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case study in Spreadsheet Decision Modeling
management case study and need an explanation and answer to help me learn.
Everything Describes in the files.
The Assignment must be submitted on Blackboard (WORD format only) via allocated
folder.• Assignments submitted through email will not be accepted.
• Students are advised to make their work clear and well presented, marks may be reduced
for poor presentation. This includes filling your information on the cover page.
• Students must mention question number clearly in their answer.
• Late submission will NOT be accepted.
• Avoid plagiarism, the work should be in your own words, copying from students or other
resources without proper referencing will result in ZERO marks. No exceptions.
• All answered must be typed using Times New Roman (size 12, double-spaced) font. No
pictures containing text will be accepted and will be considered plagiarism).
• Submissions without this cover page will NOT be accepted.
Requirements: 2500-3000
College of Administrative and Financial Sciences
Assignment-2
MGT425-Spreadsheet Decision Modeling
Due Date: 18/02/2023 @ 23:59 (End of Week 11)
For Instructor’s Use only
Instructions – PLEASE READ THEM CAREFULLY
The Assignment must be submitted on Blackboard (WORD format only) via allocated folder.
Assignments submitted through email will not be accepted.
Students are advised to make their work clear and well presented; marks may be reduced
for poor presentation. This includes filling your information on the cover page.
Students must mention question number clearly in their answer.
Late submission will NOT be accepted.
Avoid plagiarism, the work should be in your own words, copying from students or other
resources without proper referencing will result in ZERO marks. No exceptions.
All answered must be typed using Times New Roman (size 12, double-spaced) font. No
pictures containing text will be accepted and will be considered plagiarism).
Submissions without this cover page will NOT be accepted.
Course Learning Outcomes-Covered
Assignment Instructions:
Log in to Saudi Digital Library (SDL) via University’s website
On first page of SDL, choose “English Databases”
From the list find and click on EBSCO database.
In the Search Bar of EBSCO find the following article:
Title: “Modeling Autonomous Decision-Making on Energy and Environmental Management
Using Petri-Net: Case Study”.
Author: Niken Prilandita, Benjamin McLellan, Tetsuo Tezuka.
Assignment Questions: (Marks 15)
Read the above case study and answer the following Questions:
Question 1: Explain the autonomous decision-making process, its advantages and
disadvantages (250-300 words) (3-Marks).
Question 2: Discuss the Centralized and De-centralized Decision-making Approaches with
suitable examples (250-300 words). (3-Marks).
Question 3: Explain the various stages of Decision-Making Cycle based on this case study
(250-300 words) (3-Marks).
Question 4: Why are the most decisions made on energy and environmental management
known as the decisions of community interest. (250-300 words) (3-Marks).
Question 5: What is your learning from this case study and how it is beneficial for you?
(250-300 words) (3-Marks).
Answers:
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3
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ArticleModelingAutonomousDecision-
MakingonEnergyandEnvironmentalManagementUsingPetri-
Net:TheCaseStudyofaCommunityinBandung,IndonesiaNikenPrilandita*,BenjaminMcLellana
ndTetsuoTezukaGraduateSchoolofEnergyScience,KyotoUniversity,Yoshida-
Honmachi,Sakyo-ku,Kyoto606-8501,Japan;b-mclellan@energy.kyoto-
u.ac.jp(B.M.);tezuka@energy.kyoto-
u.ac.jp(T.T.)*Correspondence:nikenpri@sappk.itb.ac.id;Tel.:+81-75-753-4739;Fax:+81-75-
753-
9189AcademicEditor:PalmiroPoltronieriReceived:28December2015;Accepted:5April2016;
Published:14April2016Abstract:Autonomousdecision-
makinginthisstudyisdefinedastheprocesswheredecision-
makershavethefreedomandabilitytofindproblems,selectgoals,andmakedecisionsforachievin
gtheselectedproblems/goalsbythemselves.Autonomousbehaviorisconsideredsignificantfora
chievingdecisionimplementation,especiallyinthecontextofenergyandenvironmentalmanage
ment,wheremultiplestakeholdersareinvolvedandeachstakeholderholdsvaluablelocalinform
ationformakingdecisions.Thispaperaimstobuildastructuredprocessinmodelingtheautonomo
usdecision-making.Apracticaldecision-makingprocessinwaste-to-
energyconversionactivitiesinacommunityinBandung,Indonesia,isselectedasacasestudy.Thed
ecision-
makingprocesshereisconsideredasadiscreteeventsystem,whichisthenrepresentedasaPetri-
netmodel.First,thedecision-
makingprocessinthecasestudyisdecomposedintodiscreteeventsordecision-
makingstages,andthestakeholders’propertiesineachstageareextractedfromthecasestudy.Sec
ond,severalstakeholderpropertiesthatindicateautonomousbehaviorareidentifiedasautonom
ousproperties.Third,presentedisamethodtodevelopthedecision-makingprocessasaPetri-
netmodel.Themodelisutilizedforidentifyingthecriticalpointsforverifyingtheperformanceofth
ederivedPetri-net.Keywords:autonomy;decision-making;Petri-
net;energy;environmental;community;Indonesia1.IntroductionTherecentglobalagendaandt
echnologicalchallengesforcreatingamoresustainableenvironmenthaveencouragedcountries
aroundtheworldtograduallyshifttowardssustainableenergytransitions.Uponthenewglobalag
reementofSustainableDevelopmentGoals,everycountryisnowhighlyanticipatedtodirecttheir
effortstowardsrealizingamoresustainableenergysystemandenvironment[1].Fromthetechnol
ogyside,theemergenceofnewtechnologies,suchassmartgridsandsource-
centeredrenewableenergies,haveexpandedthepotentialandrequirementsofenergygeneratio
nandmanagementinwaysthathavenotbeenavailablepreviously.Thesefactssuggestthattheene
rgysystemislikelytobecomemoredistributedandlocalized,thusthedecision-makingandpolicy-
makingprocessintheenergysectorshouldbeadjustedtofollowthisfuturetendency[2].Mostdeci
sionsmadeonenergyandenvironmentalmanagementaffectalargenumberofpeopleand,thus,ar
eofpublicinterest.Decision-
makinginthissectorusuallybecomescomplicatedsincevariousinterestsneedtobeaccommodat
edintheprocess.Moreover,onceaconsensushasbeensuccessfullyreached,itdoesnotguarantees
uccessfulimplementation.Variousdecision-
makingapproachesforreachinganeasyconsensus,aswellasforachievingsuccessfulimplementa
tion,havebeenproposed.Twocommonapproachesindecision-
makingarewiththecentralizedandtheChallenges2016,7,9;doi:10.3390/challe7010009www.
mdpi.com/journal/challenges
Challenges2016,7,92of26decentralizedapproaches[3,4].Thequestofbalancingbetweenthece
ntralizedandthedecentralizedsystemsfordecision-
makingisoftenanissueinorganizationalmanagement.Easyaccesstoinformationwiththeadvanc
ementofinformationtechnology,theinternet,andothermeanstoday,havemadethedecision-
makingstyleinorganizationsleantowardsamoredecentralizedstyle[5,6].However,thisapproac
hmaynotbeentirelyapplicableforcasesinenergyandenvironmentalmanagementthatoccurinth
epublicdomain.Thisstudyputsmorefocusonautonomyindecision-
makingprocessesregardlessofwhethertheyareconductedunderacentralizedoradecentralized
system.Twowaysofunderstandingtheconceptofautonomyareconsideredhere.Firstly,autono
myinthepoliticalorpublicadministrationfield,whichisoftenseenasoneofthetraitsofamoredece
ntralizedsystem[4].Secondly,asunderstoodinthecurrentstudy,autonomycanbeconsideredasa
propertyofpersonsregardlessofthesystemiccontext[7–
9].Therefore,wearguethatautonomycanexistinbothcentralizedanddecentralizedapproaches
becauseautonomyisthepropertyofeachdecision-
maker.Thehypothesisofthisstudyisthatdecisionsmadeautonomouslyaremorelikelytoachieve
successfuloutcomes.Autonomyinmakingdecisionsisbelievedtoberelatedtoanincreaseinqualit
