Conroy praise

USING EFFECTIVE PRAISE AND FEEDBACK

Creating a Positive Classroom Atmosphere: Teachers' Use of Effective
Praise and Feedback
MAUREEN A. CONROY, KEVIN S. SUTHERLAND, ANGELA SNYDER, MAHA A L - H E N D A W I , AND ABIGAIL V O , VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY

praise children's appropriate these instructional tools in their

C
reating a positive and
engaging classroom behaviors and ignore their problem classrooms, researchers have found
atmosphere is one of the most behaviors, children will learn that that they may not always be used
powerful tools teachers can use to these positive types of behaviors are frequently or effectively. Iri the
encourage children's learning and more likely to obtain teacher attention following sections, we will discuss
prevent problem behaviors from than problem behaviors. Creating how teachers can use praise and
occurring. Although a number of these positive interactions between a feedback most effectively to affect
factors are related to a positive teacher and child is one important their interactions with children in
classroom atmosphere, such as way to help build a positive their classrooms and improve the
classroom management techniques classroom environment. classroom atmosphere.
and instructional pacing, one Unfortunately, engaging in
important factor is how teachers positive interactions with children The Use of Effective Praise to Build
attend or respond to children's may be easier said than done for a Positive Classroom Atmosphere
behaviors. Teachers' responses to teachers, especially if the children in
children's appropriate and problem their classrooms have emotional and/ What Is Effective Praise?
behavior can help set the tone of the or behavioral disorders (EBD). Teachers regularly use praise as
classroom environment. If teachers Because one of the key defining an instructional strategy to increase
attend to and respond in a harsh and features of children with EBD is the occurrence of children's positive
combative manner to children's chronic and persistent problem social and academic behaviors. On
display of problem behavior, they behavior, these behaviors are often the surface, praise appears to be a
most likely will receive combative well established in their behavioral simple strategy that the teacher alone
responses from children in return and repertories. Children often enter can implement. However, in reality,
see an increase in their display of classrooms with coercive and praise is a complex reciprocal process
problem behavior. This type of negative interaction styles that have that involves both the teacher who
response can lead to coercive been previously established and may provides praise and the children who
interactions between teachers and have a strong history of are recipients of that praise. The
children and negatively affect the reinforcement. These negative effectiveness of a teacher's use of
classroom atmosphere. Similarly, if interaction patterns can significantly praise is influenced by the children's
teachers ignore children's affect the atmosphere of the individual and cultural differences,
appropriate behavior and more classroom. It is not unusual for even different conditions under which
frequently attend to their problem one child with severe problem praise has been previously provided
behaviors, children most likely will behaviors to change the entire to them (Henderlong & Lepper, 2002;
learn to engage in problem behaviors classroom climate, influencing Lam, Yim, & Ng, 2008), and
as a predictable way to obtain a teacher interactions with all children. characteristics of the praise that is
teacher's attention. Fortvinately, teachers can employ given. Children from different
On the other hand, if teachers strategies that can change the nature backgrounds and experiences,
provide corrective feedback to of negative interactions. By changing including socioeconomic classes,
children about their behavior in a the negative interaction patterns into ability levels, developmental levels,
positive manner and help them learn positive interactions, the climate of and genders, may respond differently
alternative behaviors that will gain the classroom can dramatically to praise (Hitz & Driscoll, 1988). In
them positive teacher attention, improve. addition, the characteristics of the
teachers may be more likely to have In this article, we will discuss two praise statements may also influence
positive reactions from children. In important forms of teacher attention children's responsiveness to praise.
addition, children will leam new that can be used to help promote Characteristics of effective praise
skills and behavior, and more time positive teacher-child interactions: include its being contingent on
will be available for instruction. teacher praise and feedback. desirable behavior (Shores, Gunter, &
Likewise, if teachers attend to and Although most teachers already use Jack, 1993), behavior specific (Chalk

