a document describing the key issues involved in communication.

1. SCHOOL OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF RADIOGRAPHY
ARG 2102 PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PATIENT COUNSELLING
NOTES
What is communication?
 The word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’ which
means 'to share.' Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action),
in many ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines.
 Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to a receiver
through a medium and communicated information is understood by both sender and
receiver.
 Communication requires that all parties understand a common language that is
exchanged. There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of
voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language,
paralanguage, touch, eye contact, or the use of writing.
 Communication is regarded as the as a process of exchanging information, ideas,
thoughts, feelings and emotions through speech, signals, writing, or behaviour.
The nature of communication
Information is the lifeblood of any relationship. To effectively convey information,
communication is necessary.
 It is the basis of all relationships

2.  It is a two-way traffic.
 It is a continuous process
 Communication aims to develop mutual understanding
The communication processes
Communication is a process. The process is often very complex with success depending on
many factors such as the nature of the message, audience interpretation and the environment in
which it is received along with the receiver's perception of the source and medium. In the
communication process various elements work together to achieve a desired outcome. The
basic components or parts of the communication system are the communicators (sender and
receiver), message, channel, feedback, noise, and context. Knowing the elements of
communication can lead to a more meaningful understanding of the processes that make it
work. Below we give details of these elements.
Sender
The source of the communication transaction is the originator of the message also known as
the sender of information. The source initiates the communication process. In speech
communication, we can identify the source to be the speaker, the one delivering the message.
In daily life situations we are all sources of information as we relate to others and speak our
ideas to them. We are a source of message, consciously and unconsciously.
Message
In the simplest sense, a message may be thought of as an idea, concept, emotion, desire, or
feeling that a person desires to share with another human being. A message may be in verbal
or non-verbal codes. The purpose of a message is to evoke meaning in another person. Some
messages are intentional some are not.
Channel
A channel is how a message moves from a person to another. The channel is the medium or
vehicle by which we can transmit the message to the recipient. The means we use to
communicate is the channel. The country's president to deliver his message to his fellowmen

3. may speak face to face with an audience, via the broadcast media or via print. Language is the
basic medium of communication available to man.
Receiver
The receiver gets the message channelled by the source of information. In a one-way
communication process, he or she is in the other end. But in a dynamic communication process
the receiver may start to share his or her ideas and hence also become a source of information
for the originator of the message. Listeners and audience are receivers of information. The
degree to which the receiver understands the message is dependent upon various factors such
as knowledge of recipient and their responsiveness to the message.
Feedback
Feedback is the main component of the communication process as it permits the sender to
analyse the efficacy of the message. Feedback helps the sender in confirming the correct
interpretation of message by the receiver. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-
verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etcetera.). It may also be oral or take the written form.
Noise
Noise may occur anywhere along the communication line, and it may be physical,
physiological, or psychological in nature. Noise is any interference in the communication
process. Annoying vocal habits of the speaker may interfere in the transmission of his verbal
signals. Noise as a barrier may originate from the source or the receiver, from the channel used
in sending the message, or outside of the source and receiver's control. The poor listening of
the audience and their unnecessary actions may also interfere in the communication process.
Context
Communication does not take place in a vacuum. Between communicators, the process takes
place in a particular communication situation where the identifiable elements of the process
work in a dynamic interrelation. This situation is referred to as the context - the when and where
of a communication event. Communication contexts vary depending on the need, purpose,
number of communicators and the ways exchange is taking place. Communication can be
intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, organizational, cultural, public, or mediated.

4. Models of Communication
There are different models that attempt to explain the communication process. For the purposes
of this course, we discuss the three basic models of the communication process which are the
linear, the interactive and the transactional model.
The linear model
The linear model represents a one-way process in which one person acts on another person.
The sender sends the message to the receiver. The model is also known as the transmission
model because it assumes that communication is transmitted in a straightforward manner from
sender to receiver.
Message
Sender Receiver
The strengths of the linear model are its simplicity, generality and quantifiability. Its
shortcoming is that it is relatively static and linear. The model conceives of a linear and literal
transmission of information from one location to another. The notion of linearity leads to
misleading ideas as it assumes that there is a clear-cut beginning and end to communication.
The linear model also represents one way communication, ascribing a secondary role to the
receiver and so displays no feedback from the receiver. This model is therefore only a
representative of telephonic communication and mass media not face to face communication.
The Interactive model
The Interactive model is a modification of the two linear models stacked on top of each other.
The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and
channels the message to the original sender.
Message
Sender Receiver
This model has added feedback indicating that communication is not a one way but a two-way
process. Even though the interactive model is less linear, it still accounts for only bilateral
communication between two parties. The complex, multiple levels of communication between
several sources is beyond this model.