yoflife.Researchfromneurosciencehasfoundthatactivelymakingdecisionscanboostpleasurea
ndincreasethedecision-
makers’happiness,satisfaction,andperceivedcontrol[10].Furthermore,highlevelsofhappiness
andsatisfactionarecausalinfluencesonsuccessandachievement,nottheotherwayaround[11].Si
mplystated,ifadecision-
makerhasmadeanautonomousdecision,withoutbeingcoercedorforced,itisconsideredmorelik
elythatthedecision-
makerwillachievethedecisiongoalandbenefitfromthat.Normatively,stakeholders’autonomyi
nmakingdecisionsisimportant,thoughitsimportantroleindecision-
makingmaynotbeenobjectivelyexamined[7].Thefactthatwehavenotfoundstudiesthatobjectiv
elyexaminedtheroleofautonomyindecision-makinginenergy-
environmentalmanagementshowedthatthisthemehastodatebeeninsufficientlyexamined.We
arguethattherecentglobalagendaandtechnologicaladvancesintheenergy-
environmentalsector(e.g.,smart-
gridtechnologies,decentralizedenergy,andmarketliberalization)expectdecision-
makerstobecomemoreautonomous.Thissituationhascreatedthenecessitytodevelopaframew
orkthatcanrepresentandidentifytheroleofstakeholders’autonomyinthedecision-
makingprocess.Suchaframeworkwouldconsistofseveralelementsemployedforspecifictasks,a
ndisthepurposeofthecurrentresearch.Thispaperdiscussesoneoftheimportantelementsofthef
ramework,amodelthataimstorepresent,analyze,andsimulatetheautonomousdecision-
makingprocess.Theautonomousdecision-
makingmodelinthispaperisdevelopedasadiscreteeventsystem,andthispaperpresentsthemet
hodtobuildsuchamodel.Thedecision-
makingprocessisdecomposedintodiscreteeventsthatwecalldecision-
makingstages.Afterwards,thepropertiesofstakeholdersinvolvedineachstageareidentified;thu
s,theconceptofadiscreteeventsystemforautonomousdecision-makingisestablished.Petri-
netisutilizedtorepresentthediscreteeventsystemoftheautonomousdecision-
makingprocess.Eachdecision-
makingstage,thestakeholders’properties,andthestateafterdecisionsaremade;correspondingt
oasmallPetri-netmodelconsistingofafewtransitionsandplaces.Theautonomousdecision-
makingmodelisconstructedbycombiningallofthesesmallPetri-
netmodelsofeachevent/stage.Asanaddition,weconductedanalysisofthePetri-
netmodel’sbehaviorforidentifyingthestageswhichareindispensableforanautonomousdecisio
n-makingsystem.Thesestagesarecalledthecriticalpointsintheautonomousdecision-
makingprocess.2.TheDefinitionofAutonomousDecision-
MakingThissectionexplainsthedefinitionofautonomousdecision-
making.Theterm,autonomousdecision-
makingisdefinedbydissectingitintotherootwordscomprisingit,whichare“autonomy”and“deci
sion-
making”.Thedevelopmentoftheconceptofautonomyasapoliticalandpersonalpropertyishistori
callyexplained,followedbyabriefexplanationonvariousscopesofthe
Challenges2016,7,93of26decision-makingprocess,andvarioustypesofenergydecision-
making.Basedonthisinformation,weconstructthedefinitionofautonomousdecision-
makingusedinthisstudy.2.1.TheConceptofAutonomyThedefinitionofautonomyhasbeenthrou
ghseveralchangesthroughoutthecourseofhistory.Asmentionedabove,thereareatleasttwodiffe
rentconceptsofautonomyexplainedinthispaper.AutonomyoriginatedfromtheGreekwords“au
to”whichmeansself,and“nomos”whichmeanslaw.Thisconceptwasfirstlycoinedreferringtothe
citystatesinancientGreecethatwereself-
governing.Originally,autonomywasdefinedinapoliticalmanner,whichwastherightofthestates
(orcity-
states,inthatinstance)toadministertheirownaffairs[9].Inthecontextofpublicadministrationm
anagement,territorialorlocalautonomyistheresultofadecentralizationprocess[12].IntheIndo
nesiancontextforexample,theLawofDecentralizationnumber22/1999,wasthebeginningofthe
country’sjourneytowardsamoredecentralizedpoliticalstructure.Thislawhassincebecomethel
egalbasisforprovidingmoreautonomytolocalgovernmentsinmakingdecisionsregardingtheiro
wnterritoryandenvironment.Thespiritofthelawhashadasideeffect,however,inthatitcausedth
eIndonesianpeopletogaingreaterawarenessofautonomy,knowingthattheyhadmorefreedomi
nchoosingamongoptions.Thishaspromoteddecision-
makingprocessestobeperformedmoreautonomouslyinvariouslevelsofsociety’shierarchicalst
ructure,includingatthelowerauthoritylevels,suchasvillagesandsub-
districts[13].Lookingatthisfact,thetermautonomyinIndonesiahasgraduallybecomeunderstoo
dnotonlyasthepropertyofastateorterritory,butalsoasapersonaltrait.Oneofthemostimportant
momentsinthehistoryoftheconceptofautonomywaswhenthedefinitionofautonomywastransf
ormedfromthepropertyofastateintheancientGreekera,intoapropertyofpersonsduringtheRen
aissanceera[7,8].Sincethen,theconceptofautonomyhasbeenunderstoodinbothways.However
,autonomyinthemajorityofcontemporaryworksisseenasapropertyofpersons,orpersonalauto
nomy[7].Althoughtheconceptofautonomymainlyrevolvesaroundthesetwodefinitions,thedim
ensionsofautonomyareunderstoodinmanydifferentways,dependingonwhichfieldofstudyisvi
ewingit.Mackenzie,forexample,definedthreedimensionsofautonomy,namelyself-
determination,self-governance,andself-authorization[14].Otherstudiesfocusontheself-
directednessandresolutenessdimensionsofautonomy[9].Meanwhile,thecomputerscienceand
informationtechnologyfieldsviewtheabilitytocontinuouslylearnorself-
learningtraitsintheemergenceofautonomousmachinesorartificialintelligenceasoneofthemos
timportantcharacteristicsofautonomy[15].2.2.Decision-
MakingProcessThedefinitionofdecision-makinghasbeenlongestablished,andsincedecision-
makingisunderstoodasaprocessofmakingdecisions,thenthedefinitionsmostlyevolvedonthesc
opeoftheprocess.Therearetwopredominatelydifferentviewsindecisiontheoryregardingtheex
tentofthedecision-makingscope.Firstly,decision-
makingisdefinedasaprocessstartedbyidentifyingproblemsorgoals,andendedafteradecisionh
asbeenmade.OneofthemainsupportersofthisconceptwasHerbertSimon(1960)[16].Later,Hub
er(1980)expandedtheconceptofdecision-
makingbydefiningitas“theprocessthroughwhichacourseofactionistaken”[17],andtheprocess
bywhichthedecisionisimplementedisconsideredaspartoftheproblem-
solvingprocess.Mostofthestudiesthatdefinedthedecision-
makingprocesscamefromthefieldoforganizationalmanagement.Meanwhilewhendecisionsne
edtobemadeinthepublicdomain,thedecision-
makingprocessisoftenregardedasthewholecyclefromproblemidentificationuptodecisionimpl
ementationandevaluation,andthenfeeding-
backtoproblemidentification.Thisisknownasagenericdecisioncycle[18],oraplanningprocess[
19].Anexampleofadecision-
makingcycleispresentedinFigure1.Inthisstudy,weinvestigatethedecision-
makingprocessextendedtotheimplementationstages.
Challenges2016,7,94of26Figure1.Exampleofadecision-makingcycle[18,19].2.3.Energy-
EnvironmentalDecision-
MakingatVariousStakeholderLevelsThefollowingsectionexplainsdecision-
makinginenergyandenvironmentbyvariousstakeholders,suchasnationalgovernment,localgo
vernment(provincial/city/regencygovernments,andformalagencies/bodieswithintheselocal
governments),community,householdandindividual(householdsandindividualsareconsidere
dasasingledecision-maker),andnon-
governmentalinstitutions(i.e.,internationalandlocalNGOs,businessorprivatesectorstakehold
ers,media,expertsandacademicians).Asmentionedearlier,decision-
makinginenergyandenvironmentalmanagementoftenbecomescomplexbecauseitoccursinthe
publicdomainand,therefore,variousstakeholdersareinvolvedinit.AccordingtoSexton,etal.[20]
,themainstakeholdersthatareusuallyinvolvedinenvironment-relateddecision-
makingarenationalgovernments,regionalorlocalgovernmentbodies,businessassociations,en
vironmentaladvocacygroups,communityorneighborhoodgroups,andaffectedorinterestedind
ividuals.Therelationshipsbetweenthesestakeholderscanbeclassifiedintotwotypesofrelations
hip,whicharevertical(hierarchical)andhorizontal(parallel)relationshipswitheachother[21,2
2].Decision-
makingforindividualstakeholdersandgroupsofstakeholdersisinfluencedbothbythestructureo
