The document provides a detailed overview of the history and functions of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It discusses how the WTO was established in 1995 to oversee international trade, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). It outlines the various trade negotiation rounds that have occurred under GATT and within the WTO. The key principles and functions of the WTO are also summarized, including administering trade agreements, providing a forum for negotiation and dispute resolution, and establishing rules for a liberal international trading system.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization that oversees and liberalizes international trade. It began operating on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) established in 1948. The WTO regulates trade between member countries through negotiated agreements and provides a dispute resolution process. It currently has 153 member countries representing over 97% of the world's population and seeks to continue trade negotiations through the Doha Development Round.
The document discusses the 8 rounds of negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) from 1947 to 1994. It provides details on each round such as location, duration, participating countries, and key outcomes. The first round in 1947 established GATT and resulted in tariff concessions on $10 billion of trade. Subsequent rounds made further reductions to tariffs and expanded participation. The final Uruguay round from 1986-1994 established the World Trade Organization and expanded GATT's scope.
The document provides an overview of the history and structure of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It discusses that the WTO was established in 1995 to oversee international trade agreements and replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO has 148 member nations and deals with trade in goods, services, and intellectual property through multilateral agreements based on principles of non-discrimination and open markets. Key aspects of the WTO include agreements on trade in goods, services, dispute settlement, decision making by consensus, and regular Ministerial Conferences.
The document discusses the history and achievements of the Uruguay Round negotiations that established the World Trade Organization in 1995. The main points covered are:
1) The Uruguay Round was the 8th round of trade negotiations under GATT from 1986-1994 that transformed GATT into the WTO.
2) Key goals were reducing agricultural subsidies, limiting foreign investment restrictions, and opening trade in services.
3) After many years of negotiations, the final agreements were signed in 1994 establishing the WTO.
4) The WTO now oversees international trade under agreements covering goods, services, and intellectual property.
This document discusses the origins and history of the Doha Round of trade negotiations at the World Trade Organization (WTO). It argues that while the launch of the Doha Round in 2001 was a well-founded response to unfinished business from previous negotiations, the negotiations have progressed very slowly over the past 8 years with little decisive action. Given the major changes in the global economy due to the financial crisis, it examines whether completing the Doha Round is still important and how it could be achieved, alternative approaches to WTO negotiations, and what a future negotiating agenda might look like.
GATT (General Agreement on Tariff and Trade)Akshay Dhamija
GATT (General Agreement on Tariff and Trade)
Precursor organization to GATT, ITO, was first proposed in
February 1945 by the United Nations Economic and Social Council (UNESCO).
On 1 January 1948, the agreement was signed by 23 countries for the formation of GATT.
Total of 8 rounds was there, all are listed along with their respective year, venue and issues are mentioned in the sides.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the global international organization that oversees the rules of trade between nations. Its goals are to help producers and traders conduct business internationally and improve economic welfare. The WTO was established in 1995 as the successor to GATT and aims to liberalize international trade through negotiations between member countries. It administers trade agreements, provides a forum for negotiations, handles disputes, and monitors national trade policies.
The document summarizes key aspects of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It describes the WTO's objectives of raising living standards, promoting full employment, and ensuring both rich and poor countries benefit from trade. It outlines the WTO's history from post-World War II trade negotiations to its establishment in 1995. The principles of non-discrimination, transparency, and binding commitments are also mentioned. Important WTO trade negotiation rounds are listed, with the most recent being the Doha Round launched in 2001.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization that oversees and liberalizes international trade. It began operating on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) established in 1948. The WTO regulates trade between member countries through negotiated agreements and provides a dispute resolution process. It currently has 153 member countries representing over 97% of the world's population and seeks to continue trade negotiations through the Doha Development Round.
The document discusses the 8 rounds of negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) from 1947 to 1994. It provides details on each round such as location, duration, participating countries, and key outcomes. The first round in 1947 established GATT and resulted in tariff concessions on $10 billion of trade. Subsequent rounds made further reductions to tariffs and expanded participation. The final Uruguay round from 1986-1994 established the World Trade Organization and expanded GATT's scope.
The document provides an overview of the history and structure of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It discusses that the WTO was established in 1995 to oversee international trade agreements and replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO has 148 member nations and deals with trade in goods, services, and intellectual property through multilateral agreements based on principles of non-discrimination and open markets. Key aspects of the WTO include agreements on trade in goods, services, dispute settlement, decision making by consensus, and regular Ministerial Conferences.
The document discusses the history and achievements of the Uruguay Round negotiations that established the World Trade Organization in 1995. The main points covered are:
1) The Uruguay Round was the 8th round of trade negotiations under GATT from 1986-1994 that transformed GATT into the WTO.
2) Key goals were reducing agricultural subsidies, limiting foreign investment restrictions, and opening trade in services.
3) After many years of negotiations, the final agreements were signed in 1994 establishing the WTO.
4) The WTO now oversees international trade under agreements covering goods, services, and intellectual property.
This document discusses the origins and history of the Doha Round of trade negotiations at the World Trade Organization (WTO). It argues that while the launch of the Doha Round in 2001 was a well-founded response to unfinished business from previous negotiations, the negotiations have progressed very slowly over the past 8 years with little decisive action. Given the major changes in the global economy due to the financial crisis, it examines whether completing the Doha Round is still important and how it could be achieved, alternative approaches to WTO negotiations, and what a future negotiating agenda might look like.
GATT (General Agreement on Tariff and Trade)Akshay Dhamija
GATT (General Agreement on Tariff and Trade)
Precursor organization to GATT, ITO, was first proposed in
February 1945 by the United Nations Economic and Social Council (UNESCO).
On 1 January 1948, the agreement was signed by 23 countries for the formation of GATT.
Total of 8 rounds was there, all are listed along with their respective year, venue and issues are mentioned in the sides.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the global international organization that oversees the rules of trade between nations. Its goals are to help producers and traders conduct business internationally and improve economic welfare. The WTO was established in 1995 as the successor to GATT and aims to liberalize international trade through negotiations between member countries. It administers trade agreements, provides a forum for negotiations, handles disputes, and monitors national trade policies.
The document summarizes key aspects of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It describes the WTO's objectives of raising living standards, promoting full employment, and ensuring both rich and poor countries benefit from trade. It outlines the WTO's history from post-World War II trade negotiations to its establishment in 1995. The principles of non-discrimination, transparency, and binding commitments are also mentioned. Important WTO trade negotiation rounds are listed, with the most recent being the Doha Round launched in 2001.
The WTO is an international organization that regulates trade between nations. It was established in 1995 and replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO has 161 member states and seeks to liberalize trade through agreements while allowing governments to meet social objectives. It provides a framework and forum for resolving trade disputes through consultation, panels, and appeals.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) was formed in 1995 to supervise and liberalize international trade, taking over these functions from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) formed in 1947. The WTO aims to promote trade flows by encouraging predictable and non-discriminatory trade policies among its 153 member countries. It administers trade agreements, acts as a forum for negotiations, handles disputes, and monitors national trade policies. The WTO also seeks to raise living standards, foster sustainable development, and introduce agreements like TRIPS and TRIMS that establish global intellectual property protections and restrict trade-distorting domestic investment measures.
This presentation depicts the evolution of International Trade Law and major steps taken to formulate the specialized forum dealing solely on international trade negotiations, it further enumerates the significance of World Trade Organizatio
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was first signed in 1947 with the goal of encouraging free trade between member states by regulating and reducing tariffs. GATT provided an international forum for negotiating trade agreements and resolving disputes. It aimed to reduce barriers to trade such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies. GATT led to increased world trade growth in the 1950s-1960s but its effectiveness was undermined as countries increased protectionism. This led to negotiations in the 1980s for the Uruguay Round, which established the World Trade Organization in 1994 and expanded global trade rules.
The WTO was established on January 1, 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and embody the results of the Uruguay Round negotiations. It administers trade agreements negotiated by its member states covering trade in goods, services, and intellectual property. The WTO has expanded membership beyond GATT to include 150 countries and has a broader scope and stronger enforcement mechanisms compared to GATT.
The Uruguay Round was the largest trade negotiation ever, covering topics from agriculture to telecommunications over 7.5 years. Its goals were to reduce agricultural subsidies, lift restrictions on foreign investment, and open trade in services.
The Doha Round is the latest WTO round aiming to reform international trade through lower barriers and revised rules. It covers 20 trade areas and aims to improve prospects for developing countries. The Doha Declaration approved negotiations on agriculture, services, intellectual property, and addressing developing country issues.
India's role in the WTO is to ensure stability, predictability and more trade and prosperity for itself and other members. India benefits from most favored nation status and national treatment for its exports. It
B416 The Evolution Of Global Economies Lecture 6 International Trade Organisa...Pearson College London
The document summarizes key points about international trade organizations and regional economic integration. It discusses the World Trade Organization (WTO) as the major body governing global trade agreements and enforcement. It also describes different forms of regional economic integration like free trade areas, customs unions, and common markets. Examples of major regional trading blocs are provided, such as the European Union, NAFTA, ASEAN, and groups in Africa and the Americas. The impacts of regional integration on trade flows and economic development are also summarized.
The document discusses the regulatory environment for international business and trade. It covers:
1) The main actors in international trade regulation including states, citizens, companies, and international organizations.
2) The different types of laws that govern international trade between states and citizens, including public law, private law, civil law, common law, and international treaties.
3) The key principles and organizations that make up the international trade system, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) which aims to liberalize trade and ensure fair competition through negotiated agreements between member states.
The Fourth Ministerial Conference of the WTO was held in Doha, Qatar in 2001. At this conference, trade ministers launched the Doha Development Agenda to continue negotiations on agriculture, services, and other issues, and to promote the interests of developing countries. They agreed to negotiations on reducing agricultural subsidies and increasing market access. They also passed a declaration on public health that confirmed flexibilities for developing countries in implementing intellectual property rules for pharmaceuticals.
The document provides an overview of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It discusses that the WTO is the only global international organization that sets trade rules between nations. It established in 1995 and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. The WTO has 160 member countries and its objectives include raising living standards, ensuring full employment, and ensuring developing countries benefit from trade growth. It functions include administering trade agreements, providing a forum for negotiations, and settling trade disputes.
This document discusses regional trade agreements (RTAs) in the context of the Doha Development Agenda negotiations. It provides background on GATT/WTO provisions governing RTAs, analyzes the global trend of increasing RTAs, and examines how the "new regionalism" goes beyond early agreements. The document aims to identify issues of interest to India regarding making RTA rules more development-friendly. It recommends stricter RTA rules and unilateral trade policies to support developing country growth.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that regulates international trade. It has 160 member countries. The WTO seeks to help producers of goods and services conduct international business through negotiated agreements and a dispute resolution process. It aims to open markets, ensure fair trade practices, settle disputes, and assist developing countries through technical training.
The document discusses the history and evolution of international trade organizations from GATT to the modern World Trade Organization (WTO). It describes how GATT was established in 1947 to promote global free trade but lacked enforcement capabilities. Key points include:
- GATT negotiations led to trade liberalization but favored developed nations.
- The WTO was established in 1995 to replace GATT and provide stronger rules and a dispute resolution process.
- The WTO aims to facilitate trade through policies like most favored nation status and reducing tariffs and barriers.
- Regional trade agreements also proliferated like NAFTA, ASEAN, and the EU to liberalize trade among neighboring states.
The Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health was adopted by the WTO Ministerial Conference of 2001 in Doha on November 14, 2001. It reaffirmed flexibility of TRIPS member states in circumventing patent rights for better access to essential medicines
The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and aims to support free trade flows. However, it has failed to achieve several of its goals. Critics argue the WTO lacks transparency and democracy. It also prioritizes corporate profits over human and labor rights. The WTO dispute resolution process can take over 5 years, and its multilateral negotiation approach has led member states to prefer direct bilateral deals. The failure of the Doha Round in the early 2000s showed the challenges of achieving consensus among members.
The document discusses trade liberalization efforts from the Great Depression era to the present. It describes how the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act exacerbated the Great Depression by sparking a trade war. In response, the Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act of 1934 started negotiating bilateral trade deals. After World War 2, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was signed in 1947 to liberalize global trade, resulting in several negotiation rounds cutting tariffs. The World Trade Organization was established in 1995 as a permanent institution to oversee international trade, including dispute settlement. Criticisms of the WTO include undermining sovereignty and environmental/inequality concerns.