18 BEYOND B E H A V I O R


& Bizo, 2004), and focused on effort to individualize their praise According to Brophy (1981),
(Lam et al., 2008) and process statements and direct them at praise often may not be
(Dweck, 2000). Just as the individual children and groups deliberately provided by the
terhiinology describing praise varies, of children. For example, if ail teacher; rather, teachers are more
the definitions of praise in the the children are working likely to respond to children who
literature also vary (Chalk & Bizo, diligently on a task, the teacher elicit praise from them. To be
2004). According to Brophy (1981), may praise one child for sitting effective, teachers should plan
general praise means "to commend quietly at his desk, praise a and initiate unsolicited praise to
the worth of or to express approval or second child for the amount of children in their classroom.
admiration" (p. 5), and it is provided work she has completed on the 5. Praise should focus on children's
when a child completes an expected task, and a third child for his improvement and effort (Hitz &
task appropriately (Dreikurs, correct responses. The teacher Driscoll, 1988; Lam et al., 2008).
Grunwald, & Pepper, 1982). then concludes by praising the That is, praise should
Examples of general praise group, "I see everyone working acknowledge children's efforts
statements typically include phrases very hard on this task." and accomplishments rather
such as "Great job!" or "Good." In 2. Praise should be contingent than being an evaluation of
this article, we define effective praise as upon a desired behavior; that individual abilities and/or
teacher-initiated statements that is, it should be provided outcomes. For example, a
convey to children the specific immediately following the statement such as, "You are so
academic or social behaviors in which behavior (Willingham, 2005). smart!" is an evaluative
teachers would like to see students Praising the children later can statement of a child's abilities,
continue to engage. It uniquely fits diminish the effectiveness of rather than an effective praise
each situation and focuses on praise. statement that focuses on effort.
children's effort, improvement, and/ It labels children as "smart" or
3. The instructional nature of
or quality of work, rather than "not smart" and communicates
praise is another important
focusing on outcomes or abilities. a vague message about what can
characteristic of effective praise.
Examples of effective praise be considered "smart," as well
For example, it is important to
statements might be, "Great job, you as how a child can become
provide frequent praise when
repeated the words after me" or "smart." In this situation,
children are initially acquiring a
"Wow! You sat quietly and listened children are judged on the basis
skill. However, once they have
to the entire story." of their cognitive abilities, which
acquired the skill, the teacher
may want to decrease the use of is hard to modify (Dweck, 2000;
How Can Teachers Use praise and provide it on a more Lam et al., 2008). As a result,
Praise Effectively? intermittent basis. Then, the children may become less
Identifying the essential teacher might identify another confident, afraid of making
characteristics of praise that make it behavior that the child is mistakes, and afraid of
most effective can help teachers to acquiring and increase the completing work that is not
learn how to use praise successfully amount of praise that she or he perfect. They may worry about
in their classrooms. Thus, for praise provides for this behavior while not meeting the teacher's
to be effective, it should include the simultaneously fading the praise expectations. This type of praise
following characteristics. for the behavior that the child is may set children up for failure
1. Praise should include specific demonstrating with more and discourage them from
statements about the fluency. trying new tasks and taking
appropriate behavior children 4. Praise should be teacher initiated risks.
displayed (Chalk & Bizo, 2004; (Hitz & Driscoll, 1988). Effective 6. Praise should be sincere; be
Sutherland, Wehby, & praise requires a teacher to delivered with an affirmative,
Copeland, 2000). That is, monitor children's behaviors and natural voice; and be
children need to know explicitly initiate praise in a timely manner appropriate for children's
what behavior is being praised rather than waiting for the abilities and chronological age
and acknowledged by the children to elicit praise from the level. Children can easily
teacher. "You did a great job teacher. In other words, waiting recognize false exaggeration and
counting numbers!" is an for a child to say, "Look at what I overestimation of simple effort,
example of a behavior-specific did!" is far less effective than the and this type of praise may
praise statement. In addition, to teacher catching the child negatively affect children's
increase the power of praise engaging in the desired behavior responses. In addition, praise
statements, teachers may want and praising it immediately. statements should match

