Civic and moral education Theory of ethics

1. Chapter Two
Approaches to Ethics

2. Approaches to Ethics
Normative
Ethics
Non-normative
Ethics Virtue Ethics

3. 2.1. Normative Ethics
 Normative originated from norm which means relating to an ideal standard of or
model, or being based on what is considered to be the normal or correct way of
doing something.
 Normative ethics attempts to give systematic answers to how we should generally
decide what to do.
 Normative ethics can be seen as answering the general question, what should we
do?
 Normative ethics poses questions of the following kind:
 Are there general principles or rules that we could follow which distinguish
between right and wrong? Or:
 Are there virtues and/or relationships that we can nurture, in order to behave
well?

4. 2.1.1. Teleological (Consequentialist) Ethics
 The Greece term Teleo means end, result, purpose, consequence.
 Teleological (consequentialist) ethics is referred as “the end justifies the
means”.
 It believes in purpose, ends or goals of an action, it stress that the
consequences of an action determines the morality or immorality of a given
action.
 An action is judged as right or wrong, moral or immoral depending on what
happens because of it.
 An act is right if and only if it produce a greater balance of good over evil.
 Whereas an act is wrong if and only if it produces a greater balance of evil
over good.

5. Cont’d…
 One may have the best intention but if the result, moral act is
harmful, or bad it must be judged as morally or ethically
wrong act.
 The final appeal (directly or indirectly) must be to the
comparative amount of good produced, or the comparative
balance of good over evil produced.
 There are three main branches of teleological ethical theory;
egoism, utilitarianism, and altruism

6. 2.1.1.1. Egoism: Ethical and Psychological Egoism
A. Ethical Egoism
 Ethical egoism, considers an action to be good if it brings about the
best possible outcome for me as an individual (or in your case, for
you as an individual).
 Ethical egoism holds that I should always do what will promote my
own greatest good:
 An act or rule of action is right if and only if it promotes the greatest
balance of good over evil for me compared with any alternative.
 Greatest good for all will be served only if we all pursue our own
self- interest.

7. Some Important things to notice about ethical egoism:
 In ethical egoism, from the moral point of view, only one’s own
welfare counts, and others’ does not, when one is making a moral
decision about how to act.
 Ethical egoism does not forbid one to help others, or require one to
harm others. But helping them or not harming them helps you.
 Ethical egoism does not say that one ought always to do what is most
pleasurable, or enjoyable. One’s own self–interest may occasionally
require pain or sacrifice.
Cont’d…

8. B. Psychological Egoism
 One argument for ethical egoism follows immediately from a
psychological one, an argument from human nature.
 one always seeks one's own advantage or welfare, or always
does what he thinks will give him the greatest balance of good
over evil.
 We all always seek to maximize our own self-interest
 "self-love" is the only basic "principle" in human nature.
 Even we do things for others, but we get satisfaction out of
doing them, and this satisfaction is our end in doing them.

9. 2.1.1.2. Utilitarianism (Social hedonism)
 The term utilitarianism stems from the idea of utility, meaning social utility or
welfare or good of society.
 The core standard of utilitarianism is the principle of “greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people”.
 An action is best if it procures the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers.
 Historically, social hedonism or social utilitarianism is identified with the English
philosophers Jermy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
 These two thinkers, however, represent two different forms of utilitarianism,
though the difference reduces more to a matter of emphasis. One emphasis on
quantity of happiness whiles the other on quality of happiness.

10. A. Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism: Quantity over Quality
 According to Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) utility is the sole principle (i.e. we
ought to live and judge others) that invokes us to maximize happiness and
minimize pain for everyone in society.
 There are two main features of utilitarianism, both of which Bentham articulated:
 The consequentialist principle (or its teleological aspect): states that the
rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by the goodness or badness of
the results that flow from it. It is the end, not the means that counts; the end
justifies the means.
 The utility principle (or its hedonic aspect): states that the only thing that is
good in itself is some specific type of state (for example, pleasure, happiness,
welfare).

11. B. John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism: Quality over Quantity
• John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) is also a greatly known advocate of
utilitarianism.
• For Bentham all pleasures are equal.
• Mill, unlike Bentham, differentiated between higher pleasures and
lower pleasures that human enjoyed and he introduced quality and
quantity in to the evaluation of pleasures.
• The pleasure of a fool and a wise person are not the same even if their
quantitative amount is similar.

