This document provides an overview of dramatic play for young children. It discusses how dramatic play allows children to develop creativity and explore different roles and social situations in a safe way. The document also notes that dramatic play supports language development and learning as children interact with each other in their pretend scenarios. It provides examples of how to set up dramatic play areas both indoors and outdoors with props and materials to encourage role-playing. The teacher's role is to observe and facilitate children's play without directing it, in order to support their imagination and development.

1. Chapter Introduction
© Cengage Learning
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
· 15-1Discuss the importance of dramatic play to a young
child’s development.
· 15-2Discuss what children learn in dramatic play.
· 15-3Discuss ways to adapt dramatic activities for children
with special needs.
· 15-4Discuss the difference between dramatic play and creative
dramatics.
· 15-5Discuss appropriate ways to use puppets in the early
childhood program.
NAEYC Program Standards
· 1a
Knowing and understanding young children’s characteristics
and needs.
· 1c
Using developmental knowledge to create healthy, respectful,
supportive, and challenging learning environments.
DAP Criteria
· 2E3
Teachers organize the daily and weekly schedule to provide
children with extended blocks of time in which to engage in
sustained play, investigation, exploration, and interaction (with
adults and peers).
· 2E4
Teachers provide experiences, materials, and interactions to
enable children to engage in play that allows them to stretch
their boundaries to the fullest in their imagination, language,

2. interactions, and self-regulation.
I “am being magic!” crows Miguel, dressed in a “superman”
cape and a painter’s cap. “I can fly anywhere I want!” As he
flaps his arms and swoops around the room, he is joined by
Claudia dressed in a dancer’s tutu. “Wait for me. I can fly, too!”
she says. The two children glide around the room for a minute
or two, until they notice Jaime sitting by himself in the block
corner. Moving in his direction, Miguel invites him to join them
in flight. “Jaime, I can make magic, so you can fly, too.” Jaime
joins Miguel and Claudia for a short time, until he spots an
opening at the computer where he “lands” for another activity.
Claudia soon decides to land as well, deciding to be a doctor
and make a house call to check on a sick baby in the home
center. Miguel continues to “be magic” for a few more moments
before he too “lands” and becomes the concerned daddy of the
sick baby.
These children are happily engaged in dramatic play, a natural
and essential part of a child’s development. It is spontaneous
and child directed. It is fluid, changing momentarily as
children’s imaginations move them to explore “being” things
and “trying on” many roles.15-1Importance of Dramatic Play
LO 1
In the preceding scene, it is obvious that dramatic play is an
excellent means for children to develop their creativity and
imaginations. Dramatic play allows them to exercise their
special, instinctive ways of dealing with reality. They need no
written lines to memorize or structured behavior patterns to
imitate in order to fantasize their world. What they do need is
an interesting environment and freedom to experiment and be
themselves.
Dramatic play provides children one of the best ways to express
themselves. They are free to express their inner feelings in a
safe, creative way. Often, teachers find out how children feel
about themselves and others by listening to them as they carry
out dramatic play. The pretending involved in such dramatic
experiences, whether planned or totally spontaneous, is a

3. necessary part of development. In the dramatic play center,
children can act out feelings that often cannot be expressed
directly. For example, the child who is afraid of the doctor can
express this fear by giving shots to dolls or stuffed animals in
the center. In like manner, a child can act out with a friend a
visit to the dentist. Thus, children can learn to deal with their
anxieties as well as act out their fantasies through creative
dramatic play. Through the imitation and make-believe of
dramatic play, children sort out what they understand and gain a
measure of mastery and control over events they have witnessed
or taken part in—making breakfast, going to work, taking care
of the baby, and going to the doctor (see Photo 15-1). Dramatic
play helps children enter and begin to make sense of the world
of adults.
Photo 15-1
In the dramatic play center, children are free and safe to try on
many social roles.
© Cengage Learning
15-1aThe Beginnings of Dramatic Play
The beginning of dramatic play is visible in the actions of
children as young as , who put a comb to their hair, for
example, and pull it along the side of their face, imitating the
activity that has been performed on them with the same “prop.”
Given the right prop, the baby will imitate the behavior
associated with that prop. For example, if offered a cup, the
baby drinks; a hat, the baby puts it on his head; or a pillow, the
baby puts his head on it. Adults often describe this as “pretend”
play, but it is more accurately prepretend play because it
involves only actions that are known to the child.
Actual dramatic play begins when a child uses a prop for
something other than the activity for which he or she has seen it
used by an adult. Thus, a hair-brush becomes a sailing boat, a
wooden block becomes a hairbrush, and a stick becomes a
bridge. This usually happens when the child is about old; that

4. is the age when children seem to be capable of making an “as
if?” transformation of an object, a necessary prerequisite to
pretend play involving objects, others, and themselves.
15-1bDevelopment of Dramatic Play
As children grow and develop, so does their dramatic play.
From simple imitative movement, children move on to more
complex dramatic play. It is important for teachers of young
children to be very good observers and listeners, to see what
children play with, to watch what they do with the materials,
and to listen to what they say about the props and materials
provided to them. It is equally important that the teacher
becomes part of the play of the child but—and this is
essential—at the child’s present developmental level. We all
remember the relative who insisted that the Fisher Price
garage could only be a garage, not a part of the fortress wall,
and the legendary behavior of the adult who gives the young
child a gift of an electric train or racing car set and proceeds to
insist that it be played with in terms of adult reality. In adult
play, there is no flying of cars one over the other to win and no
make-believe drivers, only Grand Prix racers. No wonder the
adult ends up playing by himself, while the child returns to
playing with the racing car box. This way, the child is allowed
to pretend without adult guidance and limitations.
Many times creative dramatics begins with one child, and others
soon join in (see Photo 15-2). Playing store with a storekeeper
and a number of customers is a form of creative dramatic play.
Speaking on a toy telephone to a friend is another form. Puppet
shows in which children use finger puppets and make up a story
as they go along is still another form.
Photo 15-2
Creative dramatic play often begins with one child, and others
soon join.
Casper Holroyd
Did You Get It?

5. · A one-year-old child picks up a hairbrush and makes brushing
motions in her hair. This action is considered prepretend play
because
1. the child is familiar with the action.
2. it is an action used in real life.
3. it demonstrates a lack of creativity.
4. it is an instinctive response.
Take the full quiz on CourseMate.15-2Young Children’s
Learning in Dramatic Play
LO 2
Dramatic play occurs daily in the lives of young children. It is
one of the ways that children naturally learn. They constantly
imitate the people, animals, and machines in their world. They
enjoy recreating the exciting experiences of their lives.
Dramatic play is their way of understanding and dealing with
the world.
Dramatic play is also an important medium for language
development, as it encourages fluency in language. A child who
is reluctant to speak in other situations is almost compelled to
speak in order to be included in dramatic play. As play becomes
elaborate, a child’s language becomes more complex. When
children talk with each other in a nondirective setting, such as
the dramatic play center, it is possible for the flow and quality
of language to develop. If others are to understand his or her
role, a child needs to explain what he or she is doing so that
friends will respond in appropriate ways. If the child is to
understand what they are doing, he or she must listen.
When children become involved in complex make-believe, they
need to listen and respond to each other. A child speaks
convincingly to others when she wants them to change the
nature of the play. If they still do not understand, she may try to
find other ways to persuade them. When she needs to elaborate
on her ideas, the child is likely to use a longer sequence of
words and move from two words to more complex syntax.
As children play together, they learn new words from each
other. At their make-believe restaurant, Maria prepared tacos

6. and Justin ordered fruitcake from the menu. Justin liked the
sound of the new word, tacos. He pretended he was eating one,
even though he did not know what a taco was.
As children play, they repeat words and phrases they have
learned and enjoy saying them. They name objects, talk about
what they are doing, and plan as they go along. They begin to
recognize the importance of planning and take time to formulate
more detailed plans for their dramatizations.
15-2aDramatic Play in the Dramatic Play Center
One of the best places for children to express themselves in
creative, dramatic play is the dramatic play center (see Photo
15-3). Here, in a child-sized version of the world, children are
free and safe to express how they feel about themselves and
others. While they carry out dramatic play in this center, they
can pretend to be many different kinds of people, “trying on,”
so to speak, many social roles.
Photo 15-3
One of the best ways for children to express themselves is
through creative dramatic play.
Casper Holroyd
The dramatic play center provides endless opportunities for the
teacher, as a facilitator of learning, to broaden children’s
horizons. The center can be decorated and rearranged to
represent an area that pertains to specific content. Possibilities
include creating a home, hospital, post office, grocery store, and
more. The change of seasons as well as certain holidays can be
easily incorporated in this center. For example, during fall, a
child’s rake, sweaters, and pumpkins might be included in the
center. During the winter months, mittens or a child’s shovel
may be additions to the center. For spring, the teacher may add
plastic or silk flowers and a variety of hats. Supplies in the
dramatic play center should reflect the activities in the
classroom and extend the skills being taught elsewhere in the
room as well as introduce new skills. Be sure to include

7. clothing, dishes, and dolls that are familiar and represent each
of the ethnic and cultural groups in your classroom. (See Figure
15-1 for the benefits of dramatic play and recommended
materials to encourage early childhood dramatic play.)
Figure 15-1Benefits of and materials for dramatic
play.Activities in the dramatic play center afford the child
experiences in the following social interactions:
· clarifying adult roles
· trying out social skills
· getting along with others
· sharing responsibilities
· making group decisions
· controlling impulsive behavior
· recognizing cause and effect
· developing positive attitudes about oneself and others
· enjoying the fantasy of the grownup world
· using oral language spontaneously
· practicing the use of symbols, which are subskills in reading
· learning social ease and confidence in one’s own strengths
Materials
· full-length mirror
· child sized stove
· child sized refrigerator
· sink
· closet or rack of clothes
· cooking/eating utensils
· table and chairs
· tea set
· telephone
· stethoscope
· props for cleaning (broom, mop, dustpan, pail, sponge, rags,
duster)
· play dough
· doll bed, doll carriage, baby highchair
· rocking chair

8. · empty cans
· empty multicultural food boxes
· mirror/hand mirror
· carriage
· multicultural dolls and doll clothes
· iron/ironing board
· puppets
· a variety of hats, dresses, shirts, ties, belts, scarves, shoes,
pocketbooks, and jewelry
· an old suitcase (for "trips")
· doctor’s satchel, bandages, cotton balls, play syringe, pill
bottles, a play thermometer, play money
· an old briefcase
· dress-up gloves, rubber gloves, baseball gloves, garden gloves
· open-ended materials such as large sheets, scarves, and
cardboard boxes.
· a "challenge box" of unusual items (tools, large beach ball,
and funny glasses) to add new elements to their play. Challenge
children: "What can you do with this?"
· props from favorite stories to encourage retelling experiences.
© Cengage Learning
Teachers of young children further encourage children’s
dramatic play by providing kits containing “props” for them to
use. Dramatic play kits are created by assembling a variety of
everyday items into groups that have a common use or theme.
Children select the props and use them in groups or alone to
play roles or create dramatic play experiences. Just letting the
children know about the use of these kits is often enough to get
them started. Materials for these dramatic kits can be kept
together in shoeboxes or other containers. Some common types
of dramatic play kits are found in Figure 15-2.
Figure 15-2Dramatic play kits.Dramatic Play Kits:
Post Office and Mail Carrier: Index card file, stamp pads,
stampers, crayons, pencils, stickers, envelopes, hats, badges,
mail bag, supply of “resident” or other third-class mail
Firefighter: Hats, raincoats, badge, boots, short lengths of

9. garden hose
Grocery Store: adding machine, play money, paper pads, pencils
or crayons, paper bags, empty food cartons, wax fruit, cans with
smooth edges
Plumber: wrenches, sections of plastic pipes, toolkit, hats, and
shirts
Painter: paint cans full of water, brushes of different sizes, drop
cloth, painter’s hat
Mechanic: tire pump, tool kit, boxes to become “cars,” shirt, hat
Entertainer: CD player, musical instruments, costumes
© Cengage Learning
Imagination can also be used to transform regular classroom
items into “new materials.” Chairs can become trains, cars,
boats, or houses. A table covered with a blanket or bedspread
becomes a cave or special hiding place. Large cardboard cartons
that children can decorate become houses, forts, and fire
stations.
It is important to emphasize a gender-neutral approach in
teaching, especially in the dramatic play area. For example,
boys’ dramatic play must be encouraged in an early childhood
program as much as girls’ dramatic play. A good tactic to
encourage boys’ participation is to change the themes of the
dramatic play corner to topics that interest some boys. Include
open-ended materials in the dramatic play areas such as blocks,
flashlights, a rope, and small balls. An observant teacher,
sensitive to both sexes’ dramatic play and developing sex-role
concepts, even gives cues that encourage all children to play in
all centers.
Remember also to provide outdoor materials and equipment for
pretending and role play. With more space and fewer
boundaries, outdoor dramatic play is often robust and highly
mobile. Children will make use of anything available—wagons,
tricycles, and other wheeled toys for cars, buses, trains, and
boats; large packing boxes, boards, sheets, ropes, and tires for
houses, stores, forts, and caves; and sand and sand utensils for
cooking, eating, and building. They may also enjoy the addition

