor, 2016). However, in these areas, which not are restricted
to
randomized controlled trials, a major challenge lies in assessing
the
quality of research findings. As a result, more qualitative
approaches
have been developed to assess the quality and strength of
findings from
different types of studies and to compare results (Greenhalgh,
Robert,
Macfarlane, Bate, & Kyriakidou, 2004). This is often referred to
as a
qualitative systematic review, which can be described as a
method of
comparing findings from qualitative studies (Grant & Booth,
2009).
That is, a strict systematic review process is used to collect
articles, and
14. then a qualitative approach is used to assess them.
What is a potential contribution from a systematic review?
There are
several advantages and potential contributions of conducting a
sys-
tematic review. For example, we can determine whether an
effect is
constant across studies and discover what future studies are
required to
be conducted to demonstrate the effect. Techniques can also be
used to
discover which study-level or sample characteristics have an
effect on
the phenomenon being studied, such as whether studies
conducted in
one cultural context show significantly different results from
those
conducted in other cultural contexts (Davis et al., 2014).
2.1.2. Semi-systematic review
What is it and how should it be used? The semi-systematic or
narrative
review approach is designed for topics that have been
conceptualized
differently and studied by various groups of researchers within
diverse
disciplines and that hinder a full systematic review process
(Wong et al.,
2013). That is, to review every single article that could be
relevant to
the topic is simply not possible, so a different strategy must be
devel-
oped. There are several examples of articles using this approach
15. pub-
lished in business journals (e.g., McColl-Kennedy et al., 2017).
Besides
the aim of overviewing a topic, a semi-systematic review often
looks at
how research within a selected field has progressed over time or
how a
topic has developed across research traditions. In general, the
review
seeks to identify and understand all potentially relevant
research tra-
ditions that have implications for the studied topic and to
synthesize
these using meta-narratives instead of by measuring effect size
(Wong
et al., 2013). This provides an understanding of complex areas.
How-
ever, while covering broad topics and different types of studies,
this
approach holds that the research process should be transparent
and
should have a developed research strategy that enables readers
to assess
whether the arguments for the judgments made were reasonable,
both
for the chosen topic and from a methodological perspective.
What type of analysis can be conducted? A number of methods
can be
used to analyze and synthesize findings from a semi-systematic
review.
These methods often have similarities to approaches used in
qualitative
research in general. For example, a thematic or content analysis
is a
commonly used technique and can be broadly defined as a
16. method for
identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns in the form of
themes
within a text (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Although this type of
review is
usually followed by a qualitative analysis, there are exceptions.
For
example, Borman and Dowling (2008) used a semi-structured
method
of collecting literature but combined it with a statistical meta-
analysis
approach.
What is a potential contribution from a semi-systematic review?
This
type of analysis can be useful for detecting themes, theoretical
per-
spectives, or common issues within a specific research
discipline or
methodology or for identifying components of a theoretical
concept
(Ward, House, & Hamer, 2009). A potential contribution could
be, for
example, the ability to map a field of research, synthesize the
state of
knowledge, and create an agenda for further research or the
ability to
provide an historical overview or timeline of a specific topic.
2.1.3. Integrative review
What is it and when should it be used? Closely related to the
semi-
structured review approach is the integrative or critical review
ap-
proach. In comparison to the semi-structured review, an
17. integrative
review usually has a different purpose, with the aim to assess,
critique,
and synthesize the literature on a research topic in a way that
enables
new theoretical frameworks and perspectives to emerge
(Torraco,
2005). Although rare, examples of this type of review can be
identified
in the business literature (e.g., Covington, 2000; Gross, 1998;
Mazumdar, Raj, & Sinha, 2005). Most integrative literature
reviews are
intended to address mature topics or new, emerging topics. In
the case
Table 2
Examples of existing guidelines for conducting a literature
review.
Authors Discipline Type of literature review Contribution
Baumeister and Leary (1997) Psychology Narrative review •
Overviews reasons for conducting a review
• Discusses common mistakes for conducting a review
Tranfield et al. (2003) Management Systematic review •
Compares management and healthcare research
• Highlights the challenges of conducting a systematic review in
management research
• Provides guidelines for conducting a systematic literature
review in management
research
Torraco (2005) Human Resources Integrative review • Defines
18. the integrative literature review
• Provides guidelines and examples for integrative literature
reviews
• Discusses contributions of a integrative literature review
Liberati et al. (2009) Medicine Systematic review and meta-
analysis
• Provides guidelines for conducting and reporting systematic
reviews and meta-
analysis
Wong et al. (2013) Medicine Semi-systematic review • Provides
guidelines for conducting a meta-narrative review
Davis et al. (2014) Social Sciences Systematic review and meta -
analysis
• Synthesizes guidelines for systematic literature reviews
• Provides guidelines for conducting a systematic review and
meta-analysis in social
sciences
Palmatier et al. (2018) Marketing Review papers and systematic
reviews
• Provides guidelines for publishing review papers in the
Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science
H. Snyder Journal of Business Research 104 (2019) 333–339
335
19. of mature topics, the purpose of using an integrative review
method is
to overview the knowledge base, to critically review and
potentially re-
conceptualize, and to expand on the theoretical foundation of
the
specific topic as it develops. For newly emerging topics, the
purpose is
rather to create initial or preliminary conceptualizations and
theoretical
models, rather than review old models. This type of review
often re-
quires a more creative collection of data, as the purpose is
usually not to
cover all articles ever published on the topic but rather to
combine
perspectives and insights from different fields or research
traditions.
What type of analysis can be used? The data analysis part of an
in-
tegrative or critical review is not particularly developed
according to a
specific standard (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005). However, while
there is
no strict standard, the general aim of a data analysis in an
integrative
review is to critically analyze and examine the literature and the
main
ideas and relationships of an issue. It should be noted that this
requires
researchers to have advanced skills, such as superior conceptual
thinking (MacInnis, 2011) at the same time as being transparent
and
document the process of analysis.
20. What is a potential contribution from an integrative review? An
in-
tegrative review method should result in the advancement of
knowl-
edge and theoretical frameworks, rather than in a simply
overview or
description of a research area. That is, it should not be
descriptive or
historical but should preferably generate a new conceptual
framework
or theory. Although an integrative review can be conducted in a
number of ways, researchers are still expected to follow
accepted
conventions for reporting on how the study was conducted
(Torraco,
2005). That is, how the integrative was done and how articles
were
selected must be transparent. However, a note of caution. While
well-
conducted integrative reviews can make a valid and strong
contribution
to its field of research, more often than the opposite, they either
lack
transparency or true integration of research. Frequently, reviews
la-
beled as integrative are simply summaries of studies and not
truly in-
tegrative.
2.2. How to decide on what approach to use
While it can be challenging to determine what approach is most
appropriate for a specific type of review, the research question
and
21. specific purpose of the review always determine the right
strategy to
use. While the systematic review is perhaps the most accurate
and
rigorous approach to collect articles, because there is certainty
that all
relevant data have been covered, this approach requires a
narrow re-
search question, and it might not be feasible or even suitable for
all
types of projects. This is where the semi-systematic review can
be
useful, but this approach is also more problematic and as it has
fewer
clear steps to follow. While the methodology for systematic
reviews is
straightforward and follows highly strict rules and standards
(Liberati
et al., 2009), the semi-systematic review process requires more
devel-
opment and tailoring to the specific project (Wong et al., 2013).