12. • Based on this he made two types of pleasures.
 The lower pleasure: are elementary, include eating, drinking, sexuality,
resting, and sensuous titillation.
 The higher pleasure: include scientific knowledge, intellectuality, and
creativity.
• He expresses this classification by the following paragraph:
“It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied: or it is better to be
Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. The pig and the fool know their own side
but the other knows both sides”.
• However, both Bentham and Mill agree that, an action is right if and only if it
produce pleasure or happiness or satisfactions of needs.
Cont’d…

13. 2.1.1.3.Altruism
• An action is right if the consequence of that action is favorable to all except
the actor.
• Some scholars argued that we have an inherent psychological capacity to
show benevolence to others.
• This view is called psychological altruism and maintains that at least some
of our actions are motivated by instinctive benevolence.
• Altruists are people who act so as to increase other people’s pleasure. They
will act for the sake of someone else even if it decreases their own pleasure
and causes themselves pain.
• Altruists argue that humans are instinctively benevolent. And instinctive
benevolence, they argue, is the feature of our human nature which is the
basis of our altruistic moral obligations.

14. 2.1.2. Deontological Ethics (Non- Consequentialist)
• Deontological theory assesses the moral worth of a particular
action, by looking to the action itself, and whether it confirms to
certain principles, rules and commands..
• Focused on making sure that our actions are in accord with certain
principles, rules or commands –irrespective of the possible benefits
or harms they might bring as a consequence.
• Has the following approaches:

15. A. The Divine Command Theory
• Ethical principles are simply the commands of God.
• They derive their validity from God’s commanding them, and
they mean “commanded by God.” Without God, there would be
no universally valid morality. This theory argue that:
1. Morality (that is, rightness and wrongness) originates with God.
2. Moral rightness simply means “willed by God,” and moral
wrongness means “being against the will of God.”
3. Because morality essentially is based on divine will, not on
independently existing reasons for action, no further reasons for
action are necessary.

16. We can express divine command theory by the following list of
four propositions:
1. Act A is wrong if and only if it is contrary to the command
of God.
2. Act A is right (required) if and only if it is commanded by
God.
3. Act A is morally permissible if and only if it is permitted by
the command of God.
4. If there is no God, then nothing is ethically wrong, required,
or permitted.
Cont’d…

17. B. Rights Theory
• A second duty-based approach to ethics is rights theory.
• The laws of nature mandate that we should not harm anyone's life, health, liberty
or possessions.
• For John Locke, these are our natural rights, given to us by God.
• There are four features traditionally associated with moral rights/rights theory.
 First, rights are natural insofar as they are not invented or created by
governments.
 Second, they are universal insofar as they do not change from country to
country.
 Third, they are equal in the sense that rights are the same for all people,
irrespective of gender, race, or handicap.
 Fourth, they are inalienable which means that I cannot hand over my rights to
another person, such as by selling myself into slavery.

18. C. Kant’s Categorical Imperative
 The German philosopher, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was adamantly opposed to
the idea that the outcome of an action could determine its moral worth.
 It is not consequences which determine the rightness or wrongness of an act, but,
rather, the intention of the person who carries out the act.
 The emphasis is on the correctness of the action, regardless of the possible benefits
or harm it might produce.
 The Categorical Imperative: A Kant’s duty-based theory is emphasizes a single
principle of duty.
 Kant agreed that we have moral duties to oneself and others, such as developing
one’s talents, and keeping our promises to others.

19.  A categorical imperative, he argued, is fundamentally different from
hypothetical imperatives that hinge on some personal desire that we
have. For example, “If you want to get a good job, then you ought to
go to college.”
 By contrast, a categorical imperative simply mandates an action,
irrespective of one’s personal desires, such as “You ought to do X.”
 To understand Kant’s thought, note the emphasis he places on the
idea of good intension. Kant believed that nothing was good in itself
except a “good will.”
Cont’d…

