The document outlines key aspects of research methodology, emphasizing the importance of understanding different research philosophies, namely positivism and phenomenology, and the methods of deduction and induction. It discusses various research strategies including experiments, surveys, case studies, grounded theory, and more, highlighting the potential for multi-method approaches to enhance research validity and insights. Ethical considerations and the credibility of research findings are also addressed, underscoring the need for transparency and respect towards research subjects.

1. Template designed by the eLearning Unit @Kab
Chapter One
Chapter One
The Research Onion
The Research Onion
Paul Ssemaluulu Mukasa (PhD)

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Template by the eLearning Unit @Kab

3. 3
The Nature and methods of
Research
Selecting and Adopting a Research
Method and Examiners Expectation of
a well done Research Methodology
Dr. Paul Ssemaluulu

4. Research Methodology
 Research Question 1
(*M1)
 Research Question 2
(*M2)
 Research Question 3
(*M3)
 Research Question 4
(*M4)
 Research output 1
 Research output 2
 Research output 3
 Research output 4
4

5. 5
What is research?
 A systematic enquiry, which is reported in a form that
allows the research methods and outcomes to be accessible
to others
 Concerned with seeking solutions to problems or answers to
meaningful questions
 Meaningful questions are expressed in a way that indicates
what you will accept as an answer
 Non-meaningful (in research terms) questions are not
answerable as a result of enquiry alone (eg judgemental or
metaphysical questions)
 Positivism versus phenomalism

6. The Nature and Methods of
Research
1) You should be able to distinguish between:
 Research Philosophy
 Differing approaches to research
 The need for a clear strategy
 Multi-method approaches
 The credibility of research findings
 The ethics of research design
2) Summary
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7. 7
1) Differing approaches to research
The research process ‘onion’
Data collection
methods
Research strategies
Time horizons
Research approaches
Research philosophy

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9. 9
Research Philosophy
The research process ‘onion’ Research philosophy

10. Research philosophy
 Selecting a philosophy (often in warring camps).
 There are two main philosophical positions in research:
 Positivism and Phenomenology
 Others critical realism, pragmatism etc.
 How do the philosophies differ?
 Logic - the study of valid reasoning (how to reason)
 Ethics – the study of right and wrong (how we should act)
 Epistemology – study of knowledge (how we know)
 Ontology - study of being (what is)

Objective mind independent reality

Reality as being socially constructed
10

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Nature of research -Positivist
 Deals with positive facts and observable
phenomena
 Subscribes to the ‘scientific method’
 Primary goal is not only description but
prediction and explanation
 Quantitative, as it draws on measurable
evidence

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Nature of research -
Phenomenalist
 Phenomenology is commonly understood in either of two ways:
as a disciplinary field in philosophy, or as a movement in the
history of philosophy
 Study of our experience (how we experience)
 Considers that each phenomena is unique and is controlled by variables
such as time, location and culture

No reliance on postulates of natural kinds, constancy or determinism
 Essentially subjective, where the content of research and the way it is
pursued is indicative of researchers intention
 Outcomes are descriptions which are expressed in narrative and mainly in
qualitative terms
 .

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Research approaches
The research process ‘onion’
Research approaches

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Choosing a research approach
A deductive approach?
You develop a theory and design a strategy to test hypotheses.
A close ally to the philosophy of positivism.
A scientific approach.
An inductive approach?
You collect data and develop a theory as a result
of your data analysis
A close ally to the philosophy of phenomenology.

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Deduction: testing theory
If theory is true X will occur
X does occur -
theory supported
X does not occur -
theory challenged
Test X

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A hypothesis states that there is a
relationship between two concepts and
specifies the direction of that relationship.
16
Age Gross annual
income

17. Deductive
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Induction: building theory
Sir Francis
Bacon
1561-1626
What is the experience of working at
a particular firm?
We could interview employees on the shopfloor
to get a feel for the issues and then analyse the data,
and eventually formulate a theory about job satisfaction.
With induction – theory follows data.

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Induction: building theory
Sir Francis
Bacon
1561-1626
Human beings interpret their world – they have
consciousness.
• They are not unthinking research objects who respond
like the coffee machine in the corridor to the stimulus
of cash injections
• Humans devise alternative explanations to the
orthodox view – they have their own stories (narratives).

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Induction: building theory
Sir Francis
Bacon
1561-1626
Context matters.
• A small sample may be appropriate.
• Qualitative methods acceptable.
• More likely to find out ‘why’ X is happening rather than
‘what’ is happening.

21. Induction
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Combining approaches
It may be advantageous to combine methods.
If there is a wealth of material from which
it is easy to define a hypothesis the choice is the
deductive approach.
If the field is new and you need to generate data
and reflect on the themes, the choice is inductive.
Dr. Paul Ssemaluulu

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Combining approaches: the constraints
You need to plan a survey and learn software to
analyse quantitative data. A high response rate
To a q’aire is not guaranteed.
BUT the computer crunches in seconds or less!
Inductive work can be labour intensive, too.
It may take time for themes and theories to emerge.
No guarantees that patterns will emerge.

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Research strategies
The research process ‘onion’
Research strategies

25. The different research strategies
• A strategy is a general plan of how you will go about answering
your research question(s).

Quantitative
 Experiment
 Survey
 Qualitative

Case study
 Grounded theory
 Ethnography
 Action research
 Cross-sectional and longitudinal
 Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies
 Note: They are not mutually exclusive
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The experimental design
Control
group
Pre-test Post-test
Pre-test Post-test
Experimental
group
1.
2. 3. 4.
5.

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Survey defined -
A Survey is:
a collection of information in
standardised form from
samples of known populations
to create quantifiable data with
regard to a number of variables
from which correlations and
possible causations can be
established.