Often,
researchers need to develop their own standards and a detailed
plan to
ensure the appropriate literature is accurately covered to be able
to
answer their research question and be transparent about the
process.
However, if done properly, this can be a highly effective way of
cov-
ering more areas and broader topics than a systematic review
can
handle. In addition, when it comes to the integrative review, it
becomes
even more demanding, which puts more responsibility on and
requires
22. more skills of the researchers, as there are even fewer standards
and
guidelines on which to rely for developing a strategy (Torraco,
2005).
This leads to the notion that an integrative review approach
might not
be advisable to use, and if compared to the systematic review, it
might
not hold the same amount of rigor. However, if successfully
conducting
a truly integrative review and contributing with a new
conceptual
model or theory, the reward can be significant (MacInnis,
2011).
3. The process of conducting a literature review
Independent of what approach will be used to conduct the
literature
review, a number of steps that must be taken and decisions
made to
create a review that meets the requirements for publication (for
specific
considerations in relationship to each step. See Table 3). In the
fol-
lowing, the basics steps and important choices involved in
conducting a
literature review will be suggested and discussed using four
phases; (1)
designing the review, (2) conducting the review, (3) analysis
and (4)
writing up the review. This process was developed from
practical ex-
perience and is a synthesis of and influenced by various
standards and
guidelines suggested for literature reviews (e.g., Liberati et al.,
23. 2009;
Tranfield et al., 2003; Wong et al., 2013).
3.1. Phase 1: designing the review
The first question that should be asked is why this review
should be
conducted. Is there really a need for a literature review in this
area? If
so, what type of literature review would be the most helpful and
would
make the greatest contribution? Of consideration should also be
what
audience will most likely be interested in the review when
deciding on
the topic. This is a relevant question because it determines the
like-
lihood of the review being published and the impact it will have
on the
research community. Conducting a literature review is hard
work, so
the topic must be one that is of interest to both the author and
reader.
Therefore, it is a good idea to scan the area as a first step to
account for
other literature reviews that already exist, to assess the number
of re-
search studies that must be assessed, and to help formulate and
clearly
define the purpose, scope, and specific research question the
review will
address. These are important actions because they will help to
identify
which approach is most appropriate. For example, if the review
aims to
summarize or evaluate a large field of research or even several
24. research
areas, a strict systematic review approach may not be suitable or
even
possible. Instead, a narrative or integrative review approach
would be
preferable. In the same way, if the purpose of the review is to
in-
vestigate and synthesize evidence of the effect of a specific
factor, an
integrative review is not trustworthy; instead, a systematic
review ap-
proach should be used. The stated purpose should then guide the
rest of
the review.
Once the research question has been identified and an overall
Table 3
Important questions to consider in each step of the review.
Phase 1: design
• Is this review needed and what is the contribution of
conducting this review?
• What is the potential audience of this review?
• What is the specific purpose and research question(s) this
review will be
addressing?
• What is an appropriate method to use of this review's specific
purpose?
• What is the search strategy for this specific review? (including
search terms,
25. databases, inclusion and exclusion criteria etc.)
Phase 2: conduct
• Does the search plan developed in phase one work to produce
an appropriate
sample or does it need adjustment?
• What is the practical plan for selecting articles?
• How will the search process and selection be documented?
• How will the quality of the search process and selection be
assessed?
Phase 3: analysis
• What type of information needs to be abstracted to fulfill the
purpose of the
specific review?
• What type of information is needed to conduct the specific
analysis?
• How will reviewers be trained to ensure the quality of this
process?
• How will this process be documented and reported?
Phase 4: structuring and writing the review
• Are the motivation and the need for this review clearly
communicated?
• What standards of reporting are appropriate for this specific
review?
• What information needs to be included in the review?
26. • Is the level of information provided enough and appropriate to
allow for
transparency so readers can judge the quality of the review?
• The results clearly presented and explained?
• Is the contribution of the review clearly communicated?
H. Snyder Journal of Business Research 104 (2019) 333–339
336
review approach considered, a search strategy for identifying
relevant
literature must be developed. This includes selecting search
terms and
appropriate databases and deciding on inclusion and exclusion
criteria.
Here, a number of important decisions must be made that are
crucial
and will eventually determine the quality and rigor of the
review.
Search terms can be words or phrases used to access appropriate
arti-
cles, books, and reports. These terms should be based on words
and
concepts that are directly related to the research question.
Depending
on the aim of the review and the research question, these search
terms
can be broad or narrow. Importantly, it could be worthwhile to
consider
including additional limitations.
27. As almost all initial literature searches yield many articles, a
strategy is needed to identify which are actually relevant.
Inclusion
criteria for the review should be guided by the selected research
question. Criteria that can be considered and are commonly used
are,
for example, year of publication, language of the article, type of
article
(such as conceptual, randomized controlled trail, etc.), and
journal. In
terms of research quality, deciding on inclusion and exclusion
criteria is
one of the most important steps when conducting your review.
However, important to note is the need to provide reasoning and
transparency concerning all choices made; there must be logical
and
valid motives. This is important, as, independent of the type of
ap-
proach, the quality of the literature is dependent on, among
other as-
pects, what literature is included and how it was selected
(Tranfield
et al., 2003; Wong et al., 2013). Depending on these decisions,
a study
can end up with very different answers and conclusions to the
same
research questions. For example, by only selecting some
specific jour-
nals, years, or even search terms to try to limit your search, you
can end
up with a very flawed or skewed sample and missing studies
that would
have been relevant to your case or even contradict other studies.
You
can also come to the wrong conclusion about gaps in the
28. literature, or
perhaps more serious, provide false evidence of a specific
effect. A
practical approach is to write all decisions down to enable
transpar-
ency, as the authors must be clear in a way that enables the
reader to
understand how the literature was identified, analyzed,
synthesized,
and reported. This should be done carefully and prior to actually
con-
ducting the review.
3.2. Phase 2: conducting the review
After deciding on the purpose, specific research questions, and
type
of approach, it is time to start conducting the actual review.
When
conducting the review, a pilot test of the review process and
protocol is
appropriate. By testing the search terms and inclusion criteria
on a
smaller sample, the process can be adjusted before performing
the main
review. It is common to adjust the process a number of times
before
actually selecting the final sample. Importantly, it should be
noted that
it is preferred to use two reviewers to select articles to ensure
the
quality and reliability of the search protocol.
The actual selection of the sample can be done in a number of
ways,
depending on the nature and scope of the specific review.