frelationshipsandthecharacteristicsoftheindividualstakeholders.Energyrelateddecision-
makingandpolicy-making(Weusethephrase“energy(andenvironmental)decision-
makingandpolicy-making”or“decision-
makinginenergysector”interchangeablyinthispaperbecausetheresearchobjectisrelatedwithb
othenergyandenvironmentalsector.)atthenationalleveltendstooccurinatop-
downmanner,followingthehierarchicalstructureofthecountry’sinstitutions.IntheUK,forexam
ple,energydecision-
makingfunctionshavehistoricallybeenperformedmainlybythecentralgovernmentandlargeco
rporationsintheprivatesector.ThissituationbegantochangeaftertheLocalismBillwasstipulate
din2010aimingtoshiftdecision-
makingpowerfromcentralgovernmentstoindividuals,communities,andlocalgovernment[23,2
4].Anotherexampleisfromadevelopingcountry,Indonesia,whereformorethantwodecadessinc
ethefirstnationalenergypolicywasintroducedin1981,thekeystrategicenergydecisionsandpoli
ciesaremadecentrallybythenationalgovernment[25].Theroleoflocalgovernmentintheenergy
sectorwasrecognizedafterthepromulgationoftheEnergyActin2007.Theactmandateseachlocal
governmenttoformulateitsownlocalenergymasterplan,basedonthetargetsoutlinedbythenati
onalenergymasterplan.Recentexperiencesfrombothcountrieshaveshownthatthelocalauthori
tiesaremandatedandexpectedtohavemorecapacityinenergydecision-
makingfunctions.Thelongperiodofcentralizedenergydecision-
makingexperienceinbothcountrieshascreatedagreatchallengeforthelocalauthoritiestopickup
thetask.Lackofcapacityofthelocalgovernmentwithregardstoenergyplanning,andlimitedguide
linesonhowtoformulatethemasterplanitself,aresomeofthechallengesfacedbythelocals.Despit
ethelimitedcapacityandexperience,localgovernmentsaroundtheworldhavedevelopedvarious
energy-environmentalmeasuresandlocalactionplans,asa
Challenges2016,7,95of26formofparticipationinglobalinitiativessuchastheInternationalCoun
cilforLocalEnvironmentalInitiatives(ICLEI)andtheClimateAlliance[26].Asidefromhavingama
ndatetoimplementenergy-
environmentalmeasuresatthelocallevel,localauthoritiesarealsoexpectedtoinvolveandnurtur
ethecommunityorgrassrootslevelsinlocalenergyinitiatives[27].Energydecision-
makingfunctionsatthecommunitylevelhavebeenempiricallyobservedinNorthAmerica[28–
30].Mostofthedecisionsandmeasurestakenareonclimatechangemitigationplanning,consider
edasthere-
emergenceoftheenergyplanningeffortswhichincreasedaftertheoilcrisisinthe1970s,butlaterd
eclinedinthe1980sduetolowerenergyprices[28].Althoughthenumberoflocalactionsforenergy
measuresinUSAwereincreasedafter2006,allofthedecision-
makingprocessesidentifiedwereinitiallydevelopedatthemunicipalitylevelfirst[28].Themunic
ipalitiestheninvolvedthecommunityintheirplanstoreducecommunity-
wideenergyuseandGHGemissions.Althoughsimilar,theCanadianexperiencewithitscommunit
yenergymanagementorcommunityenergyplanningprogramisslightlydifferentfromwhathapp
enedintheUSA.ObservationsoftheCommunityEnergyPlans(CEPs)thatemergedduring2003–
2007[29,30]haveshownthepotentialofcommunityrolesinformulatingactionplansspecificallyr
elatedtoenergyefficiency,energyconservation,andapplicationofrenewableenergies[30].How
ever,sinceCEPispartofabroadercommitmentofthemunicipalitiesonforminglocalactionplansf
orGHGreduction,thecontentoftheCEPisoftenwritteninaccordancetowhatthemunicipalityorm
unicipalcouncilneeds[29].ThesepracticesaresomewhatdifferentfromwhatwasconceivedbyJa
ccard,etal.[31]ascommunityenergymanagement.Thepracticesofenergyrelateddecision-
makingatthecommunitylevelisalsoevidentinEuropeancountries,suchasintheUKandGermany
[27,32,33].Oftenreferredtoasgrassrootsinitiatives[27,34]orcommunity(renewable)energy[3
3,35],itisdefinedasprojectswherecommunitiesexhibitahighdegreeofownershipandcontrol,an
dcollectivelybenefitfromtheoutcomes[35].Thetermcommunityinthisliteratureisrelativelybr
oad,referringtoagroupofpeoplewhosharethesamegeographicallocation(neighborhoodcomm
unities)orthesameinterest(