This document discusses India's response to negotiations on trade in educational services under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) within the World Trade Organization (WTO). It outlines that trade in educational services is an important issue for India that requires thorough analysis before commitments are made. The document analyzes how GATS applies to the educational sector and discusses India's competitiveness in educational services trade and options for negotiations and domestic reforms.
The document provides information about several trade-related organizations and agreements:
1. It discusses the World Trade Organization (WTO) which deals with international trade rules between nations and helps producers export goods and services.
2. It describes the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) which aimed to liberalize world trade by reducing trade barriers and establishing rules for the multilateral trading system.
3. It outlines the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) which extended the multilateral trading system to the service sector in the same way GATT did for goods.
4. It discusses the Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs) which prohibits certain trade-related
7. Trade Laws, Bilateral and Multilateral Trade Agreements, World Trade Organ...Charu Rastogi
This document discusses various topics related to international business management and trade agreements:
- It describes different types of bilateral and multilateral trade agreements such as GATT, WTO, TRIPS, TRIMS, and GATS.
- It provides an overview of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its replacement by the World Trade Organization (WTO).
- It also briefly discusses India's bilateral trade agreements with different countries and regions, as well as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the international body that oversees global trade agreements. It was established in 1995 to expand upon and formalize the previous General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO has 164 member countries and oversees agreements on trade in goods, services, and intellectual property through its dispute resolution process and regular trade negotiations.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was an international agreement formed in 1949 that promoted international trade by reducing trade barriers like tariffs between member countries. GATT held several rounds of negotiations where member countries agreed to reduce tariffs and trade barriers further. In 1993, GATT was updated and the World Trade Organization was created to replace GATT and expand the scope of international trade agreements to include services, intellectual property, and other areas.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business.
The WTO is an international organization that regulates trade between nations. It was established in 1995 and replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO has 161 member states and seeks to liberalize trade through agreements while allowing governments to meet social objectives. It provides a framework and forum for resolving trade disputes through consultation, panels, and appeals.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) was formed in 1995 to supervise and liberalize international trade, taking over these functions from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) formed in 1947. The WTO aims to promote trade flows by encouraging predictable and non-discriminatory trade policies among its 153 member countries. It administers trade agreements, acts as a forum for negotiations, handles disputes, and monitors national trade policies. The WTO also seeks to raise living standards, foster sustainable development, and introduce agreements like TRIPS and TRIMS that establish global intellectual property protections and restrict trade-distorting domestic investment measures.
This presentation depicts the evolution of International Trade Law and major steps taken to formulate the specialized forum dealing solely on international trade negotiations, it further enumerates the significance of World Trade Organizatio
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was first signed in 1947 with the goal of encouraging free trade between member states by regulating and reducing tariffs. GATT provided an international forum for negotiating trade agreements and resolving disputes. It aimed to reduce barriers to trade such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies. GATT led to increased world trade growth in the 1950s-1960s but its effectiveness was undermined as countries increased protectionism. This led to negotiations in the 1980s for the Uruguay Round, which established the World Trade Organization in 1994 and expanded global trade rules.
The WTO was established on January 1, 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and embody the results of the Uruguay Round negotiations. It administers trade agreements negotiated by its member states covering trade in goods, services, and intellectual property. The WTO has expanded membership beyond GATT to include 150 countries and has a broader scope and stronger enforcement mechanisms compared to GATT.
The Uruguay Round was the largest trade negotiation ever, covering topics from agriculture to telecommunications over 7.5 years. Its goals were to reduce agricultural subsidies, lift restrictions on foreign investment, and open trade in services.
The Doha Round is the latest WTO round aiming to reform international trade through lower barriers and revised rules. It covers 20 trade areas and aims to improve prospects for developing countries. The Doha Declaration approved negotiations on agriculture, services, intellectual property, and addressing developing country issues.
India's role in the WTO is to ensure stability, predictability and more trade and prosperity for itself and other members. India benefits from most favored nation status and national treatment for its exports. It
B416 The Evolution Of Global Economies Lecture 6 International Trade Organisa...Pearson College London
The document summarizes key points about international trade organizations and regional economic integration. It discusses the World Trade Organization (WTO) as the major body governing global trade agreements and enforcement. It also describes different forms of regional economic integration like free trade areas, customs unions, and common markets. Examples of major regional trading blocs are provided, such as the European Union, NAFTA, ASEAN, and groups in Africa and the Americas. The impacts of regional integration on trade flows and economic development are also summarized.
The document discusses the regulatory environment for international business and trade. It covers:
1) The main actors in international trade regulation including states, citizens, companies, and international organizations.
2) The different types of laws that govern international trade between states and citizens, including public law, private law, civil law, common law, and international treaties.
3) The key principles and organizations that make up the international trade system, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) which aims to liberalize trade and ensure fair competition through negotiated agreements between member states.
The Fourth Ministerial Conference of the WTO was held in Doha, Qatar in 2001. At this conference, trade ministers launched the Doha Development Agenda to continue negotiations on agriculture, services, and other issues, and to promote the interests of developing countries. They agreed to negotiations on reducing agricultural subsidies and increasing market access. They also passed a declaration on public health that confirmed flexibilities for developing countries in implementing intellectual property rules for pharmaceuticals.
The document provides an overview of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It discusses that the WTO is the only global international organization that sets trade rules between nations. It established in 1995 and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. The WTO has 160 member countries and its objectives include raising living standards, ensuring full employment, and ensuring developing countries benefit from trade growth. It functions include administering trade agreements, providing a forum for negotiations, and settling trade disputes.
This document discusses regional trade agreements (RTAs) in the context of the Doha Development Agenda negotiations. It provides background on GATT/WTO provisions governing RTAs, analyzes the global trend of increasing RTAs, and examines how the "new regionalism" goes beyond early agreements. The document aims to identify issues of interest to India regarding making RTA rules more development-friendly. It recommends stricter RTA rules and unilateral trade policies to support developing country growth.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that regulates international trade. It has 160 member countries. The WTO seeks to help producers of goods and services conduct international business through negotiated agreements and a dispute resolution process. It aims to open markets, ensure fair trade practices, settle disputes, and assist developing countries through technical training.
The document discusses the history and evolution of international trade organizations from GATT to the modern World Trade Organization (WTO). It describes how GATT was established in 1947 to promote global free trade but lacked enforcement capabilities. Key points include:
- GATT negotiations led to trade liberalization but favored developed nations.