29. Depending on
how many articles are yielded, different approaches will be
appro-
priate. For example, reviewers may read each piece of literature
that
appears in the search in full; this is a highly useful, but time-
consuming
approach. Another option could be to focus on the research
method or
findings, and a third option is to conduct the review in stages by
reading
abstracts first and making selections and then reading full -text
articles
later, before making the final selection. Once this is done and
the initial
articles (or other relevant literature) have been collected, the
texts
should be screened in full to ensure they meet the inclusion
criteria. As
an additional strategy, references in the selected articles can be
scanned
to identify other articles that may potentially be relevant
(however, this
is not appropriate when using the systematic review method as
this
requires a more strict protocol). During this time, the process of
in-
cluding and excluding specific articles should be documented
carefully.
3.3. Phase 3: analysis
After conducting the literature review and deciding on a final
sample, it is important to consider how the articles will be used
to
conduct an appropriate analysis. That is, after selecting a final
30. sample, a
standardized means of abstracting appropriate information from
each
article should be used. Data abstracted can be in the form of
descriptive
information, such as authors, years published, topic, or type of
study, or
in the form of effects and findings. It can also take the form of
con-
ceptualizations of a certain idea or theoretical perspective.
Importantly,
this should be done in concordance with the purpose and
research
question of the specific review, and the form will vary. In this
step, it is
important to consider training the reviewers to avoid any
differences in
coding and abstraction (if there is more than one) and
monitoring the
data abstraction carefully during the review process to ensure
quality
and reliability. Often, if the aim is to publish in an academic
journal,
this will require a detailed description of the process or a
measure of
reliability between reviewers. Sometimes this is easy, if the
information
of interest is, for example, population, effect size, or sample
size.
However, it becomes harder when the information of interest is
themes
in the literature, perspectives, or providing an historical
timeline.
Depending on the review, different analysis methods can be
used
31. and are more or less appropriate (please see above for different
con-
tributions from different approaches). Nevertheless,
independent of the
method of analysis, it is important to ensure that it is
appropriate to
answer the selected research question. For example, if the
purpose is to
evaluate evidence of the effect of loyalty programs, the use of a
meta-
analysis is most appropriate. On the other hand, if the purpose
was to
develop a theoretical model or framework for customer
experience, a
strict meta-analysis would be a poor choice; rather, an analysis
tech-
nique suitable for integrative reviews should be used.
3.4. Phase 4: writing the review
First, when writing the review, the motivation and need for the
review must be clearly communicated. Depending on the
approach, the
final review article can be structured in different ways, and it
will re-
quire different types of information and different levels of
detail. A
number of standards and guidelines explicitly address how
literature
reviews should be reported and structured, including PRISMA,
devel-
oped for systematic literature reviews and meta-analyses (see
Liberati
et al., 2009); RAMSES, developed for systematic narrative
reviews (see
Wong et al., 2013); and guidelines for integrative reviews
32. (Torraco,
2005). Although review articles can be organized in various
ways, some
generalizations can be made. All authors are expected to follow
ac-
cepted conventions for reporting on how the study was
undertaken. It is
necessary to describe transparently the process of designing the
review
and the method for collecting literature, that is, how the
literature was
identified, analyzed, synthesized, and reported by the author.
Doing so
properly gives the reader the chance to assess the quality and
trust-
worthiness of the findings. The contribution of the specific
literature
review can take a number of forms, and it should be judged in
re-
lationship to the field to which it wants to contribute.
Depending on a
number of factors, such as the maturity of the field or state of
knowl-
edge, different contributions could be valuable. For example,
literature
reviews can result in a historical analysis of the development
within a
research field (e.g. Carlborg, Kindström, & Kowalkowski,
2014), an
agenda for further research (e.g., McColl-Kennedy et al., 2017),
a
conceptual model or categorization (e.g., Snyder et al., 2016;
Witell
et al., 2016), or evidence of an effect (e.g., Verlegh &
Steenkamp,
1999).
33. 4. Assessing the quality of a literature review
Literature reviews need to be assessed and evaluated as strictly
as
empirical articles, but is this always the case? Palmatier et al.
(2018)
H. Snyder Journal of Business Research 104 (2019) 333–339
337
suggest that a quality literature review must have both depth
and rigor,
that is, it needs to demonstrate an appropriate strategy for
selecting
articles and capturing data and insights and to offer something
beyond
a recitation of previous research. In addition, they state that a
quality
literature review needs to be replicable, that is, the method must
be
described such that an external reader could replicate the study
and
reach similar findings. Lastly, they state that a literature review
must be
useful for scholars and practitioners. However, evaluating
different
types of literature reviews can be challenging. Therefore, some
guide-
lines for eventuating literature review articles across approaches
are
suggested as a starting point to help editors, reviewers, authors,
and
34. readers evaluating literature reviews (summarized in Table 4).
These
depart from the different stages of conducting a literature
review and
should be broad enough to encompass most types of literature
reviews.
However, of importance is that when evaluating an individual
review,
specific standards for the type of review must be examined to
assess
whether the review meets the criteria for rigor and depth.
Depending
on if, it is a systematic, semi-systematic or integrative review,
different
standards can be valid. However, independent of type of review,
pay
close attention to what studies have been included and for what
reasons
as these decisions make all the differences in terms of what type
of
conclusions the authors reach. Ignoring a relevant field of
research,
some journals or years can have major consequences for the
results and
conclusions of the studies. In addition, its contribution should
always be
evaluated against the topic or field to which it adds. What
constitutes a
useful contribution in one area may be insufficient in another.
5. How to get your literature review published
While there are many arguments in favor for conducting a
literature
review, publishing it can be challenging. Several common
mistakes are
35. made by researchers when conducting a literature review that
can
hinder it from getting anywhere near publication in a decent
journal.
First, researchers often fail to describe in enough detail how the
lit-
erature review was conducted, which makes it impossible to
evaluate
both the quality of the review and its contribution. These
reviews often
fail to provide details of the overall research strategy, the
selection and
exclusion of articles, the limitations of the search method, and
the
quality of the search process, and they often lack details on how
the
analysis was conducted. Second, in the eagerness to pare the
sample
size down to make the review easier to handle, it is also
common to
limit the search too greatly. This can be done by only including
a
limited number of journals and a narrow year span or excluding
articles
from related fields that could have been relevant for the specific
review.
Limiting the sample too greatly is a warning flag, as it affects
both the
depth and rigor of the review, and it can have serious effects on
its
results and contributions. A better way to handle too many
samples is to
re-consider and narrow down the research question. Of course,
some-
times it can be perfectly fine to limit the sample in different
36. ways, but
good reasons for doing so must be provided. Third, frequently,
re-
searchers who have conducted a review often fail to present and
explain
the results of the review clearly. Often, a large number of
different
graphs, tables, and figures is included, but not remarked on or
ex-
plained. This makes it challenging to understand what they
really mean
or what was actually found. It is common to spend much time
ex-
plaining the method and the specific analytical technique, but to
spend
less time discussing and explaining what was actually found and
what
these results mean. This is true for both advanced quantitative
and
qualitative analyses. Failing to put the results in context makes
it pro-
blematic to judge the contributions of the article.
Lastly, perhaps the most common mistake is that literature
reviews
often fail to provide a truly valuable contribution to the field.
No matter
how excellent and rigorous the review article, if it does not
provide
enough of a contribution, something that is new, it will not be
pub-
lished. Too often, literature reviews are simply descriptive
summaries
of research conducted between certain years, describing such in-
formation as the number of articles published, topics covered,
citations
37. analyzed, authors represented, and perhaps methods used,
without
conducting any deeper analysis. While there are likely times
when this
can be valuable, this is not usually the case and they are not
likely to be
published in any journal. In truth, review articles that are a
medley of
word clouds and citation analyses are highly unlikely to be
published.
This is a pity, as these researchers have gone through the
tedious work
of collecting many articles without actually analyzing them in
any
meaningful way, and because of this, they fail to make a
significant
contribution.
Yet, there are ways of moving beyond simply summarizing the
lit-
erature and truly developing something that is new and valuable
and
create a substantial contribution to the field in question. First,
there is
of course a need to use a good research methodology that fills
the
quality criteria for conducting literature reviews, but features or
ana-
lyses can also be added to make the review paper more likely to
stand
out. There are many examples of articles that have been
successfully
published in higher-ranked business journals using a literature
review
strategy as a basis. Not accounting for the quality of the review
itself,
38. there seems to be a number of ways forward. One such way is to
con-
duct a literature review and combine it with a meta-analysis of a
re-
levant topic to provide some evidence of effect. This strategy
has been
used effectively in articles published in higher-ranked journals
(e.g.,
Carrillat et al., 2018; Edeling & Himme, 2018; Verlegh &
Steenkamp,
1999). Important to note is that simply conducting a meta-
analysis does
not warrant publication; it must also focus on a topic that is
relevant, is
interesting, and solves some type of research dilemma, thereby
ad-
vancing the knowledge in the field. In addition, reviews that
build on
computer-based text analysis and machine learning have been
receiving
increased interest in business research (e.g., Antons &
Breidbach, 2018;
Witell et al., 2016). While text analysis may well be an
excellent way to
Table 4
Guidelines to assess the quality of a literature review.
Phase 1: design
• In relationship to the overall research field, is this literature
review needed and
does it make a substantial, practical, or theoretical contribution?
• Are the motivation, the purpose, and the research question(s)
clearly stated and
39. motivated?
• Does the review account for the previous literature review and
other relevant
literature?
• Is the approach/methodology for the literature review clearly
stated?
• Is this the most appropriate approach to address the research
problem?
• Are the methodology and the search strategy clearly and
transparently described
and motivated (including search terms, databases used, and
explicit inclusion and
exclusion criteria)?
Phase 2: conduct
• Is the search process appropriate for this type of review?
• Is the practical search process accurately described and
accounted for?
• Is the process of the inclusion and exclusion of articles
transparent?
• Have proper measures been taken to ensure research quality?
• Can it be trusted that the final sample is appropriate and in
concordance with the
overall purpose of the review?
Phase 3: data abstraction and analysis
40. • Is the data abstracted from the article appropriate in
concordance with the overall
purpose of the review?
• Is the process for abstracting data accurately described?
• Have proper measures been taken to ensure quality data
abstraction?
• Is the chosen data analysis technique appropriate in relation to
the overall research
question and the data abstracted?
• Is the analysis process properly described and transparent?
Phase 4: structuring and writing the review
• Is the review article organized coherently in relation to the
overall approach and
research question?
• Is the overall method of conducting the literature review
sufficiently described? Can
the study be replicated?
• Is the result of the review reported in an appropriate and clear
way?
• Does the article synthesize the findings of the literature
review into a clear and
valuable contribution to the topic?
• Are questions or directions for further research included? Are
the results from the
review useable?
H. Snyder Journal of Business Research 104 (2019) 333–339
41. 338
contribute, simply using these types of techniques is not enough
if it is
not done properly and with a purpose in mind. Often, text
analysis
approaches end up being highly descriptive, only providing an
over-
view of topics, themes, or networks and not generating any
deeper
analysis. As an alternative, a valuable output from these types
of ana-
lyses can for example creating a timeline for analyzing and
predicting
where a field is heading, a comparison of different related terms
or
constructs that can serve as a base for theory development or
identi-
fying true knowledge gaps in previous research.
Although rare, still highly desirable is a well-executed literature
review that provides a new theory or includes a well -grounded
sub-
stantial research agenda or propositions on which other
researchers can
build to advance the field (e.g., Boyd & Solarino, 2016;
Mazumdar
et al., 2005; Rodell, Breitsohl, Schröder, & Keating, 2016).
While this
type of analysis is often time-consuming and requires strong
analytical
skills from the researchers, if successful, it can make a great
contribu-
42. tion to the specific field of research.
Note that the examples above are only a few of many pathways
to
making a contribution using literature review as a research
method.
However, it is very challenging to try to create a contribution
when you
have already collected the data (published material) and try to
turn this
into a publishable article. Therefore, it is important to have a
particular
research question in mind from the beginning and to ensure the
right
approach is chosen to solve the research problem at hand.
6. Summary and conclusion
Literature reviews play an important role as a foundation for all
types of research. They can serve as a basis for knowledge
development,
create guidelines for policy and practice, provide evidence of a n
effect,
and, if well conducted, have the capacity to engender new ideas
and
directions for a particular field. As such, they serve as the
grounds for
future research and theory. However, both conducting a
literature re-
view and evaluating its quality can be challenging, which is
why this
paper offers some simple guidelines on how to conduct better,
more
rigorous literature reviews and, in the long run, simply better
research.
If there is certainty that the research is built on great accuracy,
43. it will be
much easier to identify actual research gaps instead of simply
con-
ducting the same research repeatedly, to develop better and
more
precise hypotheses and research questions, and, therefore, to
increase
the quality of research as a community.
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51. Journal of Business Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jbusres
Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and
guidelines
Hannah Snyder
BI-Norwegian School of Business, Nydalsveien 37, 0484 Oslo,
Norway
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Literature review
Synthesis
Research methodology
Systematic review
Integrative review
A B S T R A C T
Knowledge production within the field of business research is
accelerating at a tremendous speed while at the
same time remaining fragmented and interdisciplinary. This
makes it hard to keep up with state-of-the-art and to
be at the forefront of research, as well as to assess the
collective evidence in a particular area of business
research. This is why the literature review as a research method
is more relevant than ever. Traditional literature
reviews often lack thoroughness and rigor and are conducted ad
hoc, rather than following a specific metho-
dology. Therefore, questions can be raised about the quality and
trustworthiness of these types of reviews. This
paper discusses literature review as a methodology for
52. conducting research and offers an overview of different
types of reviews, as well as some guidelines to how to both
conduct and evaluate a literature review paper. It also
discusses common pitfalls and how to get literature reviews
published.
1. Introduction
Building your research on and relating it to existing knowledge
is
the building block of all academic research activities, regardless
of
discipline. Therefore, to do so accurately should be a priority
for all
academics. However, this task has become increasingly
complex.
Knowledge production within the field of business research is
accel-
erating at a tremendous speed while at the same time remaining
frag-
mented and interdisciplinary. This makes it hard to keep up with
state-
of-the-art research and to be at the forefront, as well as to
assess the
collective evidence in a particular research area. This is why the
lit-
erature review as a research method is more relevant than ever.
A lit-
erature review can broadly be described as a more or less
systematic
way of collecting and synthesizing previous research
(Baumeister &
Leary, 1997; Tranfield, Denyer, & Smart, 2003). An effective
and well-
conducted review as a research method creates a firm
foundation for
53. advancing knowledge and facilitating theory development
(Webster &
Watson, 2002). By integrating findings and perspectives from
many
empirical findings, a literature review can address research
questions
with a power that no single study has.
It can also help to provide an overview of areas in which the re -
search is disparate and interdisciplinary. In addition, a literature
review
is an excellent way of synthesizing research findings to show
evidence
on a meta-level and to uncover areas in which more research is
needed,
which is a critical component of creating theoretical
frameworks and
building conceptual models. However, traditional ways of
describing
and portraying the literature often lack thoroughness and are not
un-
dertaken systematically (Tranfield et al., 2003). This results in a
lack of
knowledge of what the collection of studies is actually saying or
to what
it is pointing at. As a result, there is a great chance that authors
build
their research on flawed assumptions. When researchers are
selective of
the evidence on which to build their research, ignoring research
that
points the other way, serious problems can be faced. In
addition, even
when the methodology of the reviews is valid, there are often
issues
54. with what constitutes a good contribution.
Of course, there already exist some guidelines for conducting
lit-
erature reviews that suggest different types of reviews, such as
narrative
or integrative reviews (e.g., Baumeister & Leary, 1997; Wong,
Greenhalgh, Westhorp, Buckingham, & Pawson, 2013),
systematic re-
views, and meta-analysis (e.g., Davis, Mengersen, Bennett, &
Mazerolle,
2014; Liberati et al., 2009; Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman,
2009)
or integrative reviews (e.g., Torraco, 2005). There have also
been some
attempts to develop guidelines specifically for business or
management
research (e.g., Palmatier, Houston, & Hulland, 2018; Tranfield
et al.,
2003). By building on and synthesizing these different types of
litera-
ture reviews, this paper takes a broader view by summarizing
and in-
tegrating the different guidelines, including how to apply them
in
business research. More specifically, the purpose of this paper
is to
provide an overview of and guidelines for different types of
literature
reviews as a research method in businesses research.
In the following paper, it will be argued that the potential for
making theoretical and practical contributions using the
literature re-
view as a method will be advanced by clarifying what a
literature re-
56. requirements for
search strategy and selecting articles for inclusion in the
review, they
are effective in synthesizing what the collection of studies are
showing
in a particular question and can provide evidence of effect that
can
inform policy and practice. However, systematic reviews are not
always
the best strategy. Instead, when wanting to study a broader topic
that
has been conceptualized differently and studied within diverse
dis-
ciplines, this can hinder a full systematic review process.
Instead, a
semi-systematic review approach could be a good strategy for
example
map theoretical approaches or themes as well as identifying
knowledge
gaps within the literature. In some cases, a research question
requires a
more creative collection of data, in these cases; an integrative
review
approach can be useful when the purpose of the review is not to
cover
all articles ever published on the topic but rather to combine
perspec-
tives to create new theoretical models. Second, the current
paper ad-
dresses practical issues that may be encountered when
conducting a
literature review in business research. These issues, for
example, can
relate to selecting the appropriate review methodology for the
targeted
research question, deciding on eligibility criteria, determining
57. appro-
priate boundaries for the review, choosing what data to extract
from the
paper, or concluding what type of contribution should be made.
Third,
this paper provides context and guidance to researchers seeking
to use
the literature review as a method to synthesize research in their
own
domains, to inform their own research, or to provide guidance
for social
policy. Last, this paper also aims to provide some guidelines for
how to
assess quality when evaluating review papers which hopefully
will be
helpful to editors, reviewers, and authors, as well as to any
reader of a
review paper.
2. Why you should write a literature review
Consideration of prior, relevant literature is essential for all
research
disciplines and all research projects. When reading an article,
in-
dependent of discipline, the author begins by describing
previous re-
search to map and assess the research area to motivate the aim
of the
study and justify the research question and hypotheses. This is
generally
referred to as the “literature review,” “theoretical framework,”
or “re-
search background.” However, for a literature review to become
a
proper research methodology, as with any other research, follow
58. proper
steps need to be followed and action taken to ensure the review
is ac-
curate, precise, and trustworthy. As with all research, the value
of an
academic review depends on what was done, what was found,
and the
clarity of reporting (Moher et al., 2009). Depending on the
purpose of
the review, the researcher can use a number of strategies,
standards,
and guidelines developed especially for conducting a literature
review.
Then, when should a literature review be used as a research
method?
For a number of research questions, a literature review may be
the
best methodological tool to provide answers. For example,
reviews are
useful when the researcher wants to evaluate theory or evidence
in a
certain area or to examine the validity or accuracy of a certain
theory or
competing theories (Tranfield et al., 2003). This approach can
be
narrow, such as investigating the effect of or relationship
between two
specific variables, or it can be broader, such as exploring the
collective
evidence in a certain research area. In addition, literature
reviews are
useful when the aim is to provide an overview of a certain issue
or
research problem. Typically, this type of literature review is
59. conducted
to evaluate the state of knowledge on a particular topic. It can
be used,
for example, to create research agendas, identify gaps in
research, or
simply discuss a particular matter. Literature review s can also
be useful
if the aim is to engage in theory development (Baumeister &
Leary,
1997; Torraco, 2005). In these cases, a literature review
provides the
basis for building a new conceptual model or theory, and it can
be
valuable when aiming to map the development of a particular
research
field over time. However, it is important to note that depending
on the
goal of the literature review, the method that should be used
will vary.
2.1. Different approaches to conducting a literature review
As mentioned previously, there are a number of existing
guidelines
for literature reviews. Depending on the methodology needed to
achieve the purpose of the review, all types can be helpful and
appro-
priate to reach a specific goal (for examples, please see Table
1). These
approaches can be qualitative, quantitative, or have a mixed
design
depending on the phase of the review. In the following, three
broad
types of methods commonly used will be described, as
summarized in
Table 2. The broad types that will be presented and discussed
60. include
the systematic review, the semi-systematic review, and the
integrative
review. Under the right circumstances, all of these review
strategies can
be of significant help to answer a particular research question.
How-
ever, it should be noted that there are many other forms of
literature
reviews, and elements from different approaches are often
combined.
As these approaches are quite wide, it should be noted that they
might
require further adaptation for a particular research project.