20.  Kant’s categorical imperative states that we should act in such a way that the
maxim or general rule governing our action could be a universal law.
Examples: ☼ Always help those in need, just because it is your duty.
☼ Always respect your mother and father, just because it is your duty.
 Whereas hypothetical imperatives involves, when our action is depends on
certain ends or goals in mind i.e. if you want Y then you ought to do X.
Examples:
 Always help those in need because then you will get to heaven.
 Always respect your mother and father because otherwise they will spend all
your inheritance money.
Cont’d…

21. D. Ross’s Prima Facie Duties or Moral Guidelines
 A fourth and more recent duty-based theory is that by British philosopher
Sir William David Ross (15 April 1877 – 5 May 1971), which emphasizes
prima facie duties.
 Ross’s interest in prima facie is to solve one of the problems that Kant left
unsolved.
 We have various duties that oftentimes come into conflict with each other
for instance; choosing either to speak a truth (it is always wrong to lie) or
to keep one’s promise.
 But, Kant’s deontology has no help when a person is in dilemma of
choosing.

22.  For Ross, as in the case of Kant, moral rules without exception should be
obeyed, but when they are in conflict, we should decide that the moral
rules(moral duties of first blush) has to be obeyed.
 Ross argues that our duties are “part of the fundamental nature of the
universe.”
 According to Ross, there are moral rules that we should perform in every
situation.
 These duties are called Prima facie duties.
Cont’d…

23.  Ross lists the following categories of prima facie duties is much shorter. These duties are
called Prima facie duties:
 Duties of Fidelity: the duty to keep promises and the obligation not to lie. Duties of
fidelity are duties to keep one’s promises and contracts and not to engage in deception.
 Duties of Reparation: This is a duty to make up for the injuries one has done to others. It
is the duty to compensate others when we harm them.
 Duties of Gratitude: the duty to thank those who help us.
 Duties of Justice: requires that one act in such a way that one distributes benefits and
burdens fairly.
 Duties of Beneficence: the duty to improve the conditions of others. The duty to do good
to others: to foster their health, security, wisdom, moral goodness, or happiness
 Duties of Self-improvement: is to act so as to promote one’s own good, i.e., one’s own
health, security, wisdom…
 Duties of Non-maleficence: is the duty not to harm others physically or psychologically:
to avoid harming their health, security, intelligence, character, or happiness
Cont’d…

24. 2.2. Non-Normative Ethics/Meta-ethics
What is meta-ethics/non normative ethics?
• In meta-ethics, we are concerned not with questions which are the
province of normative ethics like:
 'Should I give to famine relief?' or
 'Should I return the wallet I found in the street?'
• Rather meta-ethics concerned with questions like these:
• Meta-ethics tries to answer question, such as:
 What does “good,” “right,” or “justice” mean?
 What makes something good or right?
 Is moral realism exists/true?
 Is morality irreducible, cognitive, or overriding?
 Do intrinsic values exist?

25. Generally, Meta-ethics:
A. Examines the meaning of moral terms and concepts and the
relationships between these concepts.
B. Explores where moral values, such as ‘personhood’ and ‘autonomy’,
come from.
C. Considers the difference between moral values and other kinds of
values.
D. Examines the way in which moral claims are justified.
Cont’d…

26. Cont’d…
Meta-ethics also poses questions of the following kind:
 What do we mean by the claim, ‘life is sacred’?
 Are moral claims a matter of personal view, religious belief or
social standard, or, are they objective in some sense?
 If they are objective, what make them so?
 Is there a link between human psychology and the moral claims
that humans make?

27. 2.3. Virtue Ethics
• Unlike teleology and deontology, virtue ethics focuses on certain moral
character.
• Emphasize on charity and benevolence moral characters.
• Charity, courage, benevolence, patience, good temper, modesty etc.. are being
virtues.
 Key questions which virtue ethical systems ask include:
 What sort of person do I want to be?
 What virtues are characteristic of the person I want to be?
 What actions will cultivate the virtues I want to possess?
 What actions will be characteristic of the sort of person I want to be?

28. Cont’d…
A. Aristotelian Ethics
• The ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, (384-322
B.C.) first wrote a detailed discussion of virtue
morality.
• Virtue he understood as strength.
• specific virtues are seen as strengths of character.
• Virtue (arête) or excellence is defined as a mean
between two extremes of excess and defect.
• The mean is relative to the individual and
circumstances.
• For example, consider the traits in the following
table: