ClimateChangeAdaptation

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CLIMATE- CHANGEADAPTATION IN
NOVA SCOTIA'SCOASTAL ZONE
2016
Kareina D'Souza,Mitchell Downton and & Sarah Vermeulen

The effects of climate change have become increasingly apparent in the coastal
zone of Nova Scotia.In the last decade,there has been an increase in the
frequency and intensity of storm events leading to coastal erosion,flooding and
saltwater intrusion.There are several issues surrounding climate change in Nova
Scotia beginning with the impacts on the province,both on the natural and human
environment.In Nova Scotia,there is a complicated governance environment
regarding the coastal zone,making adapting to climate change difficult.For
example,the Nova Scotia government created the 2009 Climate Change Action
Plan,and planned to release a Coastal Strategy in 2010.However,the Coastal
Strategy was never released,and the Climate Change Action Plan has not been
updated since its release.In order to effectively address climate change in Nova
Scotia,decision-makers must be aware of the vulnerability in the coastal zone and
can do so using tools such as coastal vulnerability assessments.Once vulnerability
is established then appropriate adaptation strategies can be chosen,implemented
and evaluated.This paper makes seven key recommendations including updating
the Nova Scotia Climate Change Action Plan,and creating a Coastal Strategy.
EXECUTIVESUMMARY

? COMPANY FOUNDER
ACRONYMS
ACAP- Atlantic Coastal Action Program
CCAP- Climate Change Action Plan
CCH - Department of Communities,Culture and Heritage
CH - Canadian Heritage
CWIC- Coastal Water Issues Committee
DFO - Department of Fisheries and Oceans
EAC- Ecology Action Centre
ECCC- Environment and Climate Change Canada
EMO - Emergency Management Organization
GHG- Greenhouse Gas
HRM - Halifax Regional Municipality
IPCC- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
MCCAP - Municipal Climate Change Action Plan
NGO - Non-governmental Organizations
NSDFA - Nova Scotia Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture
NSDOA - Nova Scotia Department of Agriculture
NSDNR- Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources
NSE- Nova Scotia Environment
RAC- Regional Adaptation Collaborative
TC- Transport Canada
TRI - Department of Transportation and Infrastructure Renewal

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper could not have been completed without the generous contribution of Robin Tress of the Ecology
Action Centre,John Charles of the Halifax Regional Municipality,and Jen Graham of Climate Change Nova
Scotia.The authors would also like to thank Dr.Peter Duinker, Dr.Peter Tyedmers and Dr.Tony Walker for
their support and guidance during the composition of this document.

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction.............................................................................................................................1
2.0 Methods...................................................................................................................................4
3.0 Impacts....................................................................................................................................5
3.1.Temperature Increase...................................................................................................5
3.2.Coastal Erosion.............................................................................................................9
3.3 Storm Surges and Flooding.........................................................................................11
4.0 Governance Environment........................................................................................................14
4.1.Federal.......................................................................................................................15
4.2 Atlantic Canada...........................................................................................................17
4.3 Provincial....................................................................................................................17
4.4 Municipal....................................................................................................................19
4.5 Aboriginal Peoples......................................................................................................21
4.6 Stakeholders...............................................................................................................21
4.6.1 NGOs............................................................................................................22
4.6.2 Private..........................................................................................................24
4.6.3 Public...........................................................................................................26
5.0 Adaptation in the Coastal Zone...............................................................................................27
5.1 Adaptation and Vulnerability........................................................................................27
5.1.1 Assessing Vulnerability in the Coastal Zone...................................................28
5.2 Planning and Design of Adaptation Strategies.............................................................28
5.3 Adaptation Strategy Options........................................................................................30
5.3.1 Protection Strategies.....................................................................................31
5.3.1.1 Hard Approach................................................................................31
5.3.1.2 Soft Approach.................................................................................32
5.3.1.3 Hybrid Approach.............................................................................33
5.3.2 Accommodation............................................................................................33
5.3.3 Retreat.........................................................................................................34
5.4 Adaptive Management of Coastal Zone....................................................................................35
5.5 Case Studies................................................................................................................37
5.5.1 Ecology Action Centre and Living Shorelines.................................................37

. 5.5.2 Prince Edward Island and the Bottom-up Approach...................................................38
5.5.3 New Brunswick?s Governance Environment....................................................39
6.0 Recommendations...................................................................................................................41
7.0 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................44
8.0 References..............................................................................................................................46
9.0 Appendices.............................................................................................................................55
9.1 Appendix 1 - Figures....................................................................................................55
9.2 Appendix 2 - Tables.....................................................................................................64

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1.0 Introduction
For the past two decades climate change has emerged as one of the most heavily studied
environmental phenomena in the world. The consequences of human impacts on the climate
system are evident. For example, in the Northern Hemisphere the last 30 years have been the
warmest in the past 1400 years (IPCC, 2014). Over the course of the 21st
century, climate change is
expected to affect the natural and human world in profound ways. Despite the increased number of
greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation policies and tools being established, atmospheric GHG levels
have continued to increase significantly between 2000 and 2010 (IPCC, 2014). The increasing
atmospheric concentration of GHGs will result in further warming of the Earth’s surface, creating
even more severe and irreversible impacts to ecosystems and people (IPCC, 2014).
Warming of the atmosphere will result in global mean sea level rise and an increased
intensity and frequency of storm events. The main drivers of sea level rise in the 20th
century were
ocean thermal expansion and glacial melting, which is estimated to account for roughly 75% of the
experienced rise in sea level (IPCC, 2014). It is expected that the global mean sea level rise for the
21st
century will occur at a faster rate than has been previously observed from 1971-2010, with a
projected rise of 0.75 m to 2.0 m by 2100 (IPCC, 2014). The predicted acceleration of sea level rise
will result in storm surges reaching further inland (NSE, 2009a).
Human alteration to natural habitat and intensification resulting from residential, shipping,
and commercial developments and recreation activities leaves coastal zones particularly
vulnerable to climate change impacts such as sea-level rise and storm surge events (Chapman and

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Underwood, 2011; IPCC, 2014). A coastal zone is defined as the natural or built environment within
2.0 km of the shoreline. The following two key risks were identified with high confidence for
coastal zones by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):
1. “Risk of death, injury, ill-health, or disrupted livelihoods in low-lying coastal zones
and small island developing states and other small islands, due to storm surges,
coastal flooding, and sea level rise” (IPCC, 2014).
2. “Risk of loss of marine and coastal ecosystems, biodiversity, and the ecosystem
goods, functions, and services they provide for coastal livelihoods, especially for
fishing communities in the tropics and the Arctic” (IPCC, 2014).
Nova Scotia’s 13,300 km shoreline is bordered in the north by the Northumberland Strait
and the Gulf of St Lawrence, in the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and in the south and west by the
Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy. There are many areas along the coast that are extremely
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Chouinard et al., 2008). This makes coastal climate
change impacts highly relevant to the people of Nova Scotia as approximately 70% of the
province’s population lives in coastal communities (NSE, 2009a). Nova Scotia’s coastal resources
are crucial to the economic, social, and environmental well-being of the province and therefore
must be protected and used in a sustainable manner (NSE, 2009a). The diverse coastal ecosystems
such as beaches and dune systems, rocky shores, tidal marshes, and estuaries provide many
ecosystem services such as flood and erosion control, and protection for infrastructure from storm
surges (NSE, 2009a).

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Coastal zones in Nova Scotia face widespread biophysical and socio-economic hazards that
are associated with climate change induced sea-level rise and increased storm events. The
projected sea-level rise in Nova Scotia over the next century is 0.7 m to 1.4 m (NSE, 2009a). In
addition to a rising sea-level, Nova Scotia’s coast is undergoing regional land subsidence at a rate
of approximately 0.2 m per century (NSE, 2009a). The areas that are the most vulnerable are the
low-lying zones, such as the floodplains, salt marshes and dykelands, areas with sensitive ecology,
and areas with coastal infrastructure (NSE, 2009a).
Action must be taken to prepare for the impacts of climate change in Nova Scotia’s coastal
zone to reduce the severity of the impacts. Therefore, adaptation, which is defined as the “the
process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects” is necessary (IPCC, 2014 p.5).
Adaptation in human environments aims to lessen or avoid harm and take advantage of favorable
opportunities (IPCC, 2014). Adaptation in natural environments will allow for the adjustment of
said environment to expected climate change and its effects (IPCC, 2014).
Adaptation differs from mitigation, which is the anthropogenic intervention to control the
sources of climate change, including the emissions of GHGs as well as other pollutants (IPCC,
2014). Mitigation also includes efforts to enhance the processes that remove GHGs from the
atmosphere, more commonly referred to as sinks (IPCC, 2014). Successful mitigation would lower
the potential effects of climate change as well as the risks of severe impacts and is a part of a
broader policy strategy that also includes adaptation (IPCC, 2014). Unlike mitigation, which focuses
on avoiding long term atmospheric changes, adaptation strategies can range from short term
coping mechanisms to long term transformations (Moser and Ektorm, 2010). It involves reducing

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risk and vulnerability, seeking opportunities and building the adaptive capacity to cope with
climate impacts and allowing for the governance capacity to implement decisions and actions
(Tompkins et al., 2010).
This report presents an integrated study of the biophysical and social elements of the
coastal zone. This approach will bring to light the biggest challenges facing successful adaptation
in Nova Scotia’s coastal zone. The major impacts that will result from an increase in temperature,
sea-level rise, and frequency and intensity of storms will be discussed, followed by an overview of
the governance and regulatory environment. The paper will then lead into the steps that should be
taken for successful adaptation in Nova Scotia’s coastal zone, as well as different adaptation
options available to decision-makers. Lastly, case studies are presented to showcase how Nova
Scotia can improve upon these adaptation strategies.
2.0 Methods
This study was completed using available literature including Nova Scotia’s Climate Change
Action Plan (2009), the 2009 Nova Scotia’s State of the Coast Technical Report, and the fifth IPCC
Assessment Report (2014). Additionally, a thorough search of peer reviewed articles related to
adaptation, climate change effects in the coastal zone, and adaptive management was conducted.
Professionals within the Halifax area were consulted for this document. These professionals
include Robin Tress of the Ecology Action Centre (EAC), John Charles of the Halifax Regional
Municipality (HRM), and Jen Graham of Climate Change Nova Scotia.

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3.0 Impacts
The impacts of climate change in Nova Scotia’s coastal areas range from short to long-
term, and will affect the natural and human environment. An increase in global average
temperatures is the primary impact of climate change, which then drives secondary impacts such
as increases in storm surges, floods, and coastal erosion (IPCC, 2014). These secondary impacts
affect Nova Scotia’s coast in specific ways, and as a result, will be further discussed separately in
the upcoming sections. This list of impacts is not exhaustive; rather, it showcases the main impacts
as they relate to adaptation strategies within Nova Scotia’s coastal zones.
3. 1. Temperature Increase
The IPCC concluded that global GHG emissions have reached 49.5 billion tonnes as of
2010, which is higher than any other level prior to that date (IPCC, 2014). This increase in carbon
pushes the natural cycle out of balance, and as a result the Earth is experiencing higher
temperatures (IPCC, 2014).
One particular ecological impact associated with temperature increase in Nova Scotia
relates to migratory birds. Migration affects biodiversity at both regional and global scales, and
migratory animals impact ecosystem processes (Seebacher and Post, 2015). Because of this
symbiotic nature, these animals use predictable environmental cues for the timing and navigation
of migration (Seebacher and Post, 2015). A change in these cues will affect the extent of migration;
for example, arrival and hatching dates can be strongly affected by temperature increase
(Seebacher and Post, 2015). If Nova Scotia's temperatures rise, the migratory bird will respond

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phenologically and migrate at earlier dates than in the past. Migratory species residing in Nova
Scotia that could be affected are Anas platyrhynchos (mallard duck) and Branta canadensis (Canada
goose).
An increase in temperature also has impacts on marine species such as echinoderms like
the Echinoidea (sea urchins) and Asteroidea (starfish). These two classes fill a significant component
of the coastal zones trophic structure, as they fill an important ecological role as both predator and
prey. It was found that an increase in temperature accelerates echinoderm larval development,
which reduces the period that the larvae are exposed to planktonic predators (Jangoux and
Lawrence, 2001). As a result, warmer periods have created population outbreaks for echinoderms
(Jangoux and Lawrence, 2001). However, if the temperature increases too much then fertilization
starts to deteriorate, occurring most commonly within sea urchin populations. A 6°C increase in
water temperature lowers sea urchin fertilization success by around 60% (Byrne et al., 2009). These
two trends lead to a fine balance for echinoderm populations off the coast of NS, as their
populations might thrive in the short-term, but start to deteriorate long-term if temperatures
continue to increase.
The same study noted that ocean acidification did not compromise sea urchin fertilization
(Byrne et al., 2009). Ocean acidification is the process by which the ocean absorbs excess
atmospheric carbon dioxide, resulting in a lowered oceanic pH. This alters the balance of aqueous
carbonate ions, which are needed by certain marine organisms to form their calcium carbonate
exoskeletons. Pteropod (shelled plankton) organisms rely on carbonate ions to construct their
exoskeleton, and may be unable survive in the under-saturated conditions that climate change may

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create (Orr et al., 2005). This threat to their survivability can have notable ecosystem impacts, as
many species families such as salmon (Salmonidae), mackerel (Scombridae)l, cod (Gadidae), and
baleen whales (Balaenidae) rely on them as a food source (Orr et al., 2005). Similarly, corals (of the
species class Anthoaza) rely on carbonate to construct their calcium exoskeletons, and increasingly
harsh conditions may result in only the most resilient species surviving, decreasing the diversity of
Nova Scotia’s coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007).
Temperature increase may also result in the loss of habitat for species such as the
Halichoerus grypus (grey seals) found off of Nova Scotia’s coast. This species has been known to
alternate between land and ice breeding depending on ice conditions (Jussi et al., 2008). A study
conducted on grey seals found that the fitness of grey seal females in terms of pup mortality and
quality is reduced when breeding on land as compared to ice (Jussi et al., 2008). Based on this
information a loss of ice due to warming temperatures will lead to a decline in the grey seal
population off of the coast in Nova Scotia (Jussi et al., 2008).
This loss of habitat is not specific to marine animal species. Tree species are sensitive to
increasing temperatures, as their optimal conditions can be at risk if temperatures continue to
increase. For example, there has been an indication that Pinus resinosa’s (red pine) habitat will
undergo significant deterioration from 2011-2040 and 2070-2100, with its loss in habitat being
greater than 50% (Bourque et al., 2010). Referring to Figure 1 (Appendix 1), the red areas of Nova
Scotia indicate high species distribution, while the grey areas represent zero distribution. It is
evident in this projection that currently the red pine has high species distribution throughout Nova
Scotia, but by 2070 only areas within Cape Breton will have some potential distribution, and by

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2100 the entire province will have zero acceptable red pine habitats (Bourque et al. 2010). This
figure showcases how seriously increasing temperatures affect tree habitats, and subsequently,
their survival in Nova Scotia and its coastal zones.
This shift in favourable conditions and habitats for animal and plant species can impact the
corresponding industries associated with their harvesting. Increasing temperatures can force
marine species to move north in large numbers, as these organisms tend to follow cooler water
(Nye et al., 2009). Salmon in particular often migrate hundreds of kilometres from their natal
riverine areas to the ocean, and then return again to their natal areas for spawning (Seebacher and
Post, 2015). Salmon prefer relatively cool water, as increasing water temperatures compromise
their cardiovascular and metabolic physiology (Seebacher and Post, 2015). As well, industry species
such as salmon and cod are increasingly vulnerable to competitors and parasites (NSDFA, 2014).
These impacts will detract from the quality and quantity of fish, and in turn will negatively affect
the fishing industry.
An example that is particularly relevant to Nova Scotia is the lobster industry. Warmer
waters have been found to cause the lobsters’ stress after the fishermen pull them from their traps,
which can affect the quality of their meat (CBC News, 2012a). This can negatively impact Nova
Scotia’s lobster fishery and the people whose livelihoods rely on it. However, it has been reported
that there have been an increase in lobster catches around Nova Scotia, as lobsters are migrating
north from warmer waters around Massachusetts to Atlantic Canada (CBC News, 2013). Catches
have increased to around 20,000 tonnes in the past few years, up from 8,000 tonnes in 1975 (CBC
News, 2013). This increase could be partially attributed to more advanced fishing techniques, an

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increased number of fishermen, or more a accurate reporting of catches; however, the trend is still
clear and increasing temperatures should not be ruled out as a possible explanation.
The agriculture industry is also impacted due to increasing temperatures within Nova
Scotia’s coastal zones. A Government of Canada model predicted a 1-2°C increase in monthly
average temperatures from 2010-2039 in Atlantic Canada, resulting in earlier crop seeding dates,
and later fall frost dates (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2014). This increase in temperature
lends itself to longer growing times for coastal farmers in Nova Scotia, which could lead to an
increase in agricultural production in these areas.
3.2. Coastal Erosion
Coastal erosion is the deterioration of areas along the coast, and is driven by thermal
expansion and land subsidence. Thermal expansion of the ocean leads to sea level rise as elevated
temperatures cause saltwater to expand (Wigley and Raper, 1987). These elevated levels over time
can cause coastal shorelines to recede (IPCC, 2014). Land subsidence can also contribute to coastal
erosion. Subsidence is a manifestation of the crust’s long-term response to the end of the last ice
age, referred to as “glacial isostatic adjustment”. It is caused by the gradual collapse and migration
of an area of uplift that developed around the margins of the North American ice sheets as global
mean sea levels rose (NSE, 2009a). When the glaciers in central Canada melted, the land was lifted
up from central Canada, and the land was pushed downward gradually at the Atlantic coast. This
coastal land recession can have many social implications, including impacts to dykelands, coastal
development, and heritage resources.

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Dykelands are coastal agricultural areas within the boundaries of salt marshes. They were
established in Nova Scotia over 300 years ago by French settlers who drained land within salt
marshes (Province of Nova Scotia, 2009). The saltmarsh plants helped to trap nutrient-rich
sediments from tidal waters on vast level areas which were ideal for the development of
agricultural land (Province of Nova Scotia, 2009). Dykelands are still used today, with farms
producing hay, sod, corn, and other related crops (Province of Nova Scotia, 2009). However, as their
location is so close to the coast, coastal erosion is a primary concern. Natural dykes were built in
order to buffer the farmland from the high tidal waters, and usually consist of brush and sod. Dykes
can buffer high waters and help to drain any excess saltwater that resides next to the dykeland
fields. An increase in coastal erosion can continually chip away at the structural integrity of the
dykes, which can lead to saltwater intrusion into the dykeland fields. Dykes do not only protect
agricultural land, but also provide protection for private and public infrastructure nearby. As such,
there will most likely be an increase of flooding to these areas if dykes are continually impacted by
coastal erosion. Farm and coastal property may require relocation if it is deemed economically
unfeasible to keep rebuilding the dykes.
Shoreline erosion also poses a great threat to coastal residents’ land, and limits the amount
of land available for public access and for future development. For example, some homes in Cape
Breton, specifically areas in Sydney Mines and Florence, are located directly on coastal cliffs with
as little as 3 metres from the edge of a house to the cliff’s edge (CBC News, 2012b). Homeowners
can have trouble selling these properties due to the precarious location, and because of this some
owners cannot afford to move off of their properties (CBC News, 2012b). This increased shoreline

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erosion can therefore impact future coastal development within these coastal towns, which can
have negative economic impacts on these areas.
Shoreline erosion can also impact heritage resources within the coastal zone. Nova Scotia
has mix of cultures with the current diversity consisting of First Nations, British, French, German,
other European nationalities, and African (Nova Scotia, 2009). Each of these cultures have their
own history regarding colonization and development. There are many coastal resources and sites
which hold special importance to these cultural groups as they express their heritage in Nova
Scotia (Nova Scotia, 2009). Therefore, one of the challenges for sustainable development is to
ensure that these interests are understood and that the conservation of cultural heritage resources
is a component of coastal management moving forward (Nova Scotia, 2009).
3.3 Storm Surges and Flooding
An increase in temperature also leads to an increase the frequency and intensity of storm
surges and coastal flooding events. An increase in storm surges, in combination with rising sea
levels, could have widespread impacts on populations, property, coastal vegetation, and
ecosystems, and pose threats to commerce, businesses, and livelihoods (IPCC, 2014). Specifically,
storm surges and flooding events impact coastal infrastructure, sewer systems, human safety,
wetlands, aquaculture, and dykelands.
Coastal infrastructure includes coastal houses, beaches, boardwalks, ports, harbours,
coastal highways, and public structures. Storm surges, and subsequent flooding events, can result
in substantial physical damages to this infrastructure. The Insurance Bureau of Canada reported a

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total of $130 million in structural damage in Nova Scotia from Hurricane Juan in 2003 (NSE,
2009a). Of the $130 million, a total of $2 million was required to repair provincial coastal
infrastructure such as roads and shoreline structures (NSE, 2009a). The economic implications of
these events are substantial, with the overall damage attributed to storm surges faced by private
landowners, small businesses, fishermen, and not-for-profit organizations from 2000-2010
estimated at $3.3 million (NSE, 2009a). In some cases, homeowners are directly liable for these
damages, as insurance companies do not cover damage from coastal flooding or gradual erosion
(NSE, 2009a). In addition to these financial impacts, a loss of infrastructure can cause disruption of
essential services, and may leave people without shelter in the aftermath of the storm events.
Damages to beaches and other tourism infrastructure can result in downtime for these
attractions, which can lead to a loss of potential tourist revenue. Ports and harbours will also be
affected, as demonstrated by the heavy shoreline damage to piers and fishing vessels caused by
Hurricane Juan. Countless pleasure crafts were also grounded or capsized during the storm
(Fogarty, 2003). Figure 2 (Appendix 1) showcases the extent of the damage Hurricane Juan caused
to Halifax Waterfront. If storm surges will be occurring more frequently due to climate change,
beaches and boardwalks will face continual economic strife in managing their infrastructure and
loss of revenue.
Sewer systems will primarily be facing an increased frequency of backups and upstream
flooding during storm surges (NSE, 2009a). Some coastal cities in Nova Scotia have a combined
sewer system, which means storm-water and wastewater are carried through the same
underground infrastructure (NSE, 2009a). During storm surges some systems may not have the
capacity for a massive influx of water, leading to backlog of rain and sewage water that is forced

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into the streets (NSE, 2009a). Additionally, the increased frequency of rainfall can impact the
quality of treated wastewater (NSE, 2009a). When there are intense storm surges the facility cannot
treat the high volume of water adequately, leading to contaminated water being released into the
Halifax Harbour.
In addition to the impacts to built infrastructure, human safety is may be compromised
during storm surges. Hurricane Juan in total claimed eight lives in 2003, showcasing how
dangerous and unpredictable these events can be (Fogarty, 2003). Extreme weather events can
cause flooding and damage to infrastructure and transportation services, which can result in the
isolation of communities, inhibiting their ability to seek any emergency response.
An increased amount of storm events with climate change may result in economic stress on
several industries in Nova Scotia through disruption of operations and damages to infrastructure.
One example is the aquaculture industry, which is a significant source of income for coastal
communities in Nova Scotia. It was worth approximately $60 million in 2014 and employed around
600 people within the province (NSDFA, 2014). For example, after Hurricane Katrina hit the coast
of Louisiana in 2005 it was estimated that the loss of seafood production was around $1.1 billion –
and this number does not include infrastructure loss that the hurricane also incurred (Buck, 2005).
Changes in temperature and water salinity will also pose issues for the aquaculture industry in
Nova Scotia moving forward, as the fish species being farmed might be sensitive to increased
acidification and temperatures.

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The agriculture industry will also be affected as an increase of storm events can lead to the
destruction of vegetation, crops, orchards, and livestock, and these impacts can occur either
directly or indirectly through long-term losses of soil fertility. Saltwater intrusion is also a main
impact resulting from storm events. Coastal saltwater and freshwater marshes can be flooded for
weeks in some places after heavy storm surges, which increases the time for salt to diffuse into the
interstitial water in the soil. Saltwater intrusion can be detrimental because water with high salt
concentrations can adversely affect vegetation. Vegetable crops specifically are very sensitive and
will not tolerate much salinity (van Es, 2012). As well, with heavier soils or soils with high water
tables, it may take several years for salt levels to drop to acceptable agricultural standards (van Es,
2012). After Hurricane Katrina, inland saltwater intrusion caused Louisiana’s rice crop to decrease
by 20% the year after Katrina (Buck, 2005). This example can be applied to Nova Scotia’s coastal
agriculture as built dykelands may be flooded during storm events, causing saltwater intrusion
which will impact agricultural crops.
As demonstrated, the impacts associated with climate change are far-reaching and will
affect the human, natural, and built environment. Having a better understanding of how these
impacts influence Nova Scotia’s coast will aid in how best to manage the coast to account in order
to minimize or prevent impacts.
4.0 Governance Environment
It is clear that action is needed to tackle the upcoming climate changes and the subsequent
impacts that they will have. Coastal management in Nova Scotia must take measures to help

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reduce the climate change impacts. Before a course of action can be taken an understanding of the
governance and regulatory environment surrounding coastal zone management is necessary. The
jurisdiction and legislative authority surrounding the coastal zone in Nova Scotia is quite complex
(NSE, 2009a). Jurisdiction of the coast and its resources is spread out between all levels of
government and various departments at the federal and provincial levels. These departments are
responsible for overseeing the administration of over 45 international, federal, provincial, and
municipal legislations and policies that influence coastal zone management in Nova Scotia (NSE,
2009a). In addition to governments, Aboriginal Peoples and stakeholders have a significant
influence on governance within the coastal zone.
Governance of the coastal zone will be explored using the phrase “Who makes which
decisions about what, and how?” First the governing bodies – “the who” - involved in coastal
management in Nova Scotia will be discussed. Their corresponding jurisdictional authority will
then be outlined, which will highlight the decisions they can make and what the decisions are
about. Finally, how these decisions are made and current actions that have been taken will be
described in this section.
4.1. Federal
The federal government has ownership of the coastal zone from the ordinary low water
mark out to 370 km (Constitution Act, 1867). The federal government, as per Section 91 of the
Constitution Act, 1867 has sole authority over the following attributes of coastal management:
beacons, buoys, lighthouses, and Sable Island; quarantine and the establishment and maintenance

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of marine hospitals; militia, military, naval service and defence; navigation and shipping; sea coast
and inland fisheries, and ferries between two provinces or between a province and a country.
There are several departments within the federal government such as the Department of Fisheries
and Oceans (DFO), Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC), Transport Canada (TC), and
Canada Heritage (CH) that have jurisdictional authority over aspects of coastal management and
are responsible for implementing legislation pertaining to the coastal zone (Appendix 2- Table 1)
(NSE, 2009a).
Out of the legislation listed in Table 1 (Appendix 2), the most important federal legislation
pertaining to Nova Scotia’s coastal zone includes the Oceans Act, the Fisheries Act and the Canadian
Environmental Protection Act (NSE, 2009a). Knowledge of these acts is necessary to take action to
prepare the coastal zone for climate change impacts. The Fisheries Act is extremely relevant in
terms of climate change impacts previously outlined and therefore will be further discussed.
The Fisheries Act was created to protect and manage the fisheries resources of Canada, and
covers all of Canada’s fishing zones, territorial seas, and inland waters. The Fisheries Act defines
fish as “shellfish, crustaceans, marine animals and any parts of shellfish, crustaceans or marine
animals” (Fisheries Act, 1985 Section 2). Section 32 of the Fisheries Act prohibits the unauthorized
killing of fish by any means excluding fishing. Furthermore, Section 35 of the Act prevents the
disturbance of fish habitat defined as “harmful alteration, disruption or destruction of fish habitat”
(Fisheries Act, 1985 Section 2) without consent from appropriate authorities. Consideration of the
Fisheries Act is crucial when considering erecting physical structures or other measures to protect
from sea-level rise and erosion in the coastal zone (NES, 2009a).

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4.2 Atlantic Canada
In between the federal and provincial levels there are regional initiatives occurring through
the collaboration among provincial governments (ACASA, 2013). Over the last several years, the
federal government has funded programs designed to help Canadians adapt to the impacts of
climate change. The Regional Adaptation Collaborative (RAC) Program is part of this investment.
The Governments of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and
Labrador partnered to deliver the Atlantic portion of this program (ACASA, 2013). From 2009 to
2012 $3.5 million was contributed by Natural Resources Canada along with $2.4 million from
Atlantic Provinces (ACASA, 2013). The program targeted issues such as coastal and inland flooding,
coastal erosion, groundwater management, and infrastructure. Through this program the Climate
Change Adaptation Strategy for Atlantic Canada was drafted (ACASA, 2013). The purpose of the
strategy was to create a comprehensive, integrated, and long-term framework to guide climate
change adaptation in the Atlantic region (ACASA, 2013).
4.3 Provincial
The coastal zone is provincial Crown land between the ordinary high and low water marks,
with the exception of a few areas where an ownership transfer has taken place (e.g. for wharves
and piers) (Constitution Act, 1867). Section 92 of the Constitution Act, 1867 allocates provincial
authority over the management and sale of lands within the province (excluding federal Crown
lands); the control of the management, conservation, exploration, and development of non-
renewable resources; property and civil rights; forestry resources; municipal institutions; and
electrical generation facilities. As well, any additional private matters in the province fall under

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provincial jurisdiction, and as 83% of the coast is privately owned, the provincial government is
responsible for a large number of coastal matters (NSE, 2009a).
The above provincially-allocated attributes of the coastal zone are divided between a
number of departments. These include Nova Scotia Environment (NSE), which is responsible for the
health of Nova Scotia’s environment; Nova Scotia Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture
(NSDFA), which is tasked with managing elements of federal coastal water and promoting fisheries
and aquaculture; Nova Scotia Department for Natural Resources (NSDNR), which is responsible for
managing Crown land and Provincial parks; Nova Scotia Department of Agriculture (NSDOA);
Department of Transportation and Infrastructure Renewal (TRI); and the Nova Scotia Department of
Communities, Culture and Heritage (CCH) (NSE, 2009a). There is substantial amount of provincial
legislation that pertains to coastal zones that is implemented by the above departments that
guides the management of the coastal zone attributes for which they are responsible for (Appendix
2 - Table 2) (NSE, 2009a).
In addition to the statutes that guide the preparation of Nova Scotia’s coastal zone for
climate change impacts, there are a number of additional policies and strategies in place. These
include the Nova Scotia Wetland Conservation Policy (2011), Nova Scotia’s Water Resource
Management Strategy (2010), and Nova Scotia’s Climate Change Action Plan (CCAP) (2009). Nova
Scotia’s CCAP is a province wide initiative that covers both climate change mitigation and
adaptation in an attempt to reduce the severity of climate change and prepare for its impacts. The
actions generated by the plan that relate to the coastal zone are:

19
Action 46 – “Using funds from the federal Gas Tax Agreement, provide funding in 2009 to
help municipal governments plan for climate change. A key focus will be the impacts of
sea-level rise on land-use planning and on the design of wastewater treatment plants”
(NES, 2009b);
Action 62 – “Release a Sustainable Coastal Development Strategy by 2010. A major part of
the strategy will focus on strengthening our resilience to climate change impacts along our
coast” (NES, 2009b); and
Action 63 – “Take sea-level rise into consideration and place priority on conserving coastal
wetlands in preparing a policy to prevent net loss of wetlands. The Environmental Goals
and Sustainable Prosperity Act require that this policy be developed by 2009 (NES, 2009b).
Action 63 was completed in 2011 with the release of the Nova Scotia Wetland Conservation Policy.
Action 62 was not completed, as a coastal strategy was drafted but never implemented.
4.4 Municipal
Municipalities’ powers, responsibilities, and boundaries are set by the province through the
Municipal Government Act, 1998. The coastal management aspects that fall under the regulatory
authority of municipalities are local infrastructure and land use planning, meaning municipalities
have power over coastal development (NSE, 2009a).
Action 46 of Nova Scotia’s CCAP involves increasing the capacity of Nova Scotia’s
municipalities to incorporate climate change into the formal planning process. The Canada-Nova
Scotia agreement on the transfer of gas tax funds provided municipalities financial incentives to

20
develop Municipal Climate Change Action Plans (MCCAPs) by 2014. A guidebook was developed for
municipalities to follow when developing their MCCAP. The guide suggested the decision-making
process should follow the basic structure of the flow diagram presented in Figure 3 (Appendix 1).
Step one involves building a team of local government officials and stakeholders; establishing
mandates and terms of reference; and determining the limits of the team’s authority (Canada-Nova
Scotia Infrastructure Secretariat, 2011). Step two entails identifying climate change impacts and
hazards, step three identifies affected locations, and step four determines all essential services and
infrastructure that will be impacted by climate change (Canada-Nova Scotia Infrastructure
Secretariat, 2011). Step five involves assessing social, economic, and environmental considerations.
Finally, step six involves establishing adaptation priorities (Canada-Nova Scotia Infrastructure
Secretariat, 2011).
In addition to developing MCCAPs and incorporating sea level rise and coastal erosion into
land-use planning, municipalities share the responsibilities of emergency management with
provincial and federal governments (EMO, 2012). In the case of extreme storm events and flooding,
municipalities and regions are responsible for managing and organizing emergency responses
within their jurisdiction. They are responsible for the first response and relieving citizens from
danger. They are required to establish emergency by-laws, setup and maintain an Emergency
Management Organization (EMO), designate an Emergency Management Coordinator and
Committee, and notify the provincial government when an emergency event occurs (EMO, 2012).
Usually, emergency events that occur in the coastal zone as a result of climate change will impact
municipal and regional jurisdictions specifically, and therefore it will be their responsibility to act.

21
If additional assistance is needed in the case of an extremely severe storm, it is then the province’s
responsibility to step in (EMO, 2012).
4.5 Aboriginal Peoples
Aboriginal rights and treaties are recognized and affirmed by Section 35 of the Constitution
Act, 1982. Aboriginal rights encompass all of their land, culture, and traditions. Since no land-claim
treaties have been signed in Nova Scotia, Aboriginal Peoples still hold claim to their land.
Therefore, they have the right to coastal resources and land; however, this does not give them any
jurisdictional authority within the coastal zone (NSE, 2009a). Aboriginal Peoples are involved in the
governance process of coastal management as there is a duty to consult when Aboriginal Peoples
interests may be impacted by a decision made by the federal or provincial Crown (NSE, 2009a).
To further examine Aboriginal rights and treaties in Nova Scotia, the Made-in-Nova Scotia
Process, a tripartite forum, was formed between the Mi’kmaq, the Nova Scotia government, and the
Canadian government (NSE, 2009a). The forum’s purpose was to settle issues related to Aboriginal
rights and titles and Mi’kmaq treaty rights and governance. Three of the working groups that were
created as a part of the forum that have influence on coastal resource-use are the Land Protection
Working group, the Fisheries Working group, and the Forestry Working Group (NSE, 2009a).
4.6 Stakeholders
The stakeholders invested in coastal zone management in Nova Scotia include non-
governmental organizations (NGOs); private stakeholders (e.g. insurance companies) and private
landowners; and public stakeholders. Stakeholder involvement in the governance process is crucial

22
to the success of coastal management strategies (Volk et al., 2009). Incorporating stakeholders in
the planning and design phase of adaptation measures will increase acceptance of measures and
instill a sense of ownership in the actions taken (Volk et al., 2009). Furthermore, Gemmill and
Bamidele-Izu (2002) identified the five following attributes that stakeholders can contribute when
they partake in governance:
1. Collecting, disseminating, and analyzing information;
2. Providing input to agenda-setting and policy development processes;
3. Performing operational functions;
4. Assessing environmental conditions and monitoring compliance with environmental
agreements; and
5. Advocating environmental justice” (Gemmill and Bamidele-Izu, 2002).
4.6.1 NGOs
In relation to environmental governance, NGOs are one of the most influential stakeholders
(Gemmill and Bamidele-Izu, 2002). NGOs play an important role in advocacy and outreach
particularly through education and implementing stewardship programs (Duinker et al., 2014). The
most notable NGOs that influence the governance of Nova Scotia’s coastal zone are the EAC and
the Atlantic Coastal Action Program (ACAP).
The EAC is one of the most influential environmental NGOs in Nova Scotia. They have 4500
members, 400 volunteers, 40 full time staff, and an annual budget of around $3 million (Personal
Communication, Matt Miller, Feb. 26th
2016). There are seven different environmental areas that

23
the EAC focuses on, but the area that is relevant to coastal zones is labelled “Coastal and Water
Issues”. The EAC’s Coastal and Water Issues Committee (CWIC) mission is to strive towards
protecting Nova Scotia’s coasts and water resources and ensuring citizens value them. To reach
these goals they conduct outreach programs, which involve engaging citizens and demonstrating
common values and good practices. They provide people with the opportunity to obtain
information, and give them the motivation and confidence they need to take action (EAC, 2016).
The advocacy work the EAC does involves lobbying for legislative protection and pressuring
municipalities about coastal planning, as according to the EAC there are only old policies in place,
and no real new regulations that consider climate change (Personal Communication, Robin Tress,
March 9th
2016). As well, the the EAC seeks media coverage to bring light to their advocated work.
An example is a CBC news article from an interview with Robin Tress, EAC’s Coastal Adaptation
Coordinator, on December 3rd
2015 titled “Nova Scotia urged to develop unified coastal erosion
plan”. In this article Tress draws attention to the drafted 2011 unified coastal strategy which fell
through under the past government, and the fact that Nova Scotia is only one of two coastal
jurisdictions in North America that does not have a coastal plan of some sort (CBC News, 2015).
She states " […] it is a bit outrageous that we don't have anything protecting the one thing that
drives our province's economy and identity" (CBC News, 2015).
The ACAP is an environmental NGO located in Cape Breton. They have been increasingly
mentoring citizens within watersheds and the coastal zones (ACAP, 2016). The majority of projects
the ACAP has undertaken have an integrated education and outreach component to increase local
awareness and to facilitate behavioral change. They also organize stewardship programs that

24
relate to preparing coastal zones for climate change impacts. Some examples are the planting of a
living shoreline on the Eskasoni and climate change adaptation on the Marconi Trail (ACAP, 2016).
These projects consisted of two components: the scientific assessment of changes in the coast due
to sea-level rise and erosion, and local knowledge from community members, which could include
changes they are concerned about that they have seen on the coast (ACAP, 2016).
It is clear that the EAC and the ACAP have a great deal of influence on the governance of
Nova Scotia’s coastal zones. This is through advocacy, pushing for legislative protection of the
coastal zone and a unified coastal management strategy, and outreach through implementing
stewardship programs and education on coastal issues, which increases public participation
surrounding coastal matters.
4.6.2 Private
Private stakeholders invested in Nova Scotia’s Coastal zone include insurance companies,
fisheries, businesses, homeowners, and landowners in the coastal zone. The insurance industry is a
major player in coastal zone governance, as they heavily influence coastal development. Insurance
companies are in the business of managing risk by spreading this risk across a large number of
people (Arlington Group Planning et al., 2013). In areas where the risk is much higher insurance
prices will be altered to reflect the risk and remain economically viable. Insurance companies will
increase premiums and possibly deny coverage based on where past damage has occurred. They
will also create vulnerability maps through geographic information systems (GIS) and light
detection and ranging (LiDAR) based technology to help them assess risk (Arlington Group

25
Planning et al., 2013). This risk-based pricing approach can be considered a disincentive from
developing and living in high-risk areas (Sandink, 2012). Creating disincentives for coastal
development is a form of managing climate change impacts, as risk is communicated to
policyholders and motivation is provided for them to reduce risk. The insurance industry will be a
paramount player in managing climate change risk moving forward, both for future development
and for current homeowners living in high-risk coastal zones. This can be considered a form of
governance, as insurance companies directly influence and regulate people’s activities to reduce
risk (Sandink, 2012).
Although insurance companies can be considered important for reducing risk, they do not
provide coverage for overland flooding from sea-level rise, river flooding, and storm surges
(Sandink, 2012). By not covering overland flooding, which is one of the major climate change
impacts coastal zones will face, they cannot create disincentives for people to reduce the risk of
flooding. The lack of flood insurance and the disincentive approach insurance companies use also
puts intense pressure on local, provincial and federal governments to compensate for damages
(Arlington Group Planning et al., 2013). Property owner's ability and perception of being able to
rely on governments for damage reimbursements - that cannot be claimed through their insurance
- undermines the effectiveness of disincentives to reduce risk from climate change (Arlington
Group Planning et al., 2013).
Fisheries, other coastal industries and businesses, and home and landowners are crucial
stakeholders in coastal zone management. They are heavily invested in the protection of their land
and infrastructure, which could lead to a conflict in interest with the general public. For example,

26
the best solution may be to retreat, but citizens will instinctively want to hold their line and
develop seawalls and barriers that could have costly ecological effects. Therefore, their
participation in the governance process is essential (Volk et al., 2009). Business, home, and
landowners’ participation in the coastal management process will allow for more informed
decisions based on location knowledge and attitudes (Volk et al., 2009). It will also result in higher
acceptance of management strategies if the private stakeholders are directly involved in the design
and implementation of the strategies, which in turn will increase compliance of the strategies and
increases the likelihood of the strategy’s success (Volk et al., 2009).
4.6.3 Public
Public stakeholders include all residents and visitors of Nova Scotia that value the coastal
zone for its aesthetic and recreational use. Public concern is centered on the desire for coastal
access, enjoyment, and recreational use, as well as long-term environmental sustainability of the
coast for the enjoyment of future generations (NSE, 2009a). This balance between managing the
coastal zone for conservation and recreational use is difficult to establish and maintain. Most Nova
Scotians already feel like their access to coastal land has decreased, and with the looming threat of
sea-level rise and coastal erosion this will only increase (NSE, 2009a). Public participation in the
coastal management process will allow this issue along with others to be better addressed.
Education and public outreach is a fundamental step that will encourage public participation and
motivate citizens to take action at the community level. The public, in addition to NGOs, can
pressure government officials to take action that they do not have the authority or capacity to do
alone or at a community level. A unified approach that involves government and stakeholders will
lead to climate change adaptation in the coastal zone being considered a higher priority.

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5.0 Adaptation in the Coastal Zone
Adaptation has been defined as the process by which individuals, communities, and
countries seek to cope with the consequences of climate change (Burton, 2005). Adaptation in the
coastal zone begins with assessing the vulnerability of specific areas to the impacts of climate
change. Once vulnerability is examined, appropriate adaptation strategies must be chosen and
implemented. These strategies must then be evaluated for their effectiveness after implementation
(IPCC, 2014). This section examines the steps to adaptation including vulnerability assessment,
adaptation strategies and evaluation.
5.1 Adaptation and Vulnerability
Vulnerability is the “propensity or predisposition of a system to be adversely affected by
climate change” and primarily focuses on exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity (IPCC, 2014).
Adaptation requires comprehensive information on the risks and vulnerabilities in order to identify
needs and appropriate options (Preston and Stafford Smith, 2009; Tompkins et al., 2010; Fünfgeld
and McEnvoy, 2011; Eakin et al., 2012). Vulnerability at the national level is mainly affected by
geographic location, physical conditions, institutional and governance arrangements, and resource
availability (Brooks et al., 2005). However, at a smaller scale, only biophysical and socioeconomic
determinants are used in regards to risk (Appendix 1- Figure 4) (Preston et al., 2011). Adaptation
requirements are highly diverse and context-specific, and different stakeholders will have different
adaptation needs and vulnerabilities (IPCC, 2014). These needs are also dynamic, and future
adaptation needs are highly dependent on the mitigation pathway that is taken. Furthermore, the

28
constraints and limits to adaptation are likely to signify that not all needs will be met, thereby
emphasizing the urgency for monitoring to avoid crossing critical thresholds (IPCC, 2014).
5.1.1 Assessing Vulnerability in the Coastal Zone
Vulnerability assessments provide an ideal starting point for the determination of effective
means of promoting remedial action to limit impacts in both terrestrial and coastal zones (Kelly
and Adger, 2000). Ideally, vulnerability assessments are able to provide quantitative estimates for
each type of impact, be it indirect or direct (Klein and Nicholls, 1999). Vulnerability indicators can
be assessed in a variety of ways, which are detailed in Figure 5. (Appendix 1). Vulnerability can be
assessed either using a simple physical sensitivity index (Shaw et al., 1998) or a more integrated
approach (IPCC-CZMS, 1992). However, the debate on how vulnerability is defined and
incorporated into coastal zone impact assessments has called for a more integrated view of
vulnerability (Dolan and Walker, 2006). Initially, identifying needs was most often based on impact
assessments (or risk-hazard approaches), but social vulnerability (or resilience) assessments are
increasingly being used (Fünfgeld and McEnvoy, 2011; Preston et al., 2011). An integrated approach
considers inherent susceptibilities and resilience of both biophysical and social environments as an
interrelated and interdependent human-environment system (Appendix 1- Figure 5) (Dolan and
Walker, 2006). This leads to a line of thinking where vulnerability is the starting point rather than
the end point of adaptation (Dolan and Walker, 2006).
5.2 Planning and Design of Adaptation Strategies
When information gathered from vulnerability assessments points towards a potential
problem that requires action, the next step is to determine which action could best be taken and

29
where and how to best implement it (Klein et al., 2001). The answers to these questions largely
depend on the dominant criteria that guide policy objectives at the local, national, or regional
scales (Klein et al., 2001). Additionally, existing coastal development and management plans must
be taken into consideration. Policy criteria that may influence adaptation decisions include
sustainability, economic feasibility, and social acceptability (Klein et al., 2001). Ultimately, some
areas may choose to postpone action, even when facing substantial risks if no appropriate
adaptation measures fit their policy objectives or if there is a high degree of uncertainty (Klein et
al., 2001).
However, coastal planning will always involve a degree of uncertainty, not only because
potential impacts of climate change are uncertain but also the knowledge of socio-economic
coastal processes is still incomplete (Klein et al., 2001). In order to combat uncertainty, coastal
planners must assess both the environmental and social risks of climate change with and without
adaptation (Carter et al., 1994). There are several tools that can aid in this process including cost-
benefits analyses, cost-effectiveness analyses, risk-effectiveness analyses, and multi-criteria
analyses (Turner and Adger, 1996). Using this information, planners are able to determine the
optimal adaption strategy as well as the timing of implementation.
Effective planning and design of coastal zone adaption strategies are mainly affected by
the context in which the decision is made (Klein et al., 2001). Up until recently, coastal
management has generally been seen as a top-down system, but has been shifting towards a more
participatory process (Klein et al., 2001). As the public becomes more invested in coastal policies, it
has in turn placed a higher importance on public acceptance of coastal practices than in the past

30
(Klein et al., 2001). With this in mind, more decision-makers are including the public in the
adaptation planning process (CEC, 1999). Not only is stakeholder participation a key way to identify
important coastal values and appropriate adaptation strategies, it also allows for the use of local
expertise in the implementation, application, and maintenance of adaptation strategies (Klein et
al., 2001). However, including the public in adaptation planning can be difficult if there is a
significant absence of private landowners, or if governments do not have the resources to reach
out to the community (Klein et al., 2001).
5.3 Adaptation Strategy Options
Adaptive capacity is reflective of the resiliency of a system to avoid, prepare, moderate, and
recover from climate change related risk (Dolan and Walker, 2006). Increasing the adaptive
capacity of a system, which can be done by employing adaptation measures, helps to reduce
potential vulnerability. Natural susceptibility to climate change is normally seen as independent
from human activity, while resilience and resistance are often affected by human activities (Klein
and Nicholls, 1999). Planned adaptation in the coastal zone, such as shoreline protection and dune
restoration, can reduce natural vulnerability by enhancing system resistance and resilience (Dolan
and Walker, 2006). On the other hand, land degradation, inappropriate development, and other
human hazards reduce resiliency of the system to adapt and respond (Dolan and Walker, 2006). The
three categories of adaptation strategies used for managing risks to coastal areas are
accommodation, protection, and retreat (IPCC, 2014). Effective adaptation plans should be
comprised of a variety of adaptation strategies (Appendix 1- Figure 6) (Linham and Nicholls, 2010).

31
5.3.1 Protection Strategies
Protection refers to the reduction or elimination of damage to the shore and back-land
(Kraus, 2005). Protection strategies have been successfully implemented in many areas, as built
infrastructure and coastal zone use have increased (Cooper and Harlow, 1998). Protection involves
defensive measures that protect against tidal inundation, flooding, wave action, salinity intrusion,
and loss of natural resources. Several municipalities in Nova Scotia employ the use of protection
strategies including Halifax, Mahone Bay, and Garbus (NSE 2009a).
5.3.1.1 Hard Approach
Hard approaches are generally considered the traditional approach to coastal defence
(Linham and Nicholls, 2010). Hard approaches are best suited where wave action is too intense to
add vegetation or soft sediments (Chapman and Underwood, 2011). Examples of hard approaches
are dykes, seawalls, revetments, and groynes. These structures themselves can be adapted to
create novel designs and modifications to reduce the ecological impacts of these structures
(Chapman and Underwood, 2011).
The design of these structures should focus on habitat creation to prevent the loss
assemblages of nearshore species. The first item that should be considered is the building
materials. Concrete, sheet metal, and other hard rocks are commonly used in the construction of
the hard defence structures; however, they do not support the same assemblage of species that
natural stones do (Chapman and Underwood, 2011). Other strategies that minimize ecological
impacts through maximizing habitats include adding complexities to the wall; for example,
incorporating small crevices into the building design (Moreira, et al., 2007). This was found to

32
increase the number of chitons (of the class Amphineura) found on seawalls (Moreira, et al., 2007).
Another strategy to increase habitat is to increase the slope of the wall. Chapman and Underwood
(2011) found that a greater slope lead to higher covers of algae, sessile, and mobile animals. A
further strategy that could be used to increase species abundance is to create different habitat
types. This includes building cavities in the defence structures and allowing the addition of vertical
walls to mimic rock-pools (Chapman and Underwood, 2011).
5.3.1.2 Soft Approach
There is increasing worry about the ecological ramifications from the traditional armouring
and long term sustainability of coastal defences. This has driven the desire to find alternative
protection methods (Airoldi et al., 2005). “Soft” ecological engineering strategies focus on natural
approaches. There are many varying forms and levels of soft approaches, but the most basic
strategy is the removal of existing infrastructure to create a natural shoreline (Chapman and
Underwood, 2011). However, this approach only works in areas where there is space for inundation
by the sea. A similar strategy would also involve moving the existing infrastructure and replacing it
with natural components such as marshes and dunes (Chapman and Underwood, 2011). Other
approaches include beach nourishment, wetland implementation, and vegetation strips (NSE,
2009a). This strategy introduces the concept of the living shoreline. This idea comes from the
realization that erosion is a natural event, and that a possible solution to erosion - even though it
would be artificially established - should be natural (Chapman and Underwood, 2011). Natural
shorelines have been proven to reduce erosion while limiting the ecological impacts and providing
habitat and water quality benefits (Davis et al., 2006).