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Surveys
• Allied to the deductive approach;
• Are economical but you need time to
design and pilot the questionnaire;
• Often involve q’aires but can also involve
structured observation.

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Research questions appropriate for a
survey
1. Behaviour.
2. Attitudes /Beliefs / Opinions.
3. Characteristics.

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Research questions appropriate for a survey
4. Expectations.
5. Self-classification.
6. Knowledge.

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Case study
 Focuses on understanding the dynamics
present within a single setting.
 Often used in the exploratory stages.
 Can be - individual person, a single
institution / organisation, a small group, a
community, a nation, a decision, a policy,
a particular service, a particular event, a
process.

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Grounded theory (See ‘groundedtheory.com’
Barney Glaser
GTI
• Data collection starts without any
formal theoretical framework.
• Theory is developed from data by a series
of observations, which leads to
• the generation of predictions that are
• tested in further observations, which may
• confirm or otherwise the predictions.
Theory is grounded in continual reference to the data.
An attempt to impart rigour to qualitative methods.

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Ethnography
Firmly rooted in the inductive approach.
Developed out of field work in anthropology.
Purpose : to interpret the world the way the
‘locals’ interpret it.
Is time consuming.
Linked to participant observation.

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Action research
First used by K.Lewin in 1946
May involve practitioners who are also researchers e.g.
professionals in training.
Research may be part of the organisation ,e g school,
University, hospital, and the researcher is actively
involved in the promotion of change within it.
Issue of transference of knowledge from one context
to another.

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Time horizons
The research process ‘onion’
Time horizons

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Cross-sectional Studies
Collect data at only one time
point.

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Longitudinal Studies
Collects data at a number of
time points.

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Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory
studies
More strategies…….
Goals or Purposes of Research
Descriptive
Explanatory
or Analytical
Exploratory

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Exploratory studies
• Find out what is happening?
• Seek new insights;
• Ask questions;
• Assess phenomena in a new light.

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Exploratory studies
Three ways to conduct exploratory research
• A search of the literature;
• talking to experts in the subject;
• Conducting focus group interviews;
Tips
Keep flexible and adaptable, whilst maintaining direction.
Start with a broad focus and progressively narrow down.

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Descriptive studies
• Portray an accurate profile of persons, events, or
situations.
• Can be an extension of exploratory research.
• Have a clear picture of the phenomenon prior to
data collection.
Begin to evaluate and synthesise ideas - i.e. go beyond
simple description.

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Explanatory studies
Gross annual income
11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
Age
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Studies which establish
causal relationships.
Use statistical tests
-however –
correlation
does not prove
causation.

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3) Multi-method approaches
Approaches and strategies can be mixed and matched
e.g. Qualitative and quantitative, Primary and secondary data.
e.g. Interviews can be part of exploratory work –
Which method??? No easy
answers.
Bear in mind your research
objectives first.

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3) Multi-method approaches
Triangulation:
refers to the use of different methods within one
study in order to ensure that the data are telling you
what they think they are telling you.
e.g semi-structured interviews alongside q’ares to ensure
greater confidence in your conclusions.

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4) The credibility of research findings
Consider your audience:
Your supervisor
 The first and second marker
 The external examiner…..
 A publication?
 Sponsors?

46. Credibility of research findings
1. Reliability
 Will the results be the same in other occasions
 Similar observations reached by other
observers
 Transparency of the raw data
2.Validity
 If findings are really about what they appear
to be about
3. Generalizability (external validity) – findings
equally applicable to other research settings

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
Reliability: were your work to be replicated
by another, would the same result be produced?

Validity: did your approaches, methods and
techniques relate to the issues you were
exploring and the variables you attempted to
measure?
Interpreting Data

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Validity: definition
“Validity…tells us whether an item measures or
describes what it is supposed to measure or describe.
If an item is unreliable, then it must also lack validity,
but a reliable item is not necessarily also valid.
It could produce the same or similar responses on all
occasions, but not be measuring what it is supposed
to measure. ” (J.Bell, 1993, p.65)

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Generalisability
Also known as external validity.
Are your findings generalisable to other contexts, e.g. other
organisations?
Particularly applies to single case studies.
Be clear about your claims - if you do not claim that it is
possible to generalise to other settings then say so.

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5) The ethics of research design
 The subjects' identities should be protected
so that the information you collect does not
embarrass or in other ways harm.
 Treat subjects with respect and seek their
co-operation in the research. In negotiating
permission to do a study, you should make it clear to
those with whom you negotiate what the terms of the
agreements are, and you should
abide by that agreement.

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Differing approaches to research (Review)
The research process ‘onion’
?
Data collection
methods
Research strategies
Time horizons
Research approaches
Research philosophy

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Differing approaches to research (Review)
The research process ‘onion’
Data collection
Methods
Involve:
Sampling
Secondary data
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaires

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Summary
 There are two main philosophical positions in research:
Positivism and Phenomenology;
 The two main methods to research are deductive and inductive.
These should not be thought of as mutually exclusive.
You can use both in combination on the same research project.
The main influence on your choice of research approach should
be your research questions and objectives.

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Summary
 The main research strategies are experiment, survey, case study,
grounded theory, ethnography and action research. Again, you
should not think of these as discrete entities. There may be a
combination of some of these in the same research project.
 Research projects may be cross-sectional or longitudinal.
In addition, they may be classed as exploratory, descriptive,
or explanatory.
 Multi-method approaches to research mean that different
Purposes may be served and that triangulation of results is
facilitated.

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Summary
 You should take care to ensure that your results are valid and
reliable.
 You should always think carefully about the ethical issues implied
by the choice of your research strategy.
Good luck!