WINTER 2009 19


children's age and skill levels. A with a particular child to help 2. Make a recording of this activity
praise statement for a preschool- motivate the child to increase a using any convenient method
age child should be very particular behavior. Using effective (e.g., audiotape, videotape). This
different from a praise statement praise in a classroom can increase recording will provide the data
for a teenager. For example, positive interactions between to help you change your use of
preschool-age children may teachers and children, which also praise.
respond to teachers providing helps build an overall positive 3. Measure and examine the c uan-
frequent praises statements classroom atmosphere. tity and quality of the praise
aloud in front of the entire class. statements that occurred during
Teenagers, on the other hand, Strategies for Increasing Effective this activity. How often do you
may be embarrassed of being Praise in Classroom Settings praise children? Do you provide
praised in front of the entire The benefits of using effective general praise or specific praise?
class and respond to brief praise praise in classroom settings are many. Is your praise focused on the
statements made by the teacher For example, research indicates that child's effort? Does every child
privately. One important thing increases in teacher praise have receive praise, or do only a couple
to note is that teachers should positive effects on children's of children receive most of the
provide some form of praise and academic and social behaviors (Gable praise statements? Are praise
attention to all children in their & Shores, 1980; Sutherland et al., statements appropriate for the
classrooms. This will help 2000). Teacher praise is associated children's skul levels?
eliminate the interpretation that with an increase in children's correct 4. Set a goal of increasing the
some children are the "teacher's responses, on-task behavior, and number and quality of praise
pet" because they receive a high engagement. It has been associated statements that include the
rate of praise statements. with an increase in the work characteristics outlined above.
7. Praise should avoid competition completed by children across all age 5. Identify the children who have
or comparisons across children. levels (Kirby & Shields, 1972; Luiselli the most social or academic
For example, "Nico, you do a & Downing, 1980). Unfortunately, problem behaviors and who
much better job of coloring than researchers have found that teachers seldom receive praise.
Aimee," or "Johnny is the best!" do not necessarily use praise 6. Make a list of four target
may establish a competitive effectively or frequently (Beaman & behaviors that will elicit praise
environment in the classroom Wheldall, 2000). Alber, Heward, and statements for these children.
and unintentionally create Hippler (1999) pointed out that only 7. Make a chart of the problem
hierarchies of children based on 5% of teachers' praise statements are behaviors that these children
different skill levels. Instead, behavior specific. In addition, display and the desired
praise should compare researchers have found that for replacement behaviors that are
children's work with their students with EBD, praise is provided in the children's repertoire.
previous work and current skill at a rate of only 1.2 to 4.5 praise 8. Make a list of effective praise
level. For example, letting a statements per hour per student statements that can be provided
child know that his work is (Shores et al., 1993; Sutherland & to the children. For example,
better today in comparison to Wehby, 2001; VanAcker, Grant, & "Your handwriting has
last week is much more effective Henry, 1996; Wehby, Symons, & improved. It is clear and neat
than comparing him to his Shores, 1995). here." "You worked hard on
classroom peers.
Clearly, there is a need to increase these math problems." "You put
When teachers provide praise
both the quantity and quality of the toys away quietly and with
that includes these characteristics, it
praise in classrooms for all children. care, thank you." "Good job
is more likely to increase children's
To help teachers improve on their use cleaning the table." "You shared
appropriate learning and behavior.
of praise, we suggest they begin by the blocks today with Tim and
Effective praise is considered a
implementing the following you played together." "You
generalized reinforcer that can help to
strategies: must have tried hard to
foster children's intrinsic motivation
1. Identify a time or activity when complete this homework."
to learn that comes from mastering
a particular child or group of 9. Implement your plan and
tasks (Brophy, 1981; Hitz & Driscoll,
children are engaging in evaluate changes in your praise
1988; Willingham, 2006). Although
problem behaviors that interfere statements and the influence on
praise should be provided to groups
with classroom instruction and children's behavior.
of children in a classroom, at times it
management. Such behaviors To assist in implementing your
might be more appropriate for
may include being off task, plan, we suggest teachers use self-
teachers to deliver praise individually
noncompliant, or disruptive. monitoring strategies. Self-

20 B EYOND B EHAVIOR


monitoring has been supported as an information regarding children's Timperley, 2007; Mastropieri &
effective method to promote and performance and understanding and Scruggs, 1987).
change behaviors in a variety of allow for continued learning Two specific types of feedback
settings with different populations, following initial instruction (Miller, that can be used to address correct
and thus, it has been effective in 2002). Effective feedback has the and incorrect responses, respectively,
changing teachers' behavior with potential to affect future student are instructive feedback and error
respect to increasing the quantity and performance by increasing correct correction. Instructive feedback is a
quality of praise in the classrooms responding and desirable behaviors method for responding to correct
(Kalis, Vannest, & Parker, 2007). Self- and decreasing incorrect responding student actions or responses. The
monitoring is the process in which and undesirable behaviors (Bangert- purpose of instructive feedback is to
"teachers identify if the target Drowns et al., 1991; Konoid, Miller, & expose children to additional
behavior has occurred and record the Konoid, 2004). instructional information in relatively
occurrence of the target behavior" little instructional time. This practice
In this article, we define feedback
(Kalis et al., 2007, p. 21). Figure 1 can enhance the efficiency of
as information provided to children
provides a data collection sheet that instruction and lead to the learning of
by teachers regarding their
can help a teacher to monitor the both the targeted instructional
understanding or performance of
effectiveness of using praise in the material and the additional material.
classrooms. academic or behavioral tasks. Teacher
feedback is just one step in an Instructive feedback follows effective
The use of effective praise is an instructional sequence and instruction on target material, an
important teaching strategy that can necessarily follows effective opportunity to respond, and a correct
facilitate positive interactions student response (Werts et al., 1995).
instruction, opportunities to respond,
between teachers and children in and active student responding (Hattie Instead of simply continuing with
their classroom. Along with the use of & Timperley, 2007). It can be used to instruction or praising the correct
effective praise, providing feedback address both correct and incorrect response, teachers can foster
to children in an effective way is also student responses and can support additional learning using a simple
critical. In the next section, we discuss the learning of academic information two-step process. To use instructive
strategies to help foster the use of as well as social or behavioral skills feedback, a teacher will (a)
effective feedback. (Miller, 2002). In addition, feedback acknowledge the correct response or
can increase teaching efficiency and behavior (e.g., "That's right, it is a
The Use of Effective Feedback to result in increased opportunities for square") and (b) supply additional
Create a Positive learning (Werts et al., 1995). Feedback related or novel information. After
Classroom Atmosphere can be presented in a variety of acknowledgment of the correct
instructional formats either verbally, response, the additional instructional
What Is Effective Feedback? material can expand on the child's
visually (e.g., pictures, flash cards,
Similar to praise, effective teacher manual signs, compu.ter-based, response by providing related
feedback is a simple and powerful information (e.g., "It has four sides"),
modeled), or using a combination of
form of teacher attention that can can draw a parallel between the
the two (Werts et al., 1995; Werts,
enhance learning, increase response and another target requiring
Wolery, Gast, & Holcombe, 1996).
achievement, and promote self- the same response (e.g., "That table is
regulatory competence in children a square too"), or can provide
with and without disabilities (Hattie How Can Teachers Use unrelated material from a different
& Timperley, 2007; Werts, Wolery, Feedback Effectively? conceptual class (e.g., "It's purple").
Holcombe, & Gast, 1995). Teacher There are a number of important The additional material selected for
feedback is an essential component of characteristics of feedback that can use as instructive feedback may be
the learning process and can help make it more effective. The literature information that teachers want
create a positive classroom suggests that to be effective, teacher children to learn but that is not
atmosphere in which mistakes are feedback should be (a) intentional, (b) specifically addressed in the
valued for their potential to enhance overt, (c) prompt, (d) direct, (e) curriculum, or information that is
learning and in which academic specific, and (f) positive. It should scheduled to be taught in the near
success and appropriate behavior are occur frequently and consistently future (Werts et al., 1995, 1996).
reinforced (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, within a supportive classroom Another type of feedback that can
Kulik, & Morgan, 1991; Hattie & climate and target skills for which be beneficial in the classroom is error
Timperley, 2007; Witt, children have received sufficient correction, also called corrective
VanDerHeyden, & Gilbertson, 2004). developmentally appropriate feedback. Error correction is provided
The purpose of feedback is to provide instruction (Barbetta, Heward, to a child following an academic or
children and teachers with Bradley, & Miller, 1994; Hattie & behavioral error with the purpose of

WINTER 2009 21


Figure 1 PR^MSE SELF-MONITORING DATA COLLECTION SHEET

Activity Date

Target Children & Replacement Behaviors :

Time Praise Target Target Type of Praise Characteristics
Statement Child Behavior Effective Ineffective of Praise*^

Total

* S = specific, I = immediate/intermittent, T = teacher-initiated, E = focus on effort, A = sincere
and appropriate voice, V = void of comparisons

teaching the child the correct response, and gives him further response, the four-step error
response. This can increase the practice in exhibiting the correct correction process can be used td help
likelihood of correct responding in response (Barbetta et al., 1994; Colvin, children learn from their mistakes.
the future. Corrective feedback Sugai, & Patching, 1993). Following Error correction consists of (a) telling
ensures that the child is aware of his effective instruction, an opportunity the child that the response or
error, provides him with the correct to respond, and an incorrect student behavior was incorrect (e.g., "No, it's

22 BEYOND B E H A V I O R


not a triangle"), (b) providing the used following each correct or children's performance, the purposes
correct response (e.g., "It is a incorrect student response in a for these different types of teacher
square"), (c) giving the student targeted instructional session (Werts behaviors are quite different. For
another opportunity to exhibit the et al, 1996). example, the purposes of teacher
correct response (e.g., "What shape is Teachers can measure their own praise include acknowledging
this?"), and (d) providing specific behavior (i.e., provision of either children's correct academic
praise for cooperation (e.g., "That's instructive feedback or error performance and/or desirable social
right, you identified the square!"; correction following each student behavior. In this manner, praise is
Colvin et al., 1993). response) using a data sheet on which used as a reinforcer: The teacher is
they can record the number of attempting to increase the likelihood
Strategies for Increasing opportunities for providing feedback of the desired response by the child in
Effective Feedback and the number of times that the future. Alternatively, the purpose
Similar to increasing effective feedback was actually provided. For of teacher feedback is not necessarily
praise, to increase the use of monitoring children's behaviors (e.g., reinforcement (and may in fact not be
instructive feedback and error learning of additional instructional reinforcing to some children) but
correction in the classroom, teachers material through instructive rather to provide information to the
can feedback, or learning of targeted child that can enhance his or her
• identify specific opportunities skills or information during error learning. For example, the purpose of
and correction), teachers can use a data corrective feedback is to provide the
• plan for the intentional use of sheet to collect information on child with information to increase the
these two strategies. children's success on learning probes. likelihood of correct responses to
Initially, it may be helpful to Learning probes are a simple way future instructional requests, whereas
focus on increasing feedback during teachers can keep track of children's instructive feedback is used to help
specific activities or times of the day. progress by providing opportunities expand children's understanding of
For instance, a preschool teacher may for them to engage in the correct content. When used effectively,
initially choose to increase her use of responses and then recording their teacher praise and feedback have a
feedback during circle time (e.g., correct or incorrect responses. For long history of contributing to
adding color words as instructive instructive feedback, to assess positive classroom outcomes for
feedback following students' correct children's responses, learning probes children with learning and behavior
identification of shapes and using are typically conducted before problems.
error correction following incorrect beginning the use of instructive In sum, it appears that the
responses). Similarly, a third-grade feedback and after the child has effective use of both teacher praise
teacher may decide to increase his use reached criterion on the targeted skill and feedback can be effective tools for
of feedback during spelling lessons or behavior (e.g., spelling is the teachers as they attempt to best meet
(e.g., adding the definition of the targeted skill in the spelling lesson the needs of the children in their
word following students' correct example above). However, more classrooms. It must be pointed out,
spelling responses and using error frequent probes may be desirable. however, that neither of these
correction following incorrect With corrective feedback, learning consequent events will be effective
responses; Werts et al., 1996). Once probes occur and can be recorded unless used within the context of a
teachers are able to consistently use each time the child is given an positive classroom atmosphere that is
feedback during one routine or opportunity to respond to the target a structured, safe learning
activity, it can be expanded to other material (see Figure 2 for a sample environment. In this positive
classroom activities. Recall that data sheet). Consistent recording of environment, children are
feedback can also be used to address this information can help prompt comfortable taking learning risks, and
social and behavioral tasks such as teachers to provide adequate errors, both academic and social/
student responses to behavioral amounts of feedback and can provide behavioral, are seen as opportunities
expectations and class rules. information on whether feedback for growth. Within a supportive
As with any new instructional strategies are assisting students in learning context, teacher praise and
strategy, it is essential that teachers learning new skills and information feedback can augment each other in a
monitor their use of these feedback (Werts et al, 1995, 1996). powerful way. To illustrate, consider
procedures to ensure consistency and that teachers might have three
correct implementation and measure Implications for Practice options for responding to a child's
children's responses to determine Although both teacher praise and responses. First, if a response is
whether the procedures are having teacher feedback can be correct, the teacher might provide
the intended effect. These strategies conceptualized as forms of teacher contingent, specific praise to
are thought to be most effective when attention as a consequence of acknowledge the correct response

WINTER 20 0 9 2 3


Figure 2 FEEDBACK DATA COLLECTION SHEIET

Teacher Name: Student 14ame:

Instructional task/^activity:

Instructive Feedba ck
1) Acknovfledge correct response
2) Add ex tra information:
Error Correction
1 ) Tell student response is incorrect
2) Provide correct response
3) Provide another opportunity for student to respond
4) Provide specific praise for cooperation
Teacher Student
(Tally using 1 - instructive and (Correct Response to Probes)
E - error correction)
Date Opportunities Feedback Instructive Error
for Feedback Given Feedback Correction (+/-)
(+/-)