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5.3.1.3 Hybrid Approach
A combination between hard and soft ecological engineering is ideal for shorelines that are
more exposed (Chapman and Underwood, 2011). The hybrid approach utilizes both human-made
defence structures as well as natural features. Marshes are ideal to be used with defence structures
when there is tidal inundation. Where there is an absence of this inundation, terrestrial flora
should be planted on the opposite side of the defence structure (Chapman and Underwood, 2011).
5.3.2 Accommodation
Accommodation involves the continued occupancy and use of the vulnerable coastal zone
by increasing the adaptive capacity of the area (Linham and Nicholls, 2010). These strategies allow
water inundation to occur, but manage the flow and rate of inundation to limit or prevent damage
to infrastructure (Mills-Knapp et al., 2011). Generally, accommodation is split into two categories:
structural and operational (Mills-Knapp et al., 2011). Structural accommodation strategies are
physical changes to accommodate flooding and erosion and allow coastal populations to minimize
the impacts of climate change events (Linham and Nicholls, 2010). Operational strategies are
information systems which enhance the understanding and awareness of coastal risks, and enable
coastal populations to undertake appropriate responses to minimize the impacts of these events
(Linham and Nicholls, 2010).
There are several options for accommodation strategies within these two categories.
Structural accommodation could include the elevation of buildings on pilings, minimum floor
elevations and piling depths, structural bracings, and improved drainage systems (Gilbert and
Vellinga, 1990). For example, the boardwalk surrounding the Dingle in Sir Sanford Fleming Park in

34
Halifax was recently moved up 1.0 m to accommodate for the rising sea levels in that area (CBC
News, 2016). Additionally, agricultural practices in coastal areas could shift to salt-tolerant crops,
and land-use by-laws could change to protect vulnerable areas from further risks systems (Gilbert
and Vellinga, 1990).
Operational strategies include storm warning and preparedness plans, flood hazard
mapping, and warning systems (Gilbert and Vellinga, 1990). Additionally, requiring comprehensive
insurance in vulnerable areas forces developers and landowners to consider coastal risks, as well
as insuring that the necessary funds are available to repair damages and compensate victims if
needed (Gilbert and Vellinga, 1990). Clearly, accommodation encompasses a wide variety of
options within the two categories; however, both categories require proactive planning and
acceptance that coastal zone values may change (IPCC, 2014).
5.3.3 Retreat
Retreat as an adaptation strategy is the proactive and planned withdrawal from the coast
and does not include forced retreat. Managed retreat generally is designed to avoid hazards and
prevent ecosystems from being squeezed between development and the advancing sea (IPCC,
2014). Retreat reduces the risk of climate change related events by limiting its potential effects
(IPCC, 2014). It may include preventing development in coastal zones, provisionally accepting
development in these areas, or allowing development to proceed on the condition that it can be
abandoned if necessary. Alternatively, retreat could involve the withdrawal of government
subsidies and increase of taxes in areas that are deemed at risk (IPCC, 2014).

35
The most common mechanisms for managed retreat are setbacks that require new
development to be a minimum distance from the shore, density restrictions that limit development,
and rolling easement policies (Titus, 1998). A combination of these strategies may become
elements of adaptation in a comprehensive coastal management policy. Setbacks could be
considered a managed retreat strategy, as it allows the setback line to recede inland if necessary.
For example, in HRM, there is a 3.8 m elevation requirement above coastal mean sea level for
North America (NSE, 2009a). Governments may limit development through land acquisition and
restrictions, prohibited reconstruction of property damaged by storms, and reductions of subsidies
and incentives for development in vulnerable areas (IPCC, 2014). These retreat mechanisms
provide flood and erosion protection, and allow for coastal land to be reclaimed for recreational
uses (IPCC, 2014).
5.4 Adaptive Management of Coastal Zone
Once adaptation measures are chosen and implemented, there will be a need to evaluate
their performance (Thom, 2000). This process of developing and implementing adaptation
measures entails mutual learning on the part of policymakers, stakeholders, and the general public
(Thom, 2000). As such, evaluation of measures allows policy makers to demonstrate to
stakeholders if the plan that was chosen was the correct one (Thom, 2000). All parties involved in
coastal zone adaptation will require that measures be adjusted if necessary (Thom, 2000).
Adaptive management of the coastal zone allows for the flexibility of this area's needs as
the available information and conditions change. It can be broadly defined as “learning by doing”,
and requires credible evidence to support a decision that demands action (Thom, 2000). Based on

36
the definition by Holling (1978), adaptive management is “[a] framework whereby multiple
stakeholders are brought together to establish a deliberate learning and experimentation process
around the system to be managed”. The framework of adaptive management includes planning,
choosing, implementing, checking, and revising (Duinker and Trevisan, 2003).
According to the literature, successful adaptive management requires three key elements:
1) Formal technical processes aimed at producing insights on future possible actions and
their consequences;
2) Monitoring of both action implementation and system response; and
3) Learning through comparative analysis of the foresight and hindsight data to determine
the degrees and causes of divergence (Duinker and Trevisan, 2003).
The steps of adaptive management of the coastal zone are planning, implementation,
operation, and corrective action and management review (Appendix 2- Table 3). If adaptive
management practices are established and implemented early in the planning process, it can used
to systematically assess and improve the adaptation measures that were initially chosen (Thom,
2000). Some climate change impacts, such as coastal erosion, can affect people’s livelihoods in the
short-term, and adaptive management could be implemented to best address these problems for
the affected citizens. However, in most instances, climate change is a long-term process. In order
for decision-makers to properly utilize adaptive management, there needs to be proper information
management that allows for the transfer of collected knowledge over long periods of time.

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5.5 Case Studies
In order to explore applied adaptation in a real world context, three case studies from the
Atlantic Region will be highlighted. The first is a case from Caribou Island in Nova Scotia and
demonstrates how an NGO can work with the public to implement adaptation measures in the
coastal zone. The second investigates Prince Edward Island, and showcases how the provincial
governments can use a bottom-up approach with their public engagement to implement climate
change adaptation. The final case study examines New Brunswick’s governance environment in
regards to coastal climate change and how the province has created a framework where climate
change adaptation is a priority.
5.5.1 Ecology Action Centre and Living Shorelines
Living shorelines are an example of effective adaptation in coastal Nova Scotia. These
shorelines are an example of a soft protection strategy, and ordinary citizens can readily engage
using this biophysical tool to aid in climate adaptation. Living shoreline projects utilize a variety of
structural and organic materials, such as wetland plants, submerged aquatic vegetation, oyster
reefs, fibre logs, sand fill, and stone (EAC, 2014). The benefits of living shorelines include the
stabilization of the shoreline, the protection of the surrounding riparian and intertidal
environment, the improvement of water quality via filtration of upland runoff, and the creation of
habitat for both aquatic and terrestrial species nearby (EAC, 2014).
The EAC works closely with this adaptation strategy in coastal Nova Scotia. They visited
Caribou Island in the spring of 2014 to implement a living shoreline project (Personal

38
Communication, Robin Tress, March 9th
2016). Dogwoods and willow trees were planted on the
highest sections of the coastal banks, as these species are salt-tolerant and are well-known for
their erosion-control abilities (EAC, 2014). On the lower sections of the banks they mixed hay and
used soil-debris to work into several brush walls (EAC, 2014). This combination of a debris-brush
wall and salt-tolerant shrub and tree species contributes to the bank’s stability and its ability to
provide a natural habitat for surrounding organisms. It is worthwhile to place the biomass on the
banks in the spring to reap the benefits of a full growing season, which aids in soil building and
protection (EAC, 2014). This will make it easier for plants to establish on the bank in the following
years, as the biomass planted in the spring will have a good chance of surviving the winter and
protecting the bank from winter storms (EAC, 2014).
The EAC has also implemented living shoreline projects within Halifax’s jurisdiction. They
went to St. Mary’s Boat Club in 2015 to demonstrate the role of vegetated buffers on erosion rates
on a property scale (Personal Communication, Robin Tress, March 9th
2016). This project
showcased how living shorelines can be utilized within urban areas just as effectively as in rural
areas.
5.5.2 Prince Edward Island and the Bottom-up Approach
The Government of Prince Edward Island produced a Climate Change Strategy in 2008, and
within it they have outlined various methods in which they will continue to engage with citizens,
interest groups, and private stakeholders regarding climate change. The Government of Prince
Edward Island’s main response to climate change comes in the creation of the Centre for Climate
Change Strategies. This Centre will develop dialogue between the research community, business