10. of some “indoor” materials (hats, scarves, baby dolls, dishes,
chalk) to their out-door dramatic play (see Photo 15-4).
Photo 15-4
An outdoor area can also have dramatic play activity
opportunities.
Casper Holroyd
15-2bTeacher’s Role
Entering into the child’s dramatic play is an important point of
consideration here. The teacher should not be the leader or the
organizer of the dramatic play and must try not to form
premature conclusions or make assumptions for the child. The
teacher observes and asks questions about what the child says
and helps to draw out information from the child, maintaining
the conversation on the theme provided by the child, but at a
pace that allows the child to feel comfortable and pleased with
the conversation. The teacher also encourages children’s play
by providing props that extend the play but do not change the
theme. In doing so, teachers provide for further dramatic play
and thereby create a more effective basis from which thought
processes and imagination can develop. Teachers help children
with their thinking by making statements about their work—
not evaluative statements, such as, “I like your cake,” or
assumptive ones, such as, “What a naughty cat, eating up all the
meat!”—but statements of the obvious on which the child can
expand, such as, “It’s a bright yellow color!”
This One’s for You!Puppets and ESL Activities
In addition to the information in this chapter on the ways to use
puppets in the early childhood program, using puppets with
children who are learning English as a second language (ESL) is
yet another excellent use. Using puppets is like having two
fluent English speakers in class, and two fluent English
speakers are better than just one!
Puppets introduce another proficient English speaker into the
classroom for the teacher to speak to. This is important, as one

11. natural language learning strategy adopted by children is that of
observing and then imitating conversations conducted by the
people around them. The puppet allows this dialogue modeling
to take place in the classroom. For example, imagine that the
teacher wants to demonstrate how to ask for a colored pencil in
English. She places a red pencil and a blue pencil to the right of
the puppet (out of reach of her left hand to necessitate the
pencil being passed to her by the puppet), then turns to the
student and has the following dialogue:
Teacher
“Enrico, may I have a pencil please?”
Puppet
“Yes, what color?”
Teacher
“Red, please.”
Puppet (handing over pencil)
“Here you are.”
Teacher
“Thank you.”
The pencils are then placed on the far left of the teacher and the
roles are reversed. Enrico asks for the pencil and the teacher
passes it to him. After modeling the dialogue again, the teacher
may then invite a child to come to the front and take one of the
roles, while the teacher speaks for the puppet.
Some children feel hesitant to speak in English because they are
unsure of the pronunciation of certain words or of exactly how
to express themselves. In such cases, puppets can act as a
psychological support for the child. When a child speaks
through the puppet, it is not the child who is perceived as
making errors but the puppet, and children find this li berating.
Thus, puppets can encourage students to experiment more with
the language and “have a go” when they may have otherwise
remained silent.
Have your own puppet as a special friend. Introduce yourself to
the puppet in front of the class. Next, have the children
introduce themselves to their puppets from the privacy of their

12. own seats. No one will be listening to them as everyone is
talking to their own puppets at the same time. This is a good
fluency activity with no need for teacher correction. Later ,
when the children are comfortable using puppets, ask a child to
tell about himself in front of the class. The puppet speaks for
the child, which should ease the discomfort level.
ESL children will also enjoy singing along to a favorite song
with their puppets. Choose a song that is familiar and one that
the children can make their puppets dance and do the actions to
as the class sings. For example, with “The Wheels on the Bus,”
the puppets and children can make all of the motions mentioned
in the song.
When observing the dramatic play of children of various ages in
the dramatic play center, the perceptive teacher can detect
definite developmental and age differences. Younger
children to old generally are involved in dramatic play for a
much briefer period of time than children of age and older.
Before the child is old, for example, he may say, “Nice baby,”
when he hugs a doll and then move on. After the age of , the
child’s dramatic play may begin to combine several ideas, in
contrast to the single idea dramatization of the younger child.
The older child may hold a doll and pretend to feed the “baby” a
cookie. He may decide to put the baby to bed, covering the doll
with a blanket because it is time for “baby to take a nap.” This
process of imitating what has been observed is called modeling
behavior.
Instances of such modeling behavior in the dramatic play center
and elsewhere are even more prevalent in older children. For
example, a -year-old child will feed the baby, discussing why
milk is good for him or her, telling the baby it is nap time, and
instructing the baby that children must “be good” and listen to
their parents. This dramatization is in marked contrast to that of
the -year-old.
Early childhood teachers also need to be aware that children
involved in dramatic play also use materials from various parts
of the room to support their play. For example, a child who

13. needs some pretend money to put in a purse may decide to make
some in the art area, or even go to the manipulative area to
gather beads, chips, or small Lego® blocks to use as money.
Whether they are searching for materials or on their way to
another related location, it is perfectly natural and appropriate
for children involved in dramatic play to move about the entire
space as part of their play. Confining role players to one area or
part of the room frustrates rather than supports their intentions.
When their use of space and materials conflicts with other
children’s use of space and materials, the opportunity for group
problem solving arises.
15-2cMulticultural and Multiple Intelligences and Dramatic
Play
Dramatic play is a natural avenue for participation by children
from diverse language and multicultural backgrounds. Children
who are bilingual can participate easily in dramatic activities
that call for nonverbal communication. The dramatic play area
can also be a place where children learn the words for their play
props. For example, name tags can be made for objects in the
dramatic play center in both English and children’s native
languages.
Dramatic play also appeals to children’s various learning styles
or multiple intelligences. The body-smart learner gets obvious
enjoyment from the active, physical movement involved in
dramatic play. The child who is word smart enjoys the ongoing
dialogue that is so naturally a part of the dramatic play
experience. The child with a person-smart learning style thrives
in dramatic activities involving constant interaction with other
children. The child with a picture-smart learning style enjoys
creating the visual scenes that provide the background for
dramatic play scenarios.
Did You Get It?
· Two preschoolers are playing in a castle in a dramatic play
center. One of the children announces, “I am a nobleman!” The
other child is not familiar with that term, but nevertheless

14. responds, “I am a nobleman, too!” From a developmental
perspective, how can we interpret this interaction?
1. A child is experiencing negative peer pressure.
2. A child is unusually gifted verbally.
3. The first child is stunting the imagination of the second
child.
4. The second child’s language skills are broadening.
Take the full quiz on CourseMate.15-3Adapting Dramatic Play
for Children with Special Needs
LO 3
The following suggestions are designed to help teachers
include children with special needs in dramatic play.
· Because the child should feel free to experiment and take
risks, be careful not to make too many rules for his or her play.
Enforce only those rules that are really needed for the child to
play safely.
· Let the child take the lead. This may involve some patient
waiting for the child to choose something to do.
· To encourage children to play together, define the space where
children can play and keep it small. For example, position
housekeeping toys around a small area rug and remind children
that they need to stay on the rug while they are playing.
· Children with attention deficits, autism, and developmental
delays tend to flit from center to center. Children cannot fully
benefit from the learning experiences in a center if they are
there only a moment or two. Be firm and require that children
initially spend at least in a center of their choice. Then
gradually build on the amount of time the child can focus on
dramatic play. If is impossible for the child, start with the
amount of time the child can currently tolerate.
· To help children put away dramatic play props and toys, label
shelves with pictures as well as words.
· Try to let the child play with other children as much as
possible. The more often you interact with children, the less
often children interact with their peers (Gould & Sullivan,
2004).

15. 15-3aDevelopmental Delays
Adults may be tempted to intervene too much in the play of
children with developmental delays. Children need an
opportunity to play at their level of ability and to independently
initiate play activities. If you need to intervene when the child
is playing in a group, be as unobtrusive as possible. For
example, you could simply sit down as part of the children’s
play and become a character or prop so that you could subtly
make suggestions.
Other suggestions for working with children with developmental
delays follow.
· Offer dramatic play materials that are familiar and part of the
child’s daily life experiences.
· Encourage verbalization during play by asking questions and
encouraging communication with other children.
· Some children with developmental delays fatigue very easily.
Make sure that the child has supportive seating.
· The child who is not yet proficient at dramatic play may be
able to carry out some kind of support role in the play, such as
being the patient at a doctor’s office. You can make this happen
by having the appropriate props nearby or by verbally
suggesting the role.
· Bring out a few props at a time to avoid unnecessarily
distracting the child.
· Provide some dress-up clothes that are simple to get on and
off and do not have tiny buttons or snaps. Large clothes are
easier to get on and off.
15-3bAttention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Behavioral
Issues
Two traits—high activity levels and distractibility—may
prevent children from participating in dramatic activities. These
children are more able to focus on dramatic play that they have
chosen and that is of personal interest. Novelty is very
important. Adding a single novel toy to a play setting may be

16. enough to refocus the child’s attention. For example, if the
child is playing in the dramatic play center and seems to be
losing interest, add a doctor’s kit with stethoscope and play
syringe and cue the child to return to the play with a question
such as, “Is the baby sick?”
Additional suggestions for working with these children in
dramatic activities follow.
· Help children learn how to work out conflicts when playing
with other children. In order to circumvent a child’s acting out
aggressively, offer the child help in verbalizing what is
bothering him or her (Deiner, 2009).
· Make sure that there are clear behavioral consequences for
inappropriate behavior. Carefully consider whether the rules
you make are really necessary.
· Exciting activities that are new or offer a lot of sensory input
should be preceded and followed by calming activities.
Involvement in dramatic play could be followed by quiet time
sitting on a beanbag chair with a favorite toy.
· If the child attempts to leave the center after a few moments of
play, ask the child to stay and do one more thing. However,
children should be allowed to leave play situations that are not
productive.
· Hyperactivity in and of itself does not get in the way of
learning. If the child is focused on the play activity while
actively moving about, there is no need to intervene. This is
different from the child who cannot focus on the play or the
other children and is darting aimlessly around the classroom.
That child needs adult intervention to settle down to play.
· Reduce distractions in the dramatic play center by hanging
sheets or lengths of fabric from the ceiling to section off the
center from the rest of the room. Dramatic play could also take
place in a large box or under a table that has been draped with a
sheet.
· Set a timer to help the child stay in a play center. The timer
provides an auditory cue for when the child can move to another
center and gives the child a sense that his or her involvement in

17. the center has a definite beginning and end.
15-3cVisual Impairments
Children with vision impairment may have not had the
opportunity to learn how to play by observing others. The child
may also have had limited experience with exploring and
manipulating objects. It is important that children with residual
(limited vision) be encouraged to use their vision. Children who
are blind should be encouraged to explore the sensory properties
of objects.
· Help the child explore the dramatic play area and to discuss
what the objects are and what they are used for. Ask the other
children in the center to explain the ongoing play to the child
who is visually impaired (Deiner, 2009).
· Intervene if the child is always assigned subordinate roles in
play such as that of the baby or patient. Suggest another role.
· Encourage the child who is blind to develop social skills that
will help interaction with other children. The child should learn
to turn his or her face toward people when they are talking and
to keep his or her head in midline (Gould & Sullivan, 2004).
Did You Get It?
· A teacher insists that her students spend at least five minutes
at the play center of their choosing before moving on to another
play center. From a developmental perspective, her actions are
1. inappropriate, because they eliminate free choice.
2. appropriate for students with attention disorders or autism.
3. inappropriate, because they stunt the children’s imagination.
4. appropriate for all types of students.
Take the full quiz on CourseMate.15-4Creative Dramatics
versus Dramatic Play in the Elementary Grades
LO 4
Dramatic play is the free play of very young children in which
they explore their universe, imitating the actions and traits of
those around them. It is an accepted part of the preschool and
kindergarten curricula. While adults rely on reason and
knowledge, children use play and imagination to explore and