5. The Transactional Model
The transactional model assumes that people are connected through communication; they
engage in a transaction. Firstly, it recognises that both communicators are senders and
receivers, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects
all parties involved at the same time, so communication is simultaneous. This is how most
conversations are like. While your friend is talking, you are constantly giving them feedback
on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping
your friend from talking. The model's strengths lie in the fact that it posits a view of
communication as transactions in which communicators attribute meaning to events in ways
that reveal communication as dynamic, continuous, circular, unrepeatable, irreversible, and
complex.
The models discussed above are only attempts to represent communication which is a complex
process. No one model can satisfactorily capture everything that happens when people
communicate. Each of the models discussed above only represent some of the communication
situations and not all.
The 7Cs of Communication
For communication to be effective, it must follow the 7Cs of communication which are as
follows:
1. Clear- be clear and specific
2. Concise- short and straight to the point
3. Concrete –provide all the details
4. Correct – make sure there are no grammatical errors
5. Coherent – logical and all points are connected
6. Complete – others must know what needs to be done
7. Courteous – be polite
The levels of communication
These are various levels of communication, and these include the following:
 Intrapersonal communication
 Interpersonal communication

6.  Group communication
 Organisational communication
 Public communication
 Mass communication
Intrapersonal communication
Intrapersonal communication is language use or thought internal to the communicator. The
individual becomes his or her own sender and receiver, providing feedback to himself or herself
in an ongoing internal process. Intrapersonal communication is not just a level of
communication; it is in fact the very basis of all communication. While participating in the
higher levels of communication like interpersonal communication, group communication, and
mass communication, we also indulge intrapersonal communication. It takes place every
moment that we are alive. Intrapersonal communication can encompass daydreaming, speaking
aloud (talking to oneself), reading aloud, repeating what one hears, writing one's thoughts or
observations making gestures while thinking and sense-making e.g., interpreting maps, texts,
signs, and symbols.
Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication takes place primarily when two people are involved.
Interpersonal communication is the process that is used to communicate ideas, thoughts, and
feelings to another person. It can also be defined as "communication that is based on
communicators' recognition of each other's uniqueness and the development of messages that
reflect that recognition." (Berko, Wolvin and Wolvin 1998; 16). The basis for interpersonal
transactions is sending and receiving of messages in such a way that they are successfully
encoded and decoded. The more experiences that communicators have in common and the
more openness they have between them, the more likely it is that their communication will be
successful. Our interpersonal communication skills are learned behaviours that can be
improved through knowledge, practice, feedback, and reflection.
Group Communication
Groups are formed usually because the combined efforts of a number of people result in greater
output than the individual efforts of the same number of people (Keyton 1999). Communication
in groups leads to group decisions that are generally superior to individual decisions. It can
motivate members, improve thinking, and assist attitude development and change. Effective