39
leaders, policy advisors, government officials, the media, and the citizens of Prince Edward Island
to develop action plans to best adapt to the environmental and social impacts of climate change
(Government of Prince Edward Island, 2008). Their goal is to fully engage all stakeholders to best
generate proper adaptation responses to climate change within the Island. It is interesting to note
that environmental management has been included in the curriculum within their public school
system, and so children are being introduced at a young age about climate science (Government of
Prince Edward Island, 2008). Being a small island, Prince Edward Island is heavily vulnerable to
coastal climate change impacts, and this public outreach is necessary for the successful
implementation of adaptation strategies moving forward.
5.5.3 New Brunswick’s Governance Environment
New Brunswick’s governance environment regarding climate change issues is something
for Nova Scotia to strive towards. New Brunswick has in place a “New Brunswick Coastal Areas
Protection Policy” under the Environment and Local Government provincial branch. Here, they have
coastal designation orders, which means the provincial government can essentially designate
coastal land to be protected to aid in climate adaptation. Ultimately, New Brunswick’s governance
environment has created a process in which coastal areas can easily be protected and designated.
Land can be designated as either protected area A, B, or C. In referring to Figure 7
(Appendix 1), Area A consists of sensitive coastal features right on the water such as beaches,
dunes, wetlands, dykes/dykelands, and rock cliffs (Environment and Local Government, 2011).
Protected Area B would include the 30m land strip past Protected Area A, and this would have
limited development activities and buffers within this area (Environment and Local Government,

40
2011). This area is still considered coastal land, and can be more closely seen in referring to Figure
8 (Appendix 1). There are many restrictions to development within Area B, such as elevated and
structural building guidelines for any new construction, as well as regulations in cases for which
structures must be rebuilt (Environment and Local Government, 2011). Protected Area C contains
the area beyond the 30m strip of Area B, and still has regulations regarding development (as seen
in Figure 9) (Appendix 1). However, these are less intrusive in comparison to Area B’s restrictions
(Environment and Local Government, 2011).
The Coastal Areas Protection Policy applies province-wide and incorporates both private
and publicly-owned land (Environment and Local Government, 2011). The Government of New
Brunswick also has a Climate Change Action Plan which targets the years 2014-2020. The main
focus of the plan is to examine and identify the vulnerabilities of New Brunswick’s natural
environment such as vulnerable coastal features, plant and animal species, and these species’
habitats, and to identify these in regards to a changing climate (Government of New Brunswick,
2014).
Additionally, New Brunswick’s Environment and Local Government Department is the New
Brunswick Climate Change Secretariat Branch. Their directive taken from their website reads: “The
Secretariat is mandated to develop, implement, and report, in cooperation with other departments,
on actions that address greenhouse gas emission reductions and adaptation” (Environment and
Local Government, 2016). This quote illustrates that New Brunswick’s provincial departments are
working together to implement climate change adaptation strategies.

41
6.0 Recommendations
1. Research impacts of climate change on species for conservation priorities
In order to protect species and their habitats according to their needs, decision-makers must first
have an understanding of how climate change will affect them and to what degree. The
information presented in this paper demonstrated the available knowledge about how species that
are dependent on the coastal zone in Nova Scotia will be affected by climate change. However,
there is still not adequate information available to properly delineate what species are the most at-
risk, and which species are past saving. This paper recommends that identifying at-risk species and
the extent to which climate change will impact them becomes a top research priority for Nova
Scotia’s government and NGOs.
2. Create and utilize coastal vulnerability maps as a starting point for adaptation
Many municipalities have not completed vulnerability assessments for their coastline, which
inhibits their ability to efficiently utilize available resources. Municipalities that have a larger pool
of resources such as HRM, have created vulnerability maps, and have used this information to
prioritize management efforts and determine which areas are at the most risk. In order to
appropriately allocate funding, this paper recommends that Nova Scotia should undertake a
province-wide vulnerability assessment.
3. Promote adaptation options which limit loss of coastal values
When choosing adaptation options, this paper recommends that decision-makers determine the
options that will cause the least amount of negative ecological harm to the coast. This includes

42
promoting soft and hybrid options where feasible, and modifying hard protection options to bolster
ecological benefits.
4. Maintain a participatory process and promote the use of adaptive management
When planning for the coastal zone, this paper recommends that all key stakeholders be included
and engaged throughout the process. By including all interested parties in decision making, it is
more likely that the chosen adaption strategies will be widely accepted. Additionally, the use of
adaptive management principles allows for adaptation policies to be flexible and improved if
necessary.
5. Update Nova Scotia's 2009 Climate Change Action Plan
The current Nova Scotia Climate Change Action Plan has not been updated since it was released in
2009. Several provinces, including British Columbia and Ontario, have updated their climate
change action plans following the release of the IPCC’s 5th Assessment Report in 2014. This paper
recommends the provincial government update the Nova Scotia Climate Change Action Plan with
information from the 2014 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report. Additionally, In this proposed document,
there should be a higher focus on adaptation, and it should be viewed as equally necessary to
mitigation measures in dealing with climate change. Updating the action plan ensures that policy
makers have the most current information when assessing risks and vulnerabilities. Again, policy
objectives should be designed to place adaptation at the same level of importance as mitigation in
the updated Climate Change Action Plan, as implementing adaptation strategies has the benefit of
preventing future economic losses and protecting public safety.

43
6. Create a unified coastal governing body
There are a large number of responsible parties for coastal management in the province, making
progress in Nova Scotia difficult. There is little communication or collaboration across government
levels and between departments in terms of proposed coastal adaptation measures. The fact that
no department at the provincial level is responsible for coastal zones makes implementing
adaptation measures quite difficult. Additionally, various conflicting jurisdictional issues prevent
coastal climate change adaptation from being successfully incorporated into policy. With three
levels of government and roughly ten responsible agencies all being involved in coastal zone
management, collaboration and coordination is paramount. This paper recommends that the
provincial government create a council with representatives from various related jurisdictions and
agencies to oversee the implementation of a Coastal Strategy Plan.
7. Create and Implement a Nova Scotia Coastal Adaptation Strategy
Coastal management is heavily weighed down by legislations and policies in Nova Scotia. Although
each policy may focus on aspects of coastal management, there is no singular policy or legislation
where coastal management is its key objective. The predicted 2010 Coastal Adaptation Strategy
was not released as planned due to changing priorities within the Nova Scotian government, and
since that time no active measures have been taken to create a new one. Decision-makers should
prioritize the creation of a coastal adaptation strategy, as the province is already seeing the effects
of climate change in coastal communities, and further delay could lead to negative consequences.
Citizens and lawmakers in Nova Scotia can either adapt to climate change in the coastal zone to
minimize losses, or choose to ignore climate change and risk severe consequences.

44
7.0 Conclusion
Climate change adaptation in Nova Scotia’s coastal zones will be a significant issue for the
province as the impacts of climate change continue to unfold. Coastal areas will be affected by an
increase in temperature, coastal erosion, storm surges, and flooding events. These climate impacts
will affect coastal zones in Nova Scotia through specific pathways, including species diversification
and infrastructure degradation, as well as influencing coastal industries such as fisheries,
aquaculture, and agriculture. It is difficult to implement effective coastal adaptation as the coast is
governed by a complex regulatory environment. It includes federal, provincial, and municipal
jurisdictions, as well as incorporating regional, Aboriginal, and private and public stakeholders’
interests and rights. Adaptation methods can be incorporated through these jurisdictions, with
decision-makers utilizing adaptation tools such as coastal vulnerability assessments, as well as
including stakeholders in decision-making. There are a number of adaptation strategies that can be
implemented in the coastal zone, which are divided into retreat, accommodate, and protection
approaches.
Stakeholders such as the EAC are successfully implementing some of these adaptation
strategies on a small scale. However, the province of Nova Scotia as a whole still requires
significant improvements in its adaptation planning process in order to adequately prepare for the
impacts of climate change on its coastal systems. Nova Scotia should look to other Atlantic
provinces for examples of how to improve citizen engagement and create a collaborative
governance environment. As climate change impacts become more evident, Nova Scotia should
implement strategies that enhance the resilience of the coastal zone. Nova Scotia’s coast is an

45
intrinsic part of its provincial identity, and with planning and foresight it can be protected for the
future.

46
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