18. understand their world. It makes sense, then, for teachers to use
these two resources—play and imagination—as learning tools.
Dramatic play is the child’s earliest expression in dramatic
form, but it is not the same as creative dramatics.
Dramatic play is fragmented, existing only for the moment. It
may last for a few minutes or go on for some time. It even may
be played repeatedly, but it is a repetition for the pure joy of
doing. It has no clear beginning, no end, and no development in
the dramatic sense (see Photo 15-5).
Photo 15-5
Dramatic play has no clear beginning or end, and it may last for
only a brief time.
Casper Holroyd
The term creative drama is generally used to describe the
improvised drama of children age and older (see Photo 15-6).
Creative dramatics builds on the free creative play of the
preschool years. It is an extension of the natural activities of
early childhood. The make-believe play of home, yard, and side-
walks can have new dimensions as it is incorporated into new
learning experiences in the elementary classroom.
Photo 15-6
Creative drama is the term generally used to describe drama
activities for older children.
Casper Holroyd
Creative drama goes beyond dramatic play in scope and intent
and may make use of a story with a beginning, a middle, and an
end. It may, on the other hand, explore, develop, and express
ideas and feelings through dramatic enactment. Creative drama
is, however, always improvised. This makes it different from
performing a play. Actors in a play read or memorize lines
written by somebody else. In creative dramatics, actors create
their own words to convey meaning. Dialogue is created by the
players, whether the content is taken from a well-known story
or is an original plot. Lines are not written down or memorized.

19. With each playing, the story becomes more detailed and better
organized, but it remains extemporaneous and is at no time
designed for an audience. Participants are guided by a leader
rather than a director; the leader’s goal is the optimal growth
and development of the players.
This One’s for You!Puppet Play and Autistic Children’s
Communicative Skills
In this study, preschool autistic children in Mashhad, Iran,
comprised the statistical population. A pretest and posttest (The
Early Social Communication Scales—ESCS) was administered
to both the intervention and control groups of preschool
children ( in each group).
The children in the intervention group participated in a puppet
program on a daily basis. This program was designed to
encourage children’s eye contact, social interaction, initiating
requests, pointing to objects, and giving objects. The control
group participated in a traditional preschool program. After one
month, children in both the intervention and control group were
given the ESCS as a posttest.
Findings indicated that in terms of the ESCS, there was a
statistically significant difference between the control and the
puppet group with the puppet group scoring statistically
significantly higher. The puppet group also scored higher on
eye-contact subscales, initiating requests, and responding to
social interaction. On the subscales of pointing to objects and
giving objects, there were no statistically significant differences
in the two groups. Qualitative findings from parental reports
also indicated that the puppet intervention was effective. Thus,
the researchers concluded that puppet play therapy was
effective for achievement of communication skills of autistic
children in this study (Moshen et al., 2011).
15-4aGuidelines for Creative Dramatics with Elementary
Students
The following are some specific steps you may find helpful in
setting up creative dramatic experiences for elementary

20. children.Provide a structure.
While pretending is very natural for children, improvising a
short drama can be an abstract process. Children will need
structure to guide their actions and dialogue during the initial
stages. The teacher can provide this structure by modeling and
demonstrating the basic story, as well as possible actions,
dialogue, and characterizations. In story reenactments, be sure
everyone gets a turn. But try to avoid repeating the play over
and over again in the same setting, as children will probably
become bored. Instead, repeat it once a day over the course of a
week to maintain children’s interest. It is best to keep early
dramas short and simple, using only two to four characters.
Older students and those with experience in creative dramatics
will need less structure.Encourage open-endedness.
Creative dramatics is spontaneous and changeable. Although it
works best when teachers provide a beginning structure, this
structure should be flexible and open ended. As students
become more comfortable with creative dramatics, they will
begin to use ideas and experiences from their own lives to
create unique variations on the original themes. Using a
prepared script would prevent this kind of creativity and
individualization. It is a good rule not to use written
dialogue.Promote a safe environment.
Creativity is enhanced when the teacher creates a fun, safe
environment. Closing the classroom door during the initial
learning stages of creative dramatics can help to develop a
sense of safety and community. A teacher who is willing to take
creative risks by modeling and participating in creative
dramatics encourages the children’s participation. Positive,
specific feedback that acknowledges actors and their efforts will
put students at ease to continue acting creatively. Finally, a
teacher should never force students to participate in creative
dramatics; rather, he or she should always ask for
volunteers.Provide feedback.
Students like to receive feedback, both formal and informal.
Informal feedback is best when a teacher responds in a way that

21. is appropriate to the dramatic experience (for example, laughing
at the comedic parts). After a drama is over, the teacher can
give more formal feedback by processing the experience with
students and recognizing those things that were done well.
Think about ItDramatic Play and Cognition Control
In this study, dramatic play activities were a large part of the
Tools of the Mind curriculum, designed to improve
preschooler’s executive functions (EFs) (Diamond et al., 2010).
EFs, which are also called cognitive controls, are critical for
success in school and life. EFS include such skills as self-
control and maintaining attention to tasks.
The Tools curriculum is based on Vygotsky’s insights into EF
and its development (Vygotsky, 1978). The core of this
curriculum is EF-promoting activities, including telling oneself
out loud what one should do (self-regulatory private speech –
activities), dramatic play ( activities) and activities to
facilitate memory and attention (19). These activities in the
Tool curriculum had been refined through of research in
preschools and kindergartens (Diamond et al., 2010).
Tool teachers spent of each day promoting EF skills. The study
population consisted of preschoolers ( in the regular preschool
curriculum and in the Tools curriculum) in their second year of
preschool (average age: in both groups). All children came
from the same low-income, urban neighborhood and were
randomly assigned to the regular or Tools curriculum. The
regular curriculum developed by the school district (dBL) was
based on literacy and included thematic units. Both dBL and
Tools covered the same academic content, but dBL did not
address EF development. After , educators in one school were
so convinced that the Tools children were doing substantially
better that they replaced the regular curriculum with the Tools
curriculum for all preschool children in that school.
The researchers conducted multiple regression analyses with
age, gender, curriculum, and years in curriculum as independent
variables. The EFs of the children in the Tools group were
significantly improved in the study population of olds in