- The WTO was established in 1995 to replace GATT and provide stronger rules and a dispute resolution process.
- The WTO aims to facilitate trade through policies like most favored nation status and reducing tariffs and barriers.
- Regional trade agreements also proliferated like NAFTA, ASEAN, and the EU to liberalize trade among neighboring states.
The Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health was adopted by the WTO Ministerial Conference of 2001 in Doha on November 14, 2001. It reaffirmed flexibility of TRIPS member states in circumventing patent rights for better access to essential medicines
The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and aims to support free trade flows. However, it has failed to achieve several of its goals. Critics argue the WTO lacks transparency and democracy. It also prioritizes corporate profits over human and labor rights. The WTO dispute resolution process can take over 5 years, and its multilateral negotiation approach has led member states to prefer direct bilateral deals. The failure of the Doha Round in the early 2000s showed the challenges of achieving consensus among members.
The document discusses trade liberalization efforts from the Great Depression era to the present. It describes how the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act exacerbated the Great Depression by sparking a trade war. In response, the Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act of 1934 started negotiating bilateral trade deals. After World War 2, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was signed in 1947 to liberalize global trade, resulting in several negotiation rounds cutting tariffs. The World Trade Organization was established in 1995 as a permanent institution to oversee international trade, including dispute settlement. Criticisms of the WTO include undermining sovereignty and environmental/inequality concerns.
This document discusses India's response to negotiations on trade in educational services under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) within the World Trade Organization (WTO). It outlines that trade in educational services is an important issue for India that requires thorough analysis before commitments are made. The document analyzes how GATS applies to the educational sector and discusses India's competitiveness in educational services trade and options for negotiations and domestic reforms.
The document provides information about several trade-related organizations and agreements:
1. It discusses the World Trade Organization (WTO) which deals with international trade rules between nations and helps producers export goods and services.
2. It describes the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) which aimed to liberalize world trade by reducing trade barriers and establishing rules for the multilateral trading system.
3. It outlines the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) which extended the multilateral trading system to the service sector in the same way GATT did for goods.
4. It discusses the Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs) which prohibits certain trade-related
7. Trade Laws, Bilateral and Multilateral Trade Agreements, World Trade Organ...Charu Rastogi
This document discusses various topics related to international business management and trade agreements:
- It describes different types of bilateral and multilateral trade agreements such as GATT, WTO, TRIPS, TRIMS, and GATS.
- It provides an overview of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its replacement by the World Trade Organization (WTO).
- It also briefly discusses India's bilateral trade agreements with different countries and regions, as well as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the international body that oversees global trade agreements. It was established in 1995 to expand upon and formalize the previous General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO has 164 member countries and oversees agreements on trade in goods, services, and intellectual property through its dispute resolution process and regular trade negotiations.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was an international agreement formed in 1949 that promoted international trade by reducing trade barriers like tariffs between member countries. GATT held several rounds of negotiations where member countries agreed to reduce tariffs and trade barriers further. In 1993, GATT was updated and the World Trade Organization was created to replace GATT and expand the scope of international trade agreements to include services, intellectual property, and other areas.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business.
The document summarizes the evolution of international trade organizations from GATT to the WTO. It explains that GATT was created in 1947 to reduce trade barriers but was replaced in 1995 by the stronger World Trade Organization after eight years of negotiations. The WTO expanded the scope of international trade rules and established stronger enforcement mechanisms for resolving disputes between member countries. The document outlines the structure of the WTO, including governing bodies like the Ministerial Conference and General Council.
The document discusses the history and evolution of international trade agreements from GATT to the modern WTO. It outlines key events like the Bretton Woods conference that led to GATT, various trade negotiation rounds that reduced tariffs, the formation of the WTO in 1995, and principles of the rules-based global trading system like non-discrimination and transparency. It also summarizes roles of different WTO bodies and topics of ongoing negotiation like agriculture subsidies and special provisions for developing countries.
The GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) was created in 1947 to reduce trade barriers and boost postwar economic recovery. It led to the formation of the WTO (World Trade Organization) in 1995. The WTO provides a forum for member countries to negotiate trade issues and resolve disputes through agreed upon rules and processes. It aims to facilitate global trade through open communication and negotiated agreements while also maintaining some trade barriers where sensible. However, critics argue it can negatively impact local communities and human rights by fueling international trade expansion.
The document provides an introduction to the Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (WTO Agreement). It establishes the WTO as the successor to GATT and provides the legal foundation for the new multilateral trading system. The WTO Agreement sets out the role, structure, and powers of the WTO. It includes the establishment of the WTO, its functions and objectives, decision-making processes, and membership terms. It aims to provide greater coherence, stability and predictability to the global trading system through a rules-based organization.
The document provides an introduction to the Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (WTO Agreement). It establishes the WTO as the successor to GATT and provides the legal foundation for the new multilateral trading system. The WTO Agreement sets out the role, structure, and powers of the WTO. It includes the establishment of the WTO, its functions to facilitate the implementation and administration of trade agreements, and its structure including the Ministerial Conference and General Council as the top decision-making bodies.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1995 to oversee international trade agreements and liberalize trade. It replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) which was created in 1947. The WTO operates through agreements negotiated and ratified by member states to administer trade rules, settle disputes, and cooperate with other international organizations like the World Bank and IMF. It aims to help trade flow freely through non-discriminatory policies, enforceable commitments, and transparency between its 157 member countries.
This presentation talks about the intellectual property rights and the various treaties related to them, their history and functions, GATT, WTO, International Agreements, Madrid Protocol, TRIPS and Berne Convention are given in detail. The presentation will give you an overview of how IPR works in trade relalated aspects throughout the world, across international borders.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that regulates international trade. It was established in 1995 to oversee and liberalize international trade. The WTO evolved out of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process for addressing trade complaints. It has 164 member countries, aims to lower trade barriers, and works to ensure a rules-based global trading system through consensus-based decision making.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that regulates international trade. It was established in 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and to provide a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process for its member nations. The WTO has 164 member countries and deals with regulations surrounding trade in goods, services, and intellectual property between nations with the goal of helping trade flow freely while achieving further liberalization through negotiation and establishing impartial dispute settlement.
