Pathology (CHP No 2)

1. UNIT 1
GENERAL PATHOLOGY
Contact for joining academy 03060583950
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Sir Saeed Ahmad
INNOVATIVE ACADEMY

2. Inflammation and Repair
 OBJECTIVES
 Acute Inflammation
 Chronic inflammation
 Tissue repair

3. Inflammation
 Inflammation is a complex biological response of the body's immune
system to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, injury, or toxins.
 It is a protective mechanism that aims to eliminate the harmful
stimulus, repair damaged tissue, and restore normal tissue function.
 Types of Inflammation
 1. Acute inflammation: A short-term, immediate response to injury or
infection, characterized by increased blood flow, swelling, and pain.
 2. Chronic inflammation: A long-term, persistent response to injury or
infection, characterized by ongoing tissue damage and repair.
 3. Subacute inflammation: A transitional phase between acute and
chronic inflammation.

5. Causes of Inflammation
 1. Infection: Bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic
infections can trigger inflammation.
 2. Injury: Physical trauma, such as cuts, burns, or
fractures, can trigger inflammation.
 3. Toxins: Exposure to toxins, such as chemicals or
radiation, can trigger inflammation.
 4. Autoimmune disorders: Conditions such as
rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, or multiple sclerosis can
trigger inflammation.

6. Signs and Symptoms of Inflammation
 1. Redness: Increased blood flow to the affected
area.
 2. Swelling: Accumulation of fluid and white blood
cells in the affected area.
 3. Pain: Sensation of pain or discomfort in the
affected area.
 4. Heat: Increased temperature in the affected area.
 5. Loss of function: Impaired function of the affected
area.

9. Phases of Inflammation
 1. Initiation: The initial response to injury or
infection, characterized by the release of chemical
mediators.
 2. Amplification: The amplification of the
inflammatory response, characterized by the
recruitment of white blood cells.
 3. Resolution: The resolution of the inflammatory
response, characterized by the removal of white
blood cells and the repair of damaged tissue.

10. Consequences of Inflammation
 1. Tissue damage: Inflammation can lead to tissue
damage and scarring.
 2. Chronic disease: Chronic inflammation can
contribute to the development of chronic diseases,
such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, and cancer.
 3. Immune system dysregulation: Inflammation can
lead to immune system dysregulation, making the
body more susceptible to infection.

11. Treatment of Inflammation
 1. Anti-inflammatory medications: Medications such
as NSAIDs, corticosteroids, and biologics can help to
reduce inflammation.
 2. Lifestyle modifications: Lifestyle modifications
such as exercise, diet, and stress management can
help to reduce inflammation.
 3. Alternative therapies: Alternative therapies such
as acupuncture, massage, and herbal supplements
may also help to reduce inflammation.

12. Acute inflammation
 Acute inflammation is a short-term, immediate response
to injury or infection, characterized by increased blood
flow, swelling, and pain.
 Causes of Acute Inflammation
 1. Infection: Bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic infections
can trigger acute inflammation.
 2. Injury: Physical trauma, such as cuts, burns, or
fractures, can trigger acute inflammation.
 3. Toxins: Exposure to toxins, such as chemicals or
radiation, can trigger acute inflammation.

13. Acute inflammation

14. Stages
 1. Vascular phase
 Blood vessels near the injury dilate, increasing
blood flow and permeability. This leads to fluid
leakage and swelling.
 2. Cellular phase
 Neutrophils are attracted to the injury site by
chemotaxins. Macrophages later take over.

15. Signs and Symptoms of Acute Inflammation
 1. Redness: Increased blood flow to the affected
area.
 2. Swelling: Accumulation of fluid and white blood
cells in the affected area.
 3. Pain: Sensation of pain or discomfort in the
affected area.
 4. Heat: Increased temperature in the affected
area.
 5. Loss of function: Impaired function of the affected
area.

16. Phases of Acute Inflammation
 1. Vasodilation: Increased blood flow to the
affected area.
 2. Increased permeability: Increased permeability
of blood vessels, allowing white blood cells and
fluid to leak into the affected area.
 3. Leukocyte migration: Migration of white blood
cells into the affected area.
 4. Phagocytosis: Engulfment and removal of
pathogens and debris by white blood cells.

17. Chemical Mediators of Acute Inflammation
 1. Histamine: Released from mast cells, causing
vasodilation and increased permeability.
 2. Bradykinin: Released from damaged tissue,
causing vasodilation and increased permeability.
 3. Prostaglandins: Released from damaged tissue,
causing vasodilation and increased permeability.
 4. Leukotrienes: Released from white blood cells,
causing increased permeability and leukocyte
migration.

18. Consequences of Acute Inflammation
 1. Tissue damage: Acute inflammation can lead to
tissue damage and scarring.
 2. Infection: Acute inflammation can lead to
infection if the underlying cause is not addressed.
 3. Chronic inflammation: Acute inflammation can
progress to chronic inflammation if the underlying
cause is not addressed.

19. Treatment of Acute Inflammation
 1. Anti-inflammatory medications: Medications such
as NSAIDs and corticosteroids can help to reduce
inflammation.
 2. Antibiotics: Antibiotics can help to treat
underlying infections.
 3. Supportive care: Supportive care, such as rest,
ice, compression, and elevation (RICE), can help to
reduce inflammation and promote healing.

21. Chronic inflammation
 Chronic inflammation is a long-term, persistent
inflammatory response that can last for weeks,
months, or even years. It is a complex process that
involves the activation of immune cells, the release
of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and the formation of
new blood vessels.