22. regular public schools with regular teachers. Being in the Tools
curriculum resulted in superior scores on objective
neurocognitive EF measures in comparison to closely matched
peers in the non-Tools curriculum.
In their summary, the researchers state that although dramatic
play is often thought frivolous, it may be essential. Tool uses
dramatic play to help improve EF as they state, “If throughout
the school day, EFs are supported and progressively challenged,
benefits generalize and transfer to new activities. Daily EF
‘exercise’ appears to enhance EF development as much as
physical exercise builds bodies” (Diamond et al., 2010). Thus,
based on this study, dramatic play provides young children yet
another positive benefit in the early childhood program.Take
your time.
Allow students to slowly become comfortable with creative
dramatics. Remember, creative dramatics is meant to be an
enjoyable learning experience. Make having fun your number
one priority.
The following are some examples of creative dramatics
experiences:
· In a third-grade classroom, students using creative dramatics
“become” metal containers, expanding with heat and contracting
with cold. These expanding and contracting movements are put
into a drama and are eventually accompanied by a dance.
· In a first-grade classroom, children become clouds releasing
raindrops, shimmery rays of sunshine, and seeds that grow
roots, sprout, and squeeze their faces through the dirt.
· A fourth-grade teacher introduces a dramatic activity having
individuals or small groups of students repeat the same line
while portraying different qualities or characters. She says in a
very mysterious way, “Are you going to wear the red hat to the
fair?” She says in a very angry way, “Are you going to wear the
red hat to the fair?” She asks the students, “How might a mouse
ask the same question? How might a clown ask the same
question?” After five minutes, students are thinking creatively
and are ready to move into a dramatic activity.

23. · In a third-grade classroom, students are performing “The
Three Billy Goats Gruff” with a twist. The teacher tells the
actors before they begin that they can only use dog language.
That is, they will have to act out the whole drama using only
barks and pants. This forces children to convey meaning and
develop characterization using only their faces and bodies while
watching and reacting to other actors.
In all of these examples, teachers are using creative dramatics
to reinforce concepts in the curriculum. In the process, these
teachers are creating an active learning experience that is fun,
allowing the students to work together to achieve a common
goal and allowing everyone to be successful.
This is the essence of creative dramatics. Creative dramatics is
a form of imaginative play that helps elementary students learn
in an active, enjoyable way.
Did You Get It?
· A young child pushes a toy vacuum cleaner along a carpet,
pretending to clean it. This activity is best described as
1. creative drama.
2. dramatic play.
3. imaginative repurposing.
4. effective modeling.
Take the full quiz on CourseMate.
15-5Puppets in the Early Childhood Classroom
LO 5
Puppets are very important in the lives of young children. Even
the youngest of children in the early childhood program is
familiar with the puppets on Sesame Street. Puppets can be used
for almost any of the dramatic experiences that have been
described here. They offer the child two ways to express
creativity:
· (1)
the creative experience of making the puppet, and
· (2)
the imaginative experience of making the puppet come to life.
Puppets fascinate and involve children in a way that few other

24. art forms can because they allow children to enter the world of
fantasy and drama so easily (see Photo 15-7). In this magic
world, children are free to create whatever is needed right then
in their lives.
Photo 15-7
Puppets fascinate and involve children in a way few other art
forms can.
Casper Holroyd
15-5aUsing Puppets
The use of puppets usually begins in the nursery or preschool,
where they are invaluable when readily available for dramatic
play. Teachers can teach finger plays with simple finger
puppets; hand puppets can act out familiar nursery rhymes.
Music time is enhanced by a puppet leading the singing and
other puppets joining in. The shy child who is reluctant to sing
often will participate through a puppet. Puppets are also
excellent for concept teaching and can help clarify abstract
concepts and demonstrate concrete concepts. For instance, in
the preschool the concepts of “above,” “below,” “behind,” “in
front of,” and so on can be clearly shown with the puppet.
Puppets allow you to say “silly” things to your class. For
example, in a science class about how the position of the sun
appears to change in the day and makes the puppet’s shadow
shorter, one teacher used the puppet to tell children someone
must have washed it to make it shrink! The children told the
puppet that the shadow couldn’t have shrunk, and they
explained in words understandable to other children what had
happened. The children talked to the puppet as if it were a
person separate from the teacher.
Puppets allow children freedom to talk when they are not sure
about things. Also, children sometimes are aware that the
teacher “knows the answer,” and thus may not respond to a
question or prompt. However, a puppet probably doesn’t know
an answer, so children’s responses and explanations are more

25. readily forthcoming and fuller.
Some of the larger puppets have hands like gloves so the
teacher can make the puppet manipulate equipment and other
resources. This is particularly helpful in sorting activities, as
the puppet is able to join in just like another child. If, for
example, children are sorting rocks on the basis of their
characteristics, the teacher can make the puppet move rocks
from one group to another to promote further discussion. The
puppet’s actions can encourage children to justify their choice
of groupings if the puppet disagrees with their classification. As
they explain their ideas, children can consider the validity of
their claims or recognize possible flaws in their reasoning.
Another argument for using puppets in the classroom is that
they can be used by the teacher to mirror desirable behaviors.
The puppet can model the way claims can be justified and
reasons given for a point of view. There is no right or wrong
way to use a puppet, but teachers have found it valuable to give
the puppet a distinct character. If the character is consistently
maintained by the teacher, children can be allowed to “take
over” animating the puppet: They already know what the puppet
is like—they don’t have to invent a new character.
Puppets are wonderful tools for demonstrating social skills with
young children. You can use them to enact a scenario that
represents a frequent troublesome behavior in the classroom or
an issue that one or more children are experiencing in their
lives. Puppets help the children see the situation from a new
perspective. For instance, if children in your group are having
trouble sharing toys, you might act out a similar situation
during circle time using puppets.
Puppets are used most successfully when teachers have
introduced them slowly to the class and have developed a strong
sense of identity for the puppet. Care needs to be taken to
maintain the puppet’s character, even when it is not being used.
Give the puppet a seat to sit in and watch the children at work;
assign a child to look after the puppet each day. It is crucial that
puppets talk to children; puppets that listen to children and

26. “whisper” to the teacher aren’t as effective with young children.
Puppets can effectively be used to introduce a lesson or to
“talk” to small groups when children are discussing their ideas.
Teachers have noticed that their classes become more animated
when puppets join in the lesson. Children want to talk to the
puppet and hear what the puppet has to say.
Puppetry, as a form of dramatic play, is a sure means of
stimulating creative storytelling in younger children. Some
teachers record spontaneous puppet skits, and by writing them
down, show children how they have created a story. In a room
with a climate of flexibility and freedom, children are bound to
come up with countless ideas for using their puppets (see Photo
15-8). Some suggestions are presented here:
Photo 15-8
Children can come up with many different ways to use puppets.
Casper Holroyd
· Put together a puppet center—puppet materials, props, and
theater—for children to use during the day (see Photo 15-9).
Photo 15-9
Puppet centers can be used by children throughout the day.
Casper Holroyd
· Consider having a specific puppet for each center area. This
puppet could remind the class that it is music time, for instance,
and be used to give directions and explain new concepts. If the
puppet has trouble in an area, the children could teach it and
straighten out its confusion. Through such dramatic
experiences, self-confidence and skills are strengthened.
· Felt boards and puppets work well together. A puppet with
hands can effectively help the adult or child put pieces on or
take them off the felt board. One teacher who was teaching
toddlers the parts of the face used a rather “stupid” puppet that
kept making mistakes by putting the parts in the wrong place.
The children had a lot of fun correcting it.
· In music experiences, teachers find that puppets help young