The document summarizes the key events and decisions of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations between 1986-1994 that established the World Trade Organization. It discusses how countries felt existing trade issues needed addressing and new topics included after the Tokyo Round. The Uruguay Round was officially launched in 1986 to liberalize trade, strengthen trade rules, and expand into new areas like services, intellectual property, and investment. After long negotiations and missed deadlines, the final agreement was signed in 1994 establishing the WTO and expanding global trade governance.
During the 1930s Great Depression, international trade declined sharply as countries imposed import restrictions to protect their economies. In 1945, the US proposed expanding trade and employment. On October 30, 1947, 23 countries in Geneva signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), establishing rules for international trade. GATT went through eight rounds of negotiations between 1947-1994 to reduce tariffs and trade barriers. The final round, the Uruguay Round, established the World Trade Organization in 1995 to provide stronger, more permanent governance of global trade.
The document discusses the World Trade Organization (WTO). It describes the WTO as an international organization that oversees and liberalizes international trade according to agreements negotiated and signed by most of the world's trading nations. The WTO seeks to help trade flow smoothly and predictably between nations by administering trade agreements, settling disputes, and assisting developing countries, among other functions. Key principles of the WTO's trading system include non-discrimination, reciprocity, binding and enforceable commitments, and transparency.
The document discusses various topics related to international business management and trade agreements. It provides information on bilateral and multilateral trade laws and agreements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the World Trade Organization (WTO) and its rounds of trade negotiations. It also discusses intellectual property rights agreements (TRIPS, TRIMS, GATS), the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), and India's bilateral trade agreements. Key trade concepts around bilateral vs multilateral trade, preferential trade agreements, and the role of the WTO in liberalizing trade and settling disputes are also summarized.
The document summarizes the history and objectives of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and its predecessor the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). It discusses how GATT was created in 1947 with 23 members to liberalize trade and establish rules, and how the WTO was established in 1995 with more comprehensive global trade agreements and more members. The key principles of the WTO are non-discrimination, reciprocity, binding and enforceable commitments, transparency, and safety valves to restrict trade in certain circumstances. The major agreements covered by the WTO relate to goods, services, intellectual property, agriculture, textiles and other areas.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international body that oversees and liberalizes global trade. It was established in 1995 as the successor to GATT. The WTO deals with negotiating and implementing trade agreements between nations and ensures compliance. It is governed by a Ministerial Conference, General Council, and a Director-General.
The document summarizes the history of the World Trade Organization (WTO) from its origins in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). It discusses that GATT's primary objective was promoting world trade through tariff reductions. Over time, GATT negotiations led member nations to reduce tariffs on many traded goods. The final and most significant GATT round, the Uruguay Round from 1986 to 1994, expanded trade rules beyond goods to also include services, intellectual property, and other issues. This round resulted in the WTO agreement establishing the WTO as a permanent international organization on January 1, 1995 to facilitate global trade and resolve disputes.
Basic information about the World Trade Organization (WTO). Establishment, evolution and formation of the final act in 1994. The Result of Uruguay Round negotiation for a multilateral Trading System.
The document provides an overview of common export documents required for international trade. It discusses documents like the shipper's export declaration, commercial invoice, certificate of origin, bill of lading, temporary import certificate, insurance certificate, export packing list, import license, consular invoice, inspection certification, dock receipt, and warehouse receipt. It also summarizes specific documents required for exporting goods via post like the customs declaration form, dispatch note, commercial invoice, consular invoice, customs invoice, legalized/visaed invoice, certified invoice, packing list, certificate of inspection, and black list certificate. The document outlines various certification documents that may be needed depending on the good and destination like manufacturer's certificate, certificate of chemical analysis, certificate of
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1. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization designed by its
founders to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced
on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, replacing the General Agreements on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1947. The World Trade Organization deals
with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating
and formalising trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing
participants' adherence to WTO agreements which are signed by representatives of member
governments and ratified by their parliaments.[4][5] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on
derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986-1994). The
organization is currently endeavouring to persist with a trade negotiation called the Doha
Development Agenda (or Doha Round), which was launched in 2001 to enhance equitable
participation of poorer countries which represent a majority of the world's population. However,
the negotiation has been dogged by "disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk
commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a
'special safeguard measure' to protect farmers from surges in imports. At this time, the future of
the Doha Round is uncertain."[6]
The WTO has 153 members,[7] representing more than 95% of total world trade[8] and 30
observers, most seeking membership. The WTO is governed by a ministerial conference,
meeting every two years; a general council, which implements the conference's policy decisions
and is responsible for day-to-day administration; and a director-general, who is appointed by the
ministerial conference. The WTO's headquarters is at the Centre William Rappard, Geneva,
Switzerland.
History
See also: Chronology of the World Trade Organization
[edit] ITO and GATT 1947
For more details on this topic, see International Trade Organization.
Harry Dexter White (l) and John Maynard Keynes at the Bretton Woods Conference – Both
economists had been strong advocates of a liberal international trade environment, and
2. recommended the establishment of three institutions: the IMF (fiscal and monetary issues), the
World Bank (financial and structural issues), and the ITO (international economic cooperation).
[9]
The WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established
after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international
economic cooperation - notably the Bretton Woods institutions known as the World Bank and
the International Monetary Fund. A comparable international institution for trade, named the
International Trade Organization was successfully negotiated. The ITO was to be a United
Nations specialized agency and would address not only trade barriers but other issues indirectly
related to trade, including employment, investment, restrictive business practices, and
commodity agreements. But the ITO treaty was not approved by the United States and a few
other signatories and never went into effect.[10][11][12]
In the absence of an international organization for trade, the GATT would over the years
"transform itself" into a de facto international organization.[13]
[edit] GATT rounds of negotiations
See also: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
The GATT was the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1948 until
the WTO was established in 1995.[14] Despite attempts in the mid 1950s and 1960s to create some
form of institutional mechanism for international trade, the GATT continued to operate for
almost half a century as a semi-institutionalized multilateral treaty regime on a provisional basis.
[15]
[edit] From Geneva to Tokyo
Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under the GATT. The first GATT trade rounds
concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought
about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during
the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of
tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers, which
in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules, and in others broke entirely new ground. Because
these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often
informally called "codes". Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, and
turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. Only four remained
plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products),
but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving
only two.[14]
[edit] Uruguay Round
3. During the Doha Round, the US government blamed Brazil and India for being inflexible, and
the EU for impeding agricultural imports.[16] The President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva,
responded to the criticisms by arguing that progress would only be achieved if the richest
countries (especially the US and countries in the EU) make deeper cuts in their agricultural
subsidies, and further open their markets for agricultural goods.[17]
For more details on this topic, see Uruguay Round.
Well before GATT's 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was
straining to adapt to a new globalizing world economy.[18][19] In response to the problems
identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of
certain countries' policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), the eighth GATT round
— known as the Uruguay Round — was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este,
Uruguay.[18] It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to
extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual
property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; all the original
GATT articles were up for review.[19] The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and
officially establishing the WTO regime was signed during the April 1994 ministerial meeting at
Marrakesh, Morroco, and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.[20]
The GATT still exists as the WTO's umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the
Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made between GATT 1994, the updated parts of
GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).[18] GATT
1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh;
a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The
agreements fall into a structure with six main parts:
• The Agreement Establishing the WTO
• Goods and investment — the Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods including the
GATT 1994 and the Trade Related Investment Measures
• Services — the General Agreement on Trade in Services
• Intellectual property — the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights (TRIPS)
• Dispute settlement (DSU)
• Reviews of governments' trade policies (TPRM)[21]
Ministerial conferences
[edit] First ministerial conference
4. Main article: WTO Ministerial Conference of 1996
The inaugural ministerial conference was held in Singapore in 1996. Disagreements between
largely developed and developing economies emerged during this conference over four issues
initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively referred to as the "Singapore
issues".
[edit] Second ministerial conference
Main article: WTO Ministerial Conference of 1998
Was held in Geneva in Switzerland.
[edit] Third ministerial conference
Main article: WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999
The third conference in Seattle, Washington ended in failure, with massive demonstrations and
police and National Guard crowd control efforts drawing worldwide attention.
[edit] Fourth ministerial conference
Main article: WTO Ministerial Conference of 2001
Was held in Doha In Persian Gulf nation of Qatar. The Doha Development Round was launched
at the conference. The conference also approved the joining of China, which became the 143rd
member to join.
[edit] Fifth ministerial conference
Main article: WTO Ministerial Conference of 2003
The ministerial conference was held in Cancún, Mexico, aiming at forging agreement on the
Doha round. An alliance of 22 southern states, the G20 developing nations (led by India,
China[22] and Brazil), resisted demands from the North for agreements on the so-called
"Singapore issues" and called for an end to agricultural subsidies within the EU and the US. The
talks broke down without progress.
[edit] Sixth ministerial conference
For more details on this topic, see WTO Ministerial Conference of 2005.
The sixth WTO ministerial conference was held in Hong Kong from 13 December – 18
December 2005. It was considered vital if the four-year-old Doha Development Agenda
negotiations were to move forward sufficiently to conclude the round in 2006. In this meeting,
5. countries agreed to phase out all their agricultural export subsidies by the end of 2013, and
terminate any cotton export subsidies by the end of 2006. Further concessions to developing
countries included an agreement to introduce duty free, tariff free access for goods from the
Least Developed Countries, following the Everything But Arms initiative of the European Union
— but with up to 3% of tariff lines exempted. Other major issues were left for further negotiation
to be completed by the end of 2010
[edit] Seventh ministerial conference
The WTO General Council, on 26 May 2009, agreed to hold a seventh WTO ministerial
conference session in Geneva from 30 November–December 2009. A statement by chairman
Amb. Mario Matus acknowledged that the prime purpose was to remedy a breach of protocol
requiring two-yearly "regular" meetings, which had lapsed with the Doha Round failure in 2005,
and that the "scaled-down" meeting would not be a negotiating session, but "emphasis will be on
transparency and open discussion rather than on small group processes and informal negotiating
structures".[23]
[edit] Doha Round
Main article: Doha Round
The Doha Development Round started in 2001 and continues today.
The WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) or
Doha Round, at the fourth ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. The Doha
round was to be an ambitious effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the world's
poor, particularly by slashing barriers and subsidies in farming.[24] The initial agenda comprised
both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to
strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries.[25]
The negotiations have been highly contentious and agreement has not been reached, despite the
intense negotiations at several ministerial conferences and at other sessions. Disagreements still
continue over several key areas including agriculture subsidies.[26]
[hide]GATT and WTO trade rounds[27]
6. Subjects
Name Start Duration Countries Achievements
covered
Signing of
GATT, 45,000
tariff
Geneva April 1947 7 months 23 Tariffs
concessions
affecting $10
billion of trade
Countries
exchanged
Annecy April 1949 5 months 13 Tariffs some 5,000
tariff
concessions
Countries
exchanged
some 8,700
September tariff
Torquay 8 months 38 Tariffs
1950 concessions,
cutting the
1948 tariff
levels by 25%
Tariffs, $2.5 billion in
Geneva
January 1956 5 months 26 admission of tariff
II
Japan reductions
Tariff
concessions
September
Dillon 11 months 26 Tariffs worth $4.9
1960
billion of
world trade
7. Tariff
concessions
Tariffs, Anti-
Kennedy May 1964 37 months 62 worth $40
dumping
billion of
world trade
Tariff
Tariffs, non-
reductions
tariff
September worth more
Tokyo 74 months 102 measures,
1973 than $300
"framework"
billion dollars
agreements
achieved
The round led
to the creation
of WTO, and
extended the
range of trade
negotiations,
Tariffs, non-
leading to
tariff
major
measures,
reductions in
rules,
tariffs (about
services,
40%) and
intellectual
September agricultural
Uruguay 87 months 123 property,
1986 subsidies, an
dispute
agreement to
settlement,
allow full
textiles,
access for
agriculture,
textiles and
creation of
clothing from
WTO, etc
developing
countries, and
an extension
of intellectual
property
rights.
8. Tariffs, non-
tariff
measures,
agriculture,
labor The round is
Doha November 2001 ? 141 standards, not yet
environment, concluded.
competition,
investment,
transparency,
patents etc
[edit] Functions
Among the various functions of the WTO, these are regarded by analysts as the most important:
• It oversees the implementation, administration and operation of the covered agreements.
[28][29]
• It provides a forum for negotiations and for settling disputes.[30][31]
Additionally, it is the WTO's duty to review and propagate the national trade policies, and to
ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic
policy-making.[29][31] Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-
developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through
technical cooperation and training.[32] The WTO is also a center of economic research and
analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its annual publications and research
reports on specific topics are produced by the organization.[33] Finally, the WTO cooperates
closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World
Bank.[30]
[edit] Principles of the trading system
The WTO establishes a framework for trade policies; it does not define or specify outcomes.
That is, it is concerned with setting the rules of the trade policy games.[34] Five principles are of
particular importance in understanding both the pre-1994 GATT and the WTO:
1. Non-Discrimination. It has two major components: the most favoured nation (MFN)
rule, and the national treatment policy. Both are embedded in the main WTO rules on
goods, services, and intellectual property, but their precise scope and nature differ across
these areas. The MFN rule requires that a WTO member must apply the same conditions
on all trade with other WTO members, i.e. a WTO member has to grant the most
favorable conditions under which it allows trade in a certain product type to all other
WTO members.[34] "Grant someone a special favour and you have to do the same for all
9. other WTO members."[35] National treatment means that imported and locally-produced
goods should be treated equally (at least after the foreign goods have entered the market)
and was introduced to tackle non-tariff barriers to trade (e.g. technical standards, security
standards et al. discriminating against imported goods).[34]
2. Reciprocity. It reflects both a desire to limit the scope of free-riding that may arise
because of the MFN rule, and a desire to obtain better access to foreign markets. A
related point is that for a nation to negotiate, it is necessary that the gain from doing so be
greater than the gain available from unilateral liberalization; reciprocal concessions
intend to ensure that such gains will materialise.[36]
3. Binding and enforceable commitments. The tariff commitments made by WTO
members in a multilateral trade negotiation and on accession are enumerated in a
schedule (list) of concessions. These schedules establish "ceiling bindings": a country can
change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could mean
compensating them for loss of trade. If satisfaction is not obtained, the complaining
country may invoke the WTO dispute settlement procedures.[35][36]
4. Transparency. The WTO members are required to publish their trade regulations, to
maintain institutions allowing for the review of administrative decisions affecting trade,
to respond to requests for information by other members, and to notify changes in trade
policies to the WTO. These internal transparency requirements are supplemented and
facilitated by periodic country-specific reports (trade policy reviews) through the Trade
Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM).[37] The WTO system tries also to improve
predictability and stability, discouraging the use of quotas and other measures used to set
limits on quantities of imports.[35]
5. Safety valves. In specific circumstances, governments are able to restrict trade. There are
three types of provisions in this direction: articles allowing for the use of trade measures
to attain noneconomic objectives; articles aimed at ensuring "fair competition"; and
provisions permitting intervention in trade for economic reasons.[37] Exceptions to the
MFN principle also allow for preferential treatment of developing countries, regional free
trade areas and customs unions.[citation needed]
There are 11 committees under the jurisdiction of the Goods Council each with a specific task.
All members of the WTO participate in the committees. The Textiles Monitoring Body is
separate from the other committees but still under the jurisdiction of Goods Council. The body
has its own chairman and only ten members. The body also has several groups relating to
textiles.[38]
[edit] Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
Information on intellectual property in the WTO, news and official records of the activities of the
TRIPS Council, and details of the WTO’s work with other international organizations in the
field.[39]
10. [edit] Council for Trade in Services
The Council for Trade in Services operates under the guidance of the General Council and is
responsible for overseeing the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services
(GATS). It is open to all WTO members, and can create subsidiary bodies as required.[40]
The Service Council has three subsidiary bodies: financial services, domestic regulations, GATS
rules and specific commitments.[38]
[edit] Other committees
The General council has several different committees, working groups, and working parties.[41]
Committees on
• Trade and Environment
• Trade and Development (Subcommittee on Least-Developed Countries)
• Regional Trade Agreements
• Balance of Payments Restrictions
• Budget, Finance and Administration
Working parties on
• Accession
Working groups on
• Trade, debt and finance
• Trade and technology transfer
[edit] Trade Negotiations Committee
The Trade Negotiations Committee (TNC) is the committee that deals with the current trade talks
round. The chair is WTO’s director-general. The committee is currently tasked with the Doha
Development Round.[42]
[edit] Voting system
The WTO operates on a one country, one vote system, but actual votes have never been taken.
Decision making is generally by consensus, and relative market size is the primary source of
bargaining power. The advantage of consensus decision-making is that it encourages efforts to
find the most widely acceptable decision. Main disadvantages include large time requirements
and many rounds of negotiation to develop a consensus decision, and the tendency for final
agreements to use ambiguous language on contentious points that makes future interpretation of
treaties difficult.[citation needed]
11. In reality, WTO negotiations proceed not by consensus of all members, but by a process of
informal negotiations between small groups of countries. Such negotiations are often called
"Green Room" negotiations (after the colour of the WTO Director-General's Office in Geneva),
or "Mini-Ministerials", when they occur in other countries. These processes have been regularly
criticised by many of the WTO's developing country members which are often totally excluded
from the negotiations.[citation needed]
Richard Harold Steinberg (2002) argues that although the WTO's consensus governance model
provides law-based initial bargaining, trading rounds close through power-based bargaining
favouring Europe and the United States, and may not lead to Pareto improvement.[43]
[edit] Dispute settlement
Main article: Dispute settlement in the WTO
In 1994, the WTO members agreed on the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing
the Settlement of Disputes (DSU) annexed to the "Final Act" signed in Marrakesh in 1994.[44]
Dispute settlement is regarded by the WTO as the central pillar of the multilateral trading
system, and as a "unique contribution to the stability of the global economy".[45] WTO members
have agreed that, if they believe fellow-members are violating trade rules, they will use the
multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally.[46]
The operation of the WTO dispute settlement process involves the DSB panels, the Appellate
Body, the WTO Secretariat, arbitrators, independent experts and several specialized institutions.
[47]
[edit] Accession and membership
For more details on this topic, see WTO accession and membership.
The process of becoming a WTO member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of
accession are dependent upon the country's stage of economic development and current trade
regime.[48] The process takes about five years, on average, but it can last more if the country is
less than fully committed to the process or if political issues interfere.[49] As is typical of WTO
procedures, an offer of accession is only given once consensus is reached among interested
parties.[50]
[edit] Accession process
12. Status of WTO negotiations: members (including dual-representation with the European
Union) Draft Working Party Report or Factual Summary adopted Goods and/or Services
offers submitted Memorandum on Foreign Trade Regime submitted observer, negotiations
to start later or no Memorandum on FTR submitted frozen procedures or no negotiations in
the last 3 years no official interaction with the WTO
A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council, and has
to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO
agreements.[51] The application is submitted to the WTO in a memorandum which is examined by
a working party open to all interested WTO Members.[50] After all necessary background
information has been acquired, the working party focuses on issues of discrepancy between the
WTO rules and the applicant's international and domestic trade policies and laws. The working
party determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and
may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO
rules.[48] The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation
and other working party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels
and market access for goods and services. The new member's commitments are to apply equally
to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated
bilaterally.[51]
When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the general council or ministerial
conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings,
the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists ("schedules") of the member-to-
be's commitments. Once the general council or ministerial conference approves of the terms of
accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become
a member.[52]
[edit] Members and observers
The WTO has 153 members (almost all of the 123 nations participating in the Uruguay Round
signed on at its foundation, and the rest had to get membership).[53] The 27 states of the European
Union are represented also as the European Communities. WTO members do not have to be full
sovereign nation-members. Instead, they must be a customs territory with full autonomy in the
conduct of their external commercial relations. Thus Hong Kong (as "Hong Kong, China" since
13. 1997) became a GATT contracting party, and the Republic of China (ROC) (commonly known
as Taiwan, whose sovereignty has been disputed by the People's Republic of China) acceded to
the WTO in 2002 under the name of "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen
and Matsu" (Chinese Taipei).[54] A number of non-members (30) are observers at WTO
proceedings and are currently negotiating their membership. As observers, Iran, Iraq and Russia
are not yet members. With the exception of the Holy See, observers must start accession
negotiations within five years of becoming observers. Some international intergovernmental
organizations are also granted observer status to WTO bodies.[55] 14 states and 2 territories so far
have no official interaction with the WTO.
[edit] Agreements
The WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal
texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession.[56] A discussion
of some of the most important agreements follows.
[edit] Agreement on Agriculture (AoA)
The Agreement on Agriculture came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the
beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or "pillars": domestic support, market
access and export subsidies.
[edit] General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)
The General Agreement on Trade in Services was created to extend the multilateral trading
system to service sector, in the same way the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
provides such a system for merchandise trade. The Agreement entered into force in January 1995
[edit] Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement (TRIPs)
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights sets down minimum
standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation. It was negotiated at the end of
the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994.
[edit] Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary (SPS) Agreement
The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures - also known as the
SPS Agreement was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995.
Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints on members' policies relating to food safety
(bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health
(imported pests and diseases).
[edit] Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT)
14. The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an international treaty of the World Trade
Organization. It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the end of 1994.
The object ensures that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification
procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade".[57]
[edit] Criticism
Main article: Criticism of the World Trade Organization
Protestors clashing with Hong Kong police in Wan Chai (area of waterfront) during the World
Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 2005.
The stated aim of the WTO is to promote free trade and stimulate economic growth. Critics
argue that free trade leads to a divergence instead of convergence of income levels within rich
and poor countries (the rich get richer and the poor get poorer).[58] Martin Khor, Director of the
Third World Network, argues that the WTO does not manage the global economy impartially,
but in its operation has a systematic bias toward rich countries and multinational corporations,
harming smaller countries which have less negotiation power. He argues that developing
countries have not benefited from the WTO agreements of the Uruguay Round because, among
other reasons, market access in industry has not improved; these countries have had no gains yet
from the phasing-out of textile quotas; non-tariff barriers such as anti-dumping measures have
increased; and domestic support and export subsidies for agricultural products in the rich
countries remain high.[59] Jagdish Bhagwati asserts, however, that there is greater tariff protection
on manufacturers in the poor countries, which are also overtaking the rich nations in the number
of anti-dumping filings.[60]
Other critics claim that the issues of labor relations and environment are steadfastly ignored.
Steve Charnovitz, former director of the Global Environment and Trade Study (GETS), believes
that the WTO "should begin to address the link between trade and labor and environmental
concerns."[61] Further, labor unions condemn the labor rights record of developing countries,
arguing that, to the extent the WTO succeeds at promoting globalization, the environment and
labor rights suffer in equal measure.[62] On the other side, Khor responds that "if environment and
labor were to enter the WTO system [...] it would be conceptually difficult to argue why other
social and cultural issues should also not enter."[63] Bhagwati is also critical towards "rich-
country lobbies seeking on imposing their unrelated agendas on trade agreements."[64] Therefore,
15. both Bhagwati and Arvind Panagariya of Columbia University, have criticized the introduction
of TRIPs into the WTO framework, fearing that such non-trade agendas might overwhelm the
organization's function.[65]
Other critics have characterized the decision making in the WTO as complicated, ineffective,
unrepresentative and non-inclusive, and they have proposed the establishment of a small,
informal steering committee (a "consultative board") that can be delegated responsibility for
developing consensus on trade issues among the member countries.[66] The Third World Network
has called the WTO "the most non-transparent of international organisations", because "the vast
majority of developing countries have very little real say in the WTO system"; the Network
stresses that "civil society groups and institutions must be given genuine opportunities to express
their views and to influence the outcome of policies and decisions."[67] Certain non-governmental
organizations, such as the World Federalist Movement, argue that democratic participation in the
WTO could be enhanced through the creation of a parliamentary assembly, although other
analysts have characterized this proposal as ineffective.[68]
Some libertarians and small-government conservatives, as well as think tanks such as the Ludwig
von Mises Institute, oppose the World Trade Organization, seeing it as a bureaucratic and anti-
capitalistic organization not promoting free trade, but political interventionism. The chairman of
the Ludwig von Mises Institute, Llewellyn H Rockwell Jr, argued that
. . . the World Trade Organization says that the US must stop permitting US exporters to set up
foreign subsidiaries that save as much as 30 percent in taxes they would otherwise pay. Now the
US must either raise taxes by eliminating loopholes or face massive new sanctions that will
seriously harm our export sector. [...] There's been a lot of talk recently about foreigners who
hate our prosperity and civilization, and seek ways to inflict violence in retaliation. Well, here's
another case in point, except these are not swarthy Islamic terrorists; they are diplomats and
statesmen on nobody's list of suspicious characters.[