22. Causes of Chronic Inflammation
 1. Persistent infections: Chronic infections, such as
tuberculosis or HIV, can lead to chronic inflammation.
 2. Autoimmune disorders: Autoimmune disorders, such as
rheumatoid arthritis or lupus, can lead to chronic
inflammation.
 3. Chronic diseases: Chronic diseases, such as diabetes or
cardiovascular disease, can lead to chronic inflammation.
 4. Environmental toxins: Exposure to environmental toxins,
such as air pollution or pesticides, can lead to chronic
inflammation.

24. General Symptoms
 Fatigue and Lack of Energy: Persistent tiredness, even after
adequate rest, is a common sign.
 Body Pain: Widespread aches and pains, including joint pain, muscle
pain, and headaches, can occur.
 Mood Changes: Depression, anxiety, and other mood disorders are
frequently associated with chronic inflammation.
 Gastrointestinal Issues: Constipation, diarrhea, acid reflux, and
other digestive problems can be indicators.
 Weight Gain or Loss: Unexplained changes in weight, either gaining
or losing, can be a symptom.
 Frequent Infections: A weakened immune system due to chronic
inflammation can lead to more frequent colds, flu, and other
infections.

25. General Symptoms
 Skin Rashes: Skin conditions like eczema and psoriasis
can be signs of underlying inflammation.
 Brain Fog: Difficulty concentrating, memory problems,
and a general feeling of mental sluggishness can occur.
 Fever: Persistent, low-grade fever can be a sign of
chronic inflammation.
 Joint Stiffness: Stiffness, especially in the morning, can
be a sign of inflammation in the joints.
 Insomnia or Sleep Disturbances: Difficulty falling asleep
or staying asleep can be linked to chronic inflammation.

28. Characteristics of Chronic Inflammation
 1. Persistent inflammatory response: Chronic inflammation
is characterized by a persistent inflammatory response
that lasts for weeks, months, or years.
 2. Tissue damage and scarring: Chronic inflammation can
lead to tissue damage and scarring.
 3. Formation of new blood vessels: Chronic inflammation
can lead to the formation of new blood vessels, which can
contribute to tissue damage.
 4. Activation of immune cells: Chronic inflammation is
characterized by the activation of immune cells, such as
macrophages and T cells.

29. Consequences of Chronic Inflammation
 1. Tissue damage: Chronic inflammation can lead to
tissue damage and scarring.
 2. Organ dysfunction: Chronic inflammation can
lead to organ dysfunction and failure.
 3. Cancer: Chronic inflammation can increase the
risk of cancer.
 4. Neurological disorders: Chronic inflammation can
contribute to neurological disorders, such as
Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease.

30. Treatment of Chronic Inflammation
 1. Anti-inflammatory medications: Medications such as NSAIDs,
corticosteroids, and biologics can help to reduce inflammation.
 2. Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs): DMARDs,
such as methotrexate or sulfasalazine, can help to reduce
inflammation and slow disease progression.
 3. Lifestyle modifications: Lifestyle modifications, such as
exercise, diet, and stress management, can help to reduce
inflammation.
 4. Alternative therapies: Alternative therapies, such as
acupuncture or herbal supplements, may also help to reduce
inflammation.

31. Management

34. Tissue repair

35. Tissue repair
 Tissue repair is the process by which the body restores damaged
or injured tissues to their normal structure and function.
 Phases of Tissue Repair
 1. Inflammation: The initial response to injury, characterized by
increased blood flow, swelling, and the recruitment of immune
cells.
 2. Debridement: The removal of dead tissue, bacteria, and other
debris from the wound site.
 3. Proliferation: The phase of tissue repair where new tissue is
formed, including the growth of new blood vessels, collagen
deposition, and epithelialization.
 4. Remodeling: The final phase of tissue repair, where the newly
formed tissue is reorganized and strengthened.

37. Types of Tissue Repair
 1. Regeneration: The complete restoration of
damaged tissue to its original structure and function.
 2. Scar formation: The formation of a scar tissue
that replaces damaged tissue.
 3. Fibrosis: The formation of fibrotic tissue that can
lead to organ dysfunction.

39. Cellular Components of Tissue Repair
 1. Stem cells: Cells that have the ability to
differentiate into different cell types.
 2. Macrophages: Cells that play a crucial role in the
inflammatory response and tissue repair.
 3. Fibroblasts: Cells that produce collagen and
other extracellular matrix components.
 4. Endothelial cells: Cells that form the lining of
blood vessels and play a crucial role in
angiogenesis.

40. Growth Factors and Cytokines in Tissue Repair
 1. Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF): A growth
factor that promotes cell proliferation and
migration.
 2. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF): A
growth factor that promotes angiogenesis.
 3. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF- ): A
β
cytokine that promotes tissue repair and fibrosis.
 4. Interleukin-1 (IL-1): A cytokine that promotes
inflammation and tissue repair.

41. Clinical Applications of Tissue Repair
 1. Wound healing: Tissue repair is essential for wound
healing, and understanding the process can lead to the
development of new treatments.
 2. Tissue engineering: Tissue repair principles can be
applied to tissue engineering, where biomaterials and
cells are used to create new tissues.
 3. Regenerative medicine: Tissue repair principles can
be applied to regenerative medicine, where stem cells
and other cells are used to repair or replace damaged
tissues.

42. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
 Types of inflammation
 Phases of inflammation
 Sign and symptoms of acute inflammation
 Chronic inflammation
 Difference between chronic and acute inflammation
 Phases of tissue repair

43. THANK YOU