2.1.1. Systematic literature review
What is it and when should we use it? Systematic reviews have
fore-
most been developed within medical science as a way to
synthesize
research findings in a systematic, transparent, and reproducible
way
and have been referred to as the gold standard among reviews
(Davis
et al., 2014). Despite all the advantages of this method, its use
has not
been overly prevalent in business research, but it is increasing
(e.g.,
Snyder, Witell, Gustafsson, Fombelle, & Kristensson, 2016;
Verlegh &
Steenkamp, 1999; Witell, Snyder, Gustafsson, Fombelle, &
Kristensson,
2016). A systematic review can be explained as a research
method and
process for identifying and critically appraising relevant
61. research, as
well as for collecting and analyzing data from said research
(Liberati
et al., 2009). The aim of a systematic review is to identify all
empirical
evidence that fits the pre-specified inclusion criteria to answer a
par-
ticular research question or hypothesis. By using explicit and
systematic
methods when reviewing articles and all available evidence,
bias can be
Table 1
Approaches to literature reviews.
Approach Systematic Semi-systematic Integrative
Typical purpose Synthesize and compare evidence Overview
research area and track development over time Critique and
synthesize
Research questions Specific Broad Narrow or broad
Search strategy Systematic May or may not be systematic
Usually not systematic
Sample characteristics Quantitative articles Research articles
Research articles, books, and other published texts
Analysis and evaluation Quantitative Qualitative/quantitative
Qualitative
Examples of contribution Evidence of effect
Inform policy and practice
State of knowledge
Themes in literature
Historical overview
Research agenda
Theoretical model
62. Taxonomy or classification
Theoretical model or framework
H. Snyder Journal of Business Research 104 (2019) 333–339
334
minimized, thus providing reliable findings from which
conclusions can
be drawn and decisions made (Moher et al., 2009).
What type of analysis can be conducted? Often, but not always,
sta-
tistical methods, such as the meta-analysis, are used to integrate
the
results of the included studies. A meta-analysis is a statistical
method of
combining results from different studies to weigh and compare
and to
identify patterns, disagreements, or relationships that appear in
the
context of multiple studies on the same topic (Davis et al.,
2014). With
the meta-analysis approach, each primary study is abstracted
and
coded, and findings are subsequently transformed into a
common me-
tric to calculate an overall effect size (Glass, 1976). However,
to be able
to perform a meta-analysis, the included studies must share
statistical
measures (effect size) to compare results (DerSimonian &
Laird, 1986).
Therefore, it is challenging to perform a meta-analysis on
63. studies with
different methodological approaches (Tranfield et al., 2003).
Even
though the systematic review method was developed in medical
sci-
ence, attempts have been made create guidelines within the
social
sciences (Davis et al., 2014; Palmatier et al., 2018; Tranfield et
al.,
2003). In addition, there are several published meta-analyses in
higher-
ranked business journals (Carrillat, Legoux, & Hadida, 2018;
Chang &
Taylor, 2016). However, in these areas, which not are restricted
to
randomized controlled trials, a major challenge lies in assessing
the
quality of research findings. As a result, more qualitative
approaches
have been developed to assess the quality and strength of
findings from
different types of studies and to compare results (Greenhalgh,
Robert,
Macfarlane, Bate, & Kyriakidou, 2004). This is often referred to
as a
qualitative systematic review, which can be described as a
method of
comparing findings from qualitative studies (Grant & Booth,
2009).
That is, a strict systematic review process is used to collect
articles, and
then a qualitative approach is used to assess them.
What is a potential contribution from a systematic review?
There are
several advantages and potential contributions of conducting a
64. sys-
tematic review. For example, we can determine whether an
effect is
constant across studies and discover what future studies are
required to
be conducted to demonstrate the effect. Techniques can also be
used to
discover which study-level or sample characteristics have an
effect on
the phenomenon being studied, such as whether studies
conducted in
one cultural context show significantly different results from
those
conducted in other cultural contexts (Davis et al., 2014).
2.1.2. Semi-systematic review
What is it and how should it be used? The semi-systematic or
narrative
review approach is designed for topics that have been
conceptualized
differently and studied by various groups of researchers within
diverse
disciplines and that hinder a full systematic review process
(Wong et al.,
2013). That is, to review every single article that could be
relevant to
the topic is simply not possible, so a different strategy must be
devel-
oped. There are several examples of articles using this approach
pub-
lished in business journals (e.g., McColl-Kennedy et al., 2017).
Besides
the aim of overviewing a topic, a semi-systematic review often
looks at
65. how research within a selected field has progressed over time or
how a
topic has developed across research traditions. In general, the
review
seeks to identify and understand all potentially relevant
research tra-
ditions that have implications for the studied topic and to
synthesize
these using meta-narratives instead of by measuring effect size
(Wong
et al., 2013). This provides an understanding of complex areas.
How-
ever, while covering broad topics and different types of studies,
this
approach holds that the research process should be transparent
and
should have a developed research strategy that enables readers
to assess
whether the arguments for the judgments made were reasonable,
both
for the chosen topic and from a methodological perspective.
What type of analysis can be conducted? A number of methods
can be
used to analyze and synthesize findings from a semi-systematic
review.
These methods often have similarities to approaches used in
qualitative
research in general. For example, a thematic or content analysis
is a
commonly used technique and can be broadly defined as a
method for
identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns in the form of
themes
within a text (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Although this type of
review is
66. usually followed by a qualitative analysis, there are exceptions.
For
example, Borman and Dowling (2008) used a semi-structured
method
of collecting literature but combined it with a statistical meta-
analysis
approach.
What is a potential contribution from a semi-systematic review?
This
type of analysis can be useful for detecting themes, theoretical
per-
spectives, or common issues within a specific research
discipline or
methodology or for identifying components of a theoretical
concept
(Ward, House, & Hamer, 2009). A potential contribution could
be, for
example, the ability to map a field of research, synthesize the
state of
knowledge, and create an agenda for further research or the
ability to
provide an historical overview or timeline of a specific topic.
2.1.3. Integrative review
What is it and when should it be used? Closely related to the
semi-
structured review approach is the integrative or critical review
ap-
proach. In comparison to the semi-structured review, an
integrative
review usually has a different purpose, with the aim to assess,
critique,
and synthesize the literature on a research topic in a way that
enables
67. new theoretical frameworks and perspectives to emerge
(Torraco,
2005). Although rare, examples of this type of review can be
identified
in the business literature (e.g., Covington, 2000; Gross, 1998;
Mazumdar, Raj, & Sinha, 2005). Most integrative literature
reviews are
intended to address mature topics or new, emerging topics. In
the case
Table 2
Examples of existing guidelines for conducting a literature
review.