7. groups share a common goal, interest, or benefit. The focus on goals allows members to
overcome individual differences of opinion and to negotiate acceptable solutions. The smaller
the group, the more its members have the opportunity to communicate with each other.
Conversely, large groups often inhibit communication because the opportunity to speak and
interact is limited.
Organisational communication
Organisational communication arises when groups discover that they are unable to accomplish
their goals without some kind of organization. So, organisations are combinations of groups
formed in such a way that large tasks may be accomplished. In this part, communications
usually follow the chain of organisational command. Be it a corporate sector, a political party,
an educational institution, the communication process would strictly follow the essentials of
the organisational communication.
Public Communication
Public communication is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate
manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners. It involves a large group with
a primarily one-way monologue style generating only minimal feedback. Information sharing,
entertainment and persuasion are common purposes of public communication. An example is
a lecture in a university class. It is closely allied to "presenting", although the latter has more
of a commercial connotation. In public speaking, as in any form of communication, there are
five basic elements, often expressed as "who is saying what to whom using what medium with
what effects?" The purpose of public speaking can range from simply transmitting information,
to motivating people to act, to simply telling a story. Public speaking can be a powerful tool to
use for purposes such as motivation, influence, persuasion, informing, translation, or simply
entertaining.
Mass Communication
In this category, we refer to the communication originating from one source and meant for all
possible audience irrespective of distance, cast, creed, religion, nationality and beyond. Mass
communication involves use of technology. The media through which messages can be
transmitted include radio, TV, newspapers, magazines, films, records, tape recorders and video
cassette recorders. An example of mass communication is when your university releases names

8. of applicants who have succeeded in getting places in the Herald. The functions of mass
communication are to inform, entertain and persuade.
The basis of interpersonal communication
 The purpose of interpersonal communication is to understand and be understood.
 There are two other key concepts to understand about interpersonal communication:
a) Verbal communication
b) Non-verbal communication
Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which the message is
transmitted by word of mouth and sometimes through writing. It is further divided into oral
communication and written communication.
In oral communication, spoken words are used. Oral communication includes face-to-face
conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, and voice over the
internet. Communication in oral communication is influenced by pitch, volume, speed, and
clarity of speaking. Some advantages of oral communication are listed below.
 It brings quick feedback.
 In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one can
guess whether he/she should trust what is being said or not.
Some of the disadvantages of oral communication are listed below.
 In face-to-face discussion, the user is unable to deeply think about what he/she is
delivering.
 The sender cannot edit before sending to the receiver
 One cannot keep a record for future use unless the speech is recorded.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is "all those messages that people exchange beyond words
themselves" (Tubbs and Moss 1996;106). We can say that it is communication other than oral
and written. Nonverbal communication can be said to complement verbal messages where it
helps the receiver in interpreting the message received. One can be convinced that someone is
sorry for what he/she has done from looking at facial expression and tonal qualities of voice.

9. Sometimes nonverbal responses contradict verbal communication and hence affect the
effectiveness of message. For example, someone can say to you 'this food is delicious' but the
face showing signs of disgust. In some cases, nonverbal communication can replace verbal
communication. A road sign is a good example of nonverbal communication standing in place
of verbal communication. There are so many types of nonverbal communication some
of which are haptics (communication through touch) chronemics (the study of time and time
management), olfactics (communication through smell), proxemics (communication through
space), kinesics ( communication through body movements) and paravocalics (vocal qualities).
Types of non-verbal communication
Includes:
 gestures – legs crossed or folded arms
 facial expressions
 Posture – sitting upright or slouching
 Eye contact
 Seating position
 Proximity – how close or far away you are from the person you
 Touch
 Appearance
 Attitude
 Listening skills
Barriers to good communication
Barriers in everyday life are obstacles that hinder or impede an individual from performing or
doing whatever is expected of him or her. In communication, barriers are factors or obstacles
which hamper or hinder the smooth flow of the message from the sender to the receiver or
obstacles which prevent the message from reaching the recipient.
Communication is often influenced not only by the interpretations of the message, but also by
the noise that could be internal or external. They prevent effective communication by causing
misunderstanding or confusion between the message and the receiver's interpretation of the
message. Noise to communication process can be caused by environmental, physiological,
semantics, syntactical problems, organizational confusion cultural influences and
psychological problems. Some of the barriers to good communication include the following:

10.  Language barriers
 Psychological barriers
 Socio-religious barriers
 Organizational barrier
 Physiological impairments
 Cultural problems
 Semantic problems
 Education and training
 Personality problems
 Status
 Dissatisfaction or disinterest with one’s job
 Inability to listen to others
 Lack of transparency & trust
 Communication styles (when they differ)
 Conflicts in the workplace
 Cultural differences
The following barriers are explained in greater detail.
Environmental obstacles
Environmental barriers depend on the location, outdoors or indoors, temperature, lighting, and
distance between the communicator and noise levels. This is the kind of interference that
prevents the receiver from getting or understanding the message for example, noise from
adjourning lecture room can interfere with the understanding of the questions being posed by
another tutor in another lecture room.
Organisation confusion
If a source of information fails to sequence ideas in a logical or chronological sequence
organizational barriers or noise can occur for example, a public speaker who lacks
organizational skills in speech preparation and presentation will lose the audience's attention.
Psychological problems
Psychological problems have to do with moods and feelings people bring to the communication
process e.g., stress, irritation, frustration when preparing for examinations for students but other

11. people may have stress from different sources. These psychological problems may interfere
with the sharing of meaning in a communication process.
Physiological impairment barriers
A physical problem can block the effective sending or receiving of a message thus creating
physiological impairment barriers e.g., deaf persons do not have sensory capabilities to receive
a message in the same way as do people with normal hearing. Other examples are visual, speech
impairment and physical ailments such as, toothache, headache, and others away headache,
and others do interfere with the receiving and understanding of a message.
Cultural problems
Culture is a way of life of a particular society or a group of people including patterns of thought,
beliefs, behaviour, traditions, rituals, dress, and language as well as music and literature.
Culture penetrates every aspect of our lives, affecting how we think, talk, and behave. Everyone
is a part of one or more or more ethnic cultures. In Zimbabwe, we have several ethnic
groupings. Two people from Venda and Karanga dialects may experience interference in
sharing the same meaning from the different beliefs, values, and attitudes of their ethnic
grouping.
Semantic problems
Semantics is the study of the way humans use language to evoke meaning in others. Semantics
focuses on individual words and their meaning (Pearson, et al, 2003). Semantic noise may
result when people use language that is common only to one specific group, to a particular field
or profession. For example, vocabulary used by lawyers in court, vocabulary used by doctors
in patient diagnosis. Problems might arise regarding the meaning of words or semantics due to
the choice of vocabulary or jargon (confined to
a profession).
Syntactic problems
Syntax is the way in which words are arranged to form phrases and sentences, for example in
English language the subject is usually placed before the verb and the object after the verb.
Syntactic noise has to do with the appropriateness in sentence construction. Each language has

12. a correct way of arranging words in sentences. Therefore, in correct grammar will interfere
with the understanding of the message.
Physical noise
Physical noise includes the sounds and other stimuli in the environment that draw people's
attention from intended meaning. For example, a mother helping a son with his homework and
the son's attention maybe drawn away by his favourite programme on television.
Psychological noise
Psychological noise includes internal distractions based on thoughts, feelings or emotional
reactions to language used. Internal noise refers to the thoughts and feelings that compete for
attention and interfere with the communication process. For example, day-dreaming in a
tutorial may interfere with learning.
Summary
 Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to a receiver
through a medium and communicated information is understood by both sender and
receiver.
 The communication process include elements that include the sender, receiver,
message, channel, feedback, noise, and context. The sender is the source of the
communication transaction and originator of the message. The message in the simplest
sense is the idea, concept, emotion, desire, or feeling that a person desires to share with
another human being. The channel is how a message moves from a person to another.
The channel is the medium or vehicle by which we can transmit the message to the
recipient.
 The receiver gets the message channelled by the source of information. In a one-way
communication process, he or she is in the other end.
 Feedback is the main component of the communication process as it permits the sender
to analyse the efficacy of the message.
 There are different models that attempt to explain the communication process. For the
purposes of this course, we discussed the three basic models of the communication
process which are the linear, the interactive and the transactional model.

13.  For communication to be effective, it must follow the 7Cs of communication which
include the need to be clear, concise, concrete, correct, coherent, complete, and
courteous.
 The various levels of communication include intrapersonal communication,
interpersonal communication, group communication, organisational
communication, public communication, and mass communication
 Intrapersonal communication is include verbal communication and non-verbal
communication.
 Barriers to good communication include factors or obstacles which hamper or hinder
the smooth flow of the message from the sender to the receiver or obstacles which
prevent the message from reaching the recipient.