27. children develop a feeling for rhythm and music interpretation
by moving the puppets to the beat. They also encourage
reluctant children to sing because the puppet does the singing
for the child. Puppets with moving mouths are most effective
but not necessary.
· Social studies is a natural area for puppets; it presents
countless opportunities to dramatize holiday ideas, represent
particular ethnic customs, or portray the roles of various
community helpers.
· Use puppets to help children voice feelings, such as fear; other
activities can include using high- and low-pitched voices and
making squeaking, growling, and chirping animal sounds.
· Provide opportunities for enactments of published or original
stories.
· Encourage children to present original work. Young children
may have difficulty manipulating puppets and saying words at
the same time. Record the story in advance so that the children
can then focus on the puppets’ actions.
These suggestions are simply intended to be idea starters. The
use of puppets in the classroom is limited only by imagination—
yours and the children’s.
15-5bKinds of Puppets
Some of the most common and easiest puppets to make are stick
puppets, hand puppets, finger puppets, people puppets, wooden
spoon puppets, mitten and sock puppets, paper plate puppets,
play dough puppets, Styrofoam ball puppets, ping-pong ball
puppets, and cylinder puppets.Stick puppets.
The simplest of all puppets, stick puppets are controlled by a
single stick (any slim, rigid support) that goes up inside the
puppet or is attached to the back of it.
Stick puppets are fun and easy to make. The teacher can use
sticks from the lumberyard, large twigs, pencils, or wooden
popsicle or craft sticks. With this type of puppet, the child puts
a bag or piece of cloth over the stick and stuffs the bag or cloth
with wads of newspaper or cotton. The child then ties the top of

28. the bag to the stick, making a head. A rubber band may be used
instead of string to form a head.
TeachSource VideoPreschool: Emotional Development
© 2015 Cengage Learning
1. Evaluate this teacher’s use of a puppet with this group of pre-
school children with regard to the information presented in this
chapter. Is her use of a puppet in this lesson consistent with the
uses for puppets as discussed in this chapter? What specific
aspect of her use is most consistent? Least consistent?
2. What other type(s) of puppet(s) could this teacher use for this
same lesson? Give specific examples in your answer.
3. Why do you suppose the puppet in the video has no facial
features? How would having facial features on this puppet
change the lesson?
The child can then paint the head or make a face with crayons,
markers, or colored paper and paste. Scrap yarn, wood shavings,
and buttons are also good materials for the puppet’s face. Scrap
pieces of fabric can be used to “dress” the puppet; wallpaper
samples provide inexpensive material for puppets’ clothes.
With the stick, the puppet is moved around the stage or turned
from side to side. It has the advantage of being a good first
puppet for preschoolers because a stick can be attached to any
little doll, toy animal, or cutout figure, and the puppet is easy to
operate.Bag puppets.
The common paper bag in any size makes a good bag puppet for
young preschoolers. The bags are stuffed with wads of
newspaper and tied, stapled, or glued shut. A body is made with
a second bag stapled to the first, leaving room for the child’s
hand to slip in and work the puppet.
A face can be made with paint, crayons, or colored paper and
paste. Odds and ends are fun to use for the face, too. Buttons
make eyes; crumpled tissue, a nose; and yarn, hair. The search
for the right odds and ends to make the puppet is as much fun as
using the finished puppet later.Hand puppets.
Frequently called “glove” or “mitten puppets,” these are the

29. most popular for young children. These can be made in child or
adult sizes by tracing around your hand or the child’s hand in a
mitten shape, or around your fingers or the child’s fingers for a
glove shape. There are many types of hand puppets, but most
can be classified into two general groups:
· (1)
those with moving mouths and
· (2)
those with moving hands.
The first (with moving mouths) is any sort of hand covering—a
handkerchief, sock, mitten, or paper bag—inside of which one’s
fingers open and shut, forming the mouth of the puppet. The
second kind has a head and two hands and is operated by putting
one or two fingers in the head and one in each hand. This kind
of puppet can freely pick up objects and make hand motions,
thus putting more realism into a performance.Finger puppets.
The three general types of finger puppets are the following
(see Figure 15-3):
· Finger-leg. Finger puppet in which two fingers (usually the
index and middle fingers) serve as the puppet’s legs.
· Finger-cap. Finger puppet that slips over an individual finger.
· Finger-face. Puppet made by drawing a face on a finger with a
felt pen. Usually, one can perform with quite a few puppets of
this type at one time. They are great for finger plays!
Figure 15-3
There are many kinds of finger puppets. Three examples are
shown here.
© Cengage Learning
Some advantages of finger puppets include the following.
· They are easy to manipulate, even by a toddler.
· They encourage small muscle action.
· They are inexpensive to make.
· One child alone can put on a performance with an “entire
cast.”
· They maintain interest because they are always easy and quick

30. to make.
· They can be made in spare moments, as materials are small
and mobile.Wooden spoon puppets.
You will need wooden spoons, yarn, string, material scraps,
glue, and construction paper. Draw a face on the wooden spoon.
Glue on yarn or string for hair and scraps of material for
clothing.Two-faced (paper plate) puppets.
Draw a face on the back of each paper plate. Add features with
various types of materials. Insert a stick between the paper
plates and glue it into place. Staple edges together.Play dough
puppets.
Place a small amount of play dough onto a finger. Mold play
dough into a face shape covering the finger. Add beads,
toothpicks, and other small objects for facial features and added
emphasis.
Styrofoam ball puppets.
Insert a stick into a Styrofoam ball. Cover the Styrofoam ball
with fabric. Tie the fabric around the stick. Glue on buttons and
felt scraps for facial features.Ping-pong ball puppets.
Cut an X-shaped hole out of a ball. Place a piece of lightweight
fabric on your finger. Cover the area of the ball with sturdy
glue. Force the ball at the X onto the fabric on your finger.
While the glue is drying, draw or paste a face onto the
puppet.Sock puppet.
Pull the sock over your hand. Glue or paint facial features onto
the toe of the sock or decorate as desired.Finger puppets from
gloves.
Recycle stray gloves and use them for finger puppets. Recycle
old rubber gloves, too, by drawing features on rubber glove
fingers with marking pens. Glue pom-poms on each finger for
the “head” and glue on bits of cloth or felt for facial or
character details.Old mitten puppets.
A child can slip his hand into an old mitten and make the puppet
“talk” by moving his thumb up and down against the four
fingers.Cardboard cylinder puppet.

31. To make a cardboard cylinder puppet, place a cardboard
cylinder from paper towels or toilet tissue over the fingers.
Decorate with desired features. The cylinder could be used for
the body, and a Styrofoam ball or ping-pong ball could be
placed on the top for the head. Decorate as desired.People
puppets.
Also called humanettes, these are half-person and half-puppet.
The easiest people puppet for children is a large paper sack put
over the head. Holes are cut out for the eyes, and facial features
and decorations are added with paint or paper and paste. The
bags can be turned up slightly above the shoulder or cut away
on the sides for armholes. People puppets make a natural
transition from puppetry to creative drama. Also, shy children
generally feel more protected behind this kind of puppet than all
the other types. Be sure not to force a child to use this type of
puppet if the child does not like his or her head covered!
More ideas for puppets are found at the end of this chapter.
Did You Get It?
· Christian, a -year-old, is shy and reluctant to speak to the
teacher because he is afraid of giving the wrong answers. Which
creative activity is most likely to encourage him to answer the
teacher’s question?
1. puppet play
2. pretend play
3. creative drama
4. collage making
Take the full quiz on CourseMate.Chapter ReviewSummary
· 15-1Discuss the importance of dramatic play to a young
child’s development.
Dramatic play is an excellent means for developing creativity
and imagination in young children when it is related to the
child’s personal sense of reality without imposed adult
standards. It provides children one of the best ways to express
themselves in a safe, creative way. Through dramatic play,
children sort out what they understa nd and gain a measure of
mastery and control over events they have witnessed or taken

32. part in. Dramatic play helps children enter and begin to make
sense of the world of adults.
· 15-2Discuss what children learn in dramatic play.
Dramatic play is an important medium for language
development and learning to listen and respond to other
children, and it is a natural source for many other types of
learning.
· 15-3Discuss ways to adapt dramatic activities for children
with special needs.
Be careful not to make too many rules for the child’s play. Let
the child take the lead. Encourage children to play together;
define the space where children can play and keep it small.
Children with attention deficits, autism, and developmental
delays need to be assisted in choosing centers and spending at
least in a center of their choice. Help the child with visual
impairments explore the dramatic play area to discuss what the
objects are and what they are used for. Encourage the child who
is blind to develop social skills that will help interaction with
other children.
· 15-4Discuss the difference between dramatic play and creative
dramatics.
Dramatic play is the free play of very young children in which
they explore their universe, imitating the actions and traits of
those around them. Creative drama is generally used to describe
the improvised drama of children age and older.
Dramatic play can be adapted so it is appropriate for children
with special needs. Dramatic play kits are easy to make and
help develop opportunities for creative play. The use of puppets
provides opportunities for creative movement, dramatics, and
language development. Creative dramatics refers to informal
drama that is created by the participants. It goes beyond
dramatic play in scope and intent. The term creative dramatics
is generally used to describe the improvised drama of children
age and older.
· 15-5Discuss appropriate ways to use puppets in the early
childhood program.

33. Teachers can teach finger plays with puppets. Music time is
enhanced by the use of puppets. Puppets are also excellent for
concept teaching and can help clarify abstract concepts and
demonstrate concrete concepts. Puppets allow children the
freedom to talk when they are not sure about things. Puppets
can help to mirror desirable behaviors. Puppets are wonderful
tools for demonstrating social skills with young children.
Puppets can also encourage creative storytelling in younger
children.
Other uses of puppets in the early childhood program include
helping shy children express themselves, having children
introduce themselves, and teaching new concepts in various
areas.
Master of Arts in Teaching Program (MAT)
Portfolio/Journal-Grading Rubric
Student:
Score:
Category
Criteria
High Proficiency
3
Proficiency
2
No/Limited Proficiency
1
Vita/Resume
Portfolio includes a page vita

34. that clearly presents the
education and experience of candidate
Vita follows the
guidelines available in the criteria
Vita lacks key elements or is
formatted in a way that
makes it difficult to identify
Vita has several spelling or
grammar errors for is
missing
Philosophy of Teaching
Portfolio includes a 1 to 2-page description of an
educational vision that clearly presents the beliefs of candidate
Philosophy is clear and
compelling—no
grammatical or spelling errors
Philosophy is adequately
developed--few grammatical
or spelling errors
Philosophy is poorly
developed or missing--
many grammatical or
spelling errors
Syllabus
A syllabus for a courses being taught
Well developed
Adequate
Incomplete
Clear professional format
Cover page, Table of Contents, dividers, make
materials accessible and easy to read
Portfolio contains a cover page with name and contact
information, dividers are visible and
readable, TOC directs reader to each section
All elements are present, but
lack clarity

35. Some elements missing
Selection/Teaching Artifacts
Lecture notes, assignments,
projects, visuals, quizzes,
assessments, PowerPoints,
Well developed
Adequate
Incomplete
Weekly Reflections
All reflections clearly describe why artifacts in demonstrate
achievement
Most of the reflections describe why artifacts demonstrate
achievement of each standard
A few reflections describe why artifacts in demonstrate
achievement of each standard
No reflections describe why artifacts in the demonstrate
achievement of each standard
Evidence of effectiveness
Student evaluations, teaching awards, reflections or plans for
gathering student
Well developed
Adequate
Incomplete
Professional Developments attended
Indications of or plans for continuing professional
development—courses, workshops, professional
organizations, reading lists.
Well developed
Adequate
Incomplete
Technology
Portfolio includes an organized list of websites for articles
At least 10 websites. Each
site is briefly annotated to
explain relevance and value
At least 5. Some sites are

36. briefly annotated to explain
relevance and value
Unorganized list of
websites
Total Score:
/27