Authors Discipline Type of literature review Contribution
Baumeister and Leary (1997) Psychology Narrative review •
Overviews reasons for conducting a review
• Discusses common mistakes for conducting a review
Tranfield et al. (2003) Management Systematic review •
Compares management and healthcare research
• Highlights the challenges of conducting a systematic review in
management research
• Provides guidelines for conducting a systematic literature
review in management
research
Torraco (2005) Human Resources Integrative review • Defines
the integrative literature review
• Provides guidelines and examples for integrative literature
reviews
68. • Discusses contributions of a integrative literature review
Liberati et al. (2009) Medicine Systematic review and meta-
analysis
• Provides guidelines for conducting and reporting systematic
reviews and meta-
analysis
Wong et al. (2013) Medicine Semi-systematic review • Provides
guidelines for conducting a meta-narrative review
Davis et al. (2014) Social Sciences Systematic review and meta -
analysis
• Synthesizes guidelines for systematic literature reviews
• Provides guidelines for conducting a systematic review and
meta-analysis in social
sciences
Palmatier et al. (2018) Marketing Review papers and systematic
reviews
• Provides guidelines for publishing review papers in the
Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science
H. Snyder Journal of Business Research 104 (2019) 333–339
335
of mature topics, the purpose of using an integrative review
method is
to overview the knowledge base, to critically review and
potentially re-
69. conceptualize, and to expand on the theoretical foundation of
the
specific topic as it develops. For newly emerging topics, the
purpose is
rather to create initial or preliminary conceptualizations and
theoretical
models, rather than review old models. This type of review
often re-
quires a more creative collection of data, as the purpose is
usually not to
cover all articles ever published on the topic but rather to
combine
perspectives and insights from different fields or research
traditions.
What type of analysis can be used? The data analysis part of an
in-
tegrative or critical review is not particularly developed
according to a
specific standard (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005). However, while
there is
no strict standard, the general aim of a data analysis in an
integrative
review is to critically analyze and examine the literature and the
main
ideas and relationships of an issue. It should be noted that this
requires
researchers to have advanced skills, such as superior conceptual
thinking (MacInnis, 2011) at the same time as being transparent
and
document the process of analysis.
What is a potential contribution from an integrative review? An
in-
tegrative review method should result in the advancement of
knowl-
70. edge and theoretical frameworks, rather than in a simply
overview or
description of a research area. That is, it should not be
descriptive or
historical but should preferably generate a new conceptual
framework
or theory. Although an integrative review can be conducted in a
number of ways, researchers are still expected to follow
accepted
conventions for reporting on how the study was conducted
(Torraco,
2005). That is, how the integrative was done and how articles
were
selected must be transparent. However, a note of caution. While
well-
conducted integrative reviews can make a valid and strong
contribution
to its field of research, more often than the opposite, they either
lack
transparency or true integration of research. Frequently, reviews
la-
beled as integrative are simply summaries of studies and not
truly in-
tegrative.
2.2. How to decide on what approach to use
While it can be challenging to determine what approach is most
appropriate for a specific type of review, the research question
and
specific purpose of the review always determine the right
strategy to
use. While the systematic review is perhaps the most accurate
and
rigorous approach to collect articles, because there is certainty
71. that all
relevant data have been covered, this approach requires a
narrow re-
search question, and it might not be feasible or even suitable for
all
types of projects. This is where the semi-systematic review can
be
useful, but this approach is also more problematic and as it has
fewer
clear steps to follow. While the methodology for systematic
reviews is
straightforward and follows highly strict rules and standards
(Liberati
et al., 2009), the semi-systematic review process requires more
devel-
opment and tailoring to the specific project (Wong et al., 2013).
Often,
researchers need to develop their own standards and a detailed
plan to
ensure the appropriate literature is accurately covered to be able
to
answer their research question and be transparent about the
process.
However, if done properly, this can be a highly effective way of
cov-
ering more areas and broader topics than a systematic review
can
handle. In addition, when it comes to the integrative review, it
becomes
even more demanding, which puts more responsibility on and
requires
more skills of the researchers, as there are even fewer standards
and
guidelines on which to rely for developing a strategy (Torraco,
2005).
This leads to the notion that an integrative review approach
72. might not
be advisable to use, and if compared to the systematic review, it
might
not hold the same amount of rigor. However, if successfully
conducting
a truly integrative review and contributing with a new
conceptual
model or theory, the reward can be significant (MacInnis,
2011).
3. The process of conducting a literature review
Independent of what approach will be used to conduct the
literature
review, a number of steps that must be taken and decisions
made to
create a review that meets the requirements for publication (for
specific
considerations in relationship to each step. See Table 3). In the
fol-
lowing, the basics steps and important choices involved in
conducting a
literature review will be suggested and discussed using four
phases; (1)
designing the review, (2) conducting the review, (3) analysis
and (4)
writing up the review. This process was developed from
practical ex-
perience and is a synthesis of and influenced by various
standards and
guidelines suggested for literature reviews (e.g., Liberati et al.,
2009;
Tranfield et al., 2003; Wong et al., 2013).
3.1. Phase 1: designing the review
73. The first question that should be asked is why this review
should be
conducted. Is there really a need for a literature review in this
area? If
so, what type of literature review would be the most helpful and
would
make the greatest contribution? Of consideration should also be
what
audience will most likely be interested in the review when
deciding on
the topic. This is a relevant question because it determines the
like-
lihood of the review being published and the impact it will have
on the
research community. Conducting a literature review is hard
work, so
the topic must be one that is of interest to both the author and
reader.
Therefore, it is a good idea to scan the area as a first step to
account for
other literature reviews that already exist, to assess the number
of re-
search studies that must be assessed, and to help formulate and
clearly
define the purpose, scope, and specific research question the
review will
address. These are important actions because they will help to
identify
which approach is most appropriate. For example, if the review
aims to
summarize or evaluate a large field of research or even several
research
areas, a strict systematic review approach may not be suitable or
even
possible. Instead, a narrative or integrative review approach
would be
74. preferable. In the same way, if the purpose of the review is to
in-
vestigate and synthesize evidence of the effect of a specific
factor, an
integrative review is not trustworthy; instead, a systematic
review ap-
proach should be used. The stated purpose should then guide the
rest of
the review.
Once the research question has been identified and an overall
Table 3
Important questions to consider in each step of the review.
Phase 1: design
• Is this review needed and what is the contribution of
conducting this review?
• What is the potential audience of this review?
• What is the specific purpose and research question(s) this
review will be
addressing?
• What is an appropriate method to use of this review's specific
purpose?
• What is the search strategy for this specific review? (including
search terms,
databases, inclusion and exclusion criteria etc.)
Phase 2: conduct
• Does the search plan developed in phase one work to produce
75. an appropriate
sample or does it need adjustment?
• What is the practical plan for selecting articles?
• How will the search process and selection be documented?
• How will the quality of the search process and selection be
assessed?
Phase 3: analysis
• What type of information needs to be abstracted to fulfill the
purpose of the
specific review?
• What type of information is needed to conduct the specific
analysis?
• How will reviewers be trained to ensure the quality of this
process?
• How will this process be documented and reported?
Phase 4: structuring and writing the review
• Are the motivation and the need for this review clearly
communicated?
• What standards of reporting are appropriate for this specific
review?
• What information needs to be included in the review?
• Is the level of information provided enough and appr opriate to
allow for
transparency so readers can judge the quality of the review?
76. • The results clearly presented and explained?
• Is the contribution of the review clearly communicated?
H. Snyder Journal of Business Research 104 (2019) 333–339
336
review approach considered, a search strategy for identifying
relevant
literature must be developed. This includes selecting search
terms and
appropriate databases and deciding on inclusion and exclusion
criteria.
Here, a number of important decisions must be made that are
crucial
and will eventually determine the quality and rigor of the
review.