24 BEYOND BEHAVIOR


(thus increasing the likelihood of Bangert-Drowns, R., Kulik, C. C , Kulik, J. praise: Implication for early
future occurrences of the response). A., & Morgan, M. T. (1991). The childhood teachers. Young Children,
Second, if a response is correct, the instructional effect of feedback in 6-13.
teacher might use praise to reinforce test-like events. Review of Educational Kalis, T. M., Vannest, K. J., & Parker, R.
the response while also providing Research, 61, 213-238. (2007). Praise counts: Using self-
instructive feedback to help expand Barbetta, P. M., Heward, W. L., Bradley, monitoring to increase effective
the child's understanding of the D. M., & Miller, A. D. (1994). Effects teaching practices. Preventing School
concept. Third, if a response is of immediate and delayed error Failure, 51, 20-27.
incorrect, the teacher might praise the correction on the acquisition and Kirby, F. D., & Shields, F. (1972).
effort made, use corrective feedback maintenance of sight words by Modification of arithmetic response
to provide information for the child students with developmental rate and attending behavior in a
to respond correctly in the future, disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior seventh-grade student. Journal of
provide another response Analysis, 27, 177-178. Applied Behavioral Analysis, 5, 79-84.
opportunity, and then praise the child Beaman, R., & Wheldall, K. (2000). Konoid, K. E., Miller, S. P., & Konoid, K.
for the ensuing correct response (thus Teachers' use of approval and B. (2004). Using teacher feedback to
increasing the child's knowledge of disapproval in the classroom. enhance student learning. Teaching
the content and the likelihood of Educational Psychology, 20, 431-446. Exceptional Children, 36, 64-69.
future attempts to answer even if he Brophy, J. (1981). Teacher praise: A Lam, S.-f., Yim, P.-s., & Ng, Y.-l. (2008). Is
is unsure about the correctness of the functional analysis. Review of effort praise motivational? The role of
response). Each of these teacher Educational Research, 51, 5-32. beliefs in the effort-ability
responses would be useful and Chalk, K., & Bizo, L. A. (2004). Specific relationship. Contemporary
appropriate and, if used praise improves on-task behaviour Educational Psychology, 33, 694-710.
interchangeably in the classroom, can and numeracy enjoyment: A study of Luiselli, J. K., & Downing, J. N. (1980).
lead to increases in children's year four pupils engaged in the Improving a student's arithmetic
responding and engagement. numeracy hour. Educational performance using feedback and
Beyond the effects on the Psychology in Practice, 20, 335-351. reinforcement procedures. Education
individual child, highlighted by the Colvin, G., Sugai, C , & Patching, B. and Treatment of Children, 3, 45-49.
results of research summarized (1993). Precorrection: An Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E.
previously, these types of instructional approach for managing (1987). Effective instruction for special
instructional interactions also may predictable problem behaviors. education. Boston: College-Hill Press.
have an effect on the learning of other Intervention in School and Clinic, 28, Miller, S. P. (2002). Using effective
children in the classroom as they are 143-150. teaching behaviors. In S. P. Miller,
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responding as well as the teacher's F. C. (1982). Maintaining sanity in the luith diverse needs and abilities (pp. 189-
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and feedback can have an overall Harper & Row. (1993). Classroom management
impact on classroom climate, strategies: Are they setting events for
Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self-theories: Their role
manifested through increases in coercion? Behavioral Disorders, 18,
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in their disruptions. Given the
Cable, R. A., & Shores, R. E. (1980). Sutherland, K. S., & Wehby, J. H. (2001).
complexity of learning and behavior
Comparison of procedures for The effects of self-evaluation on
problems of students, particularly
promoting reading proficiency of two teaching behavior in classroom for
those with EBD, it appears that using
children with behavioral and students with emotional and
praise and feedback as effectively and
learning disorders. Behavioral behavioral disorders. Journal of Special
efficiently as possible should be goals
Disorders, 5, 102-107. Education, 35, 161-171.
for all professionals interested in
Hattie, ]., & Timperley, H. (2007). The Sutherland, K. S., Wehby, J. H., &
improving outcomes for children.
power of feedback. Review of Copeland, S. R. (2000). Effect of
Educational Research, 77, 81-112. varying rates of behavior-specific
Henderlong, J., & Lepper, M. R. (2002). praise on the on-task behavior of
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(1991). Instructive feedback: Increasing Mathur (Eds.), Handbook of research in Department of Education.

26 B EYON'D B EHAVIOR

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