Search terms can be words or phrases used to access appropriate
arti-
cles, books, and reports. These terms should be based on words
and
concepts that are directly related to the research question.
Depending
on the aim of the review and the research question, these search
terms
can be broad or narrow. Importantly, it could be worthwhile to
consider
including additional limitations.
As almost all initial literature searches yield many articles, a
strategy is needed to identify which are actually relevant.
Inclusion
criteria for the review should be guided by the selected research
77. question. Criteria that can be considered and are commonly used
are,
for example, year of publication, language of the article, type of
article
(such as conceptual, randomized controlled trail, etc.), and
journal. In
terms of research quality, deciding on inclusion and exclusion
criteria is
one of the most important steps when conducting your review.
However, important to note is the need to provide reasoning and
transparency concerning all choices made; there must be logical
and
valid motives. This is important, as, independent of the type of
ap-
proach, the quality of the literature is dependent on, among
other as-
pects, what literature is included and how it was selected
(Tranfield
et al., 2003; Wong et al., 2013). Depending on these decisions,
a study
can end up with very different answers and conclusions to the
same
research questions. For example, by only selecting some
specific jour-
nals, years, or even search terms to try to limit your search, you
can end
up with a very flawed or skewed sample and missing studies
that would
have been relevant to your case or even contradict other studi es.
You
can also come to the wrong conclusion about gaps in the
literature, or
perhaps more serious, provide false evidence of a specific
effect. A
practical approach is to write all decisions down to enable
transpar-
78. ency, as the authors must be clear in a way that enables the
reader to
understand how the literature was identified, analyzed,
synthesized,
and reported. This should be done carefully and prior to actually
con-
ducting the review.
3.2. Phase 2: conducting the review
After deciding on the purpose, specific research questions, and
type
of approach, it is time to start conducting the actual review.
When
conducting the review, a pilot test of the review process and
protocol is
appropriate. By testing the search terms and inclusion criteria
on a
smaller sample, the process can be adjusted before performing
the main
review. It is common to adjust the process a number of times
before
actually selecting the final sample. Importantly, it should be
noted that
it is preferred to use two reviewers to select articles to ensure
the
quality and reliability of the search protocol.
The actual selection of the sample can be done in a number of
ways,
depending on the nature and scope of the specific review.
Depending on
how many articles are yielded, different approaches will be
appro-
priate. For example, reviewers may read each piece of literature
that
79. appears in the search in full; this is a highly useful, but time-
consuming
approach. Another option could be to focus on the research
method or
findings, and a third option is to conduct the review in stages by
reading
abstracts first and making selections and then reading full -text
articles
later, before making the final selection. Once this is done and
the initial
articles (or other relevant literature) have been collected, the
texts
should be screened in full to ensure they meet the inclusion
criteria. As
an additional strategy, references in the selected articles can be
scanned
to identify other articles that may potentially be relevant
(however, this
is not appropriate when using the systematic review method as
this
requires a more strict protocol). During this time, the process of
in-
cluding and excluding specific articles should be documented
carefully.
3.3. Phase 3: analysis
After conducting the literature review and deciding on a final
sample, it is important to consider how the articles will be used
to
conduct an appropriate analysis. That is, after selecting a final
sample, a
standardized means of abstracting appropriate information from
each
article should be used. Data abstracted can be in the form of
descriptive
80. information, such as authors, years published, topic, or type of
study, or
in the form of effects and findings. It can also take the form of
con-
ceptualizations of a certain idea or theoretical perspective.
Importantly,
this should be done in concordance with the purpose and
research
question of the specific review, and the form will vary. In this
step, it is
important to consider training the reviewers to avoid any
differences in
coding and abstraction (if there is more than one) and
monitoring the
data abstraction carefully during the review process to ensure
quality
and reliability. Often, if the aim is to publish in an academic
journal,
this will require a detailed description of the process or a
measure of
reliability between reviewers. Sometimes this is easy, if the
information
of interest is, for example, population, effect size, or sample
size.
However, it becomes harder when the information of interest is
themes
in the literature, perspectives, or providing an historical
timeline.
Depending on the review, different analysis methods can be
used
and are more or less appropriate (please see above for different
con-
tributions from different approaches). Nevertheless,
independent of the
method of analysis, it is important to ensure that it is
81. appropriate to
answer the selected research question. For example, if the
purpose is to
evaluate evidence of the effect of loyalty programs, the use of a
meta-
analysis is most appropriate. On the other hand, if the purpose
was to
develop a theoretical model or framework for customer
experience, a
strict meta-analysis would be a poor choice; rather, an analysis
tech-
nique suitable for integrative reviews should be used.
3.4. Phase 4: writing the review
First, when writing the review, the motivation and need for the
review must be clearly communicated. Depending on the
approach, the
final review article can be structured in different ways, and it
will re-
quire different types of information and different levels of
detail. A
number of standards and guidelines explicitly address how
literature
reviews should be reported and structured, including PRISMA,
devel-
oped for systematic literature reviews and meta-analyses (see
Liberati
et al., 2009); RAMSES, developed for systematic narrative
reviews (see
Wong et al., 2013); and guidelines for integrative reviews
(Torraco,
2005). Although review articles can be organized in various
ways, some
generalizations can be made. All authors are expected to follow
ac-
82. cepted conventions for reporting on how the study was
undertaken. It is
necessary to describe transparently the process of designing the
review
and the method for collecting literature, that is, how the
literature was
identified, analyzed, synthesized, and reported by the author.
Doing so
properly gives the reader the chance to assess the quality and
trust-
worthiness of the findings. The contribution of the specific
literature
review can take a number of forms, and it should be judged in
re-
lationship to the field to which it wants to contribute.
Depending on a
number of factors, such as the maturity of the field or state of
knowl-
edge, different contributions could be valuable. For example,
literature
reviews can result in a historical analysis of the development
within a
research field (e.g. Carlborg, Kindström, & Kowalkowski,
2014), an
agenda for further research (e.g., McColl-Kennedy et al., 2017),
a
conceptual model or categorization (e.g., Snyder et al., 2016;
Witell
et al., 2016), or evidence of an effect (e.g., Verlegh &
Steenkamp,
1999).
4. Assessing the quality of a literature review
Literature reviews need to be assessed and evaluated as strictly
as
83. empirical articles, but is this always the case? Palmatier et al.
(2018)
H. Snyder Journal of Business Research 104 (2019) 333–339
337
suggest that a quality literature review must have both depth
and rigor,
that is, it needs to demonstrate an appropriate strategy for
selecting
articles and capturing data and insights and to offer something
beyond
a recitation of previous research. In addition, they state that a
quality
literature review needs to be replicable, that is, the method must
be
described such that an external reader could replicate the study
and
reach similar findings. Lastly, they state that a literature review
must be
useful for scholars and practitioners. However, evaluating
different
types of literature reviews can be challenging. Therefore, some
guide-
lines for eventuating literature review articles across approaches
are
suggested as a starting point to help editors, reviewers, authors,
and
readers evaluating literature reviews (summarized in Table 4).
These
depart from the different stages of conducting a literature
review and
should be broad enough to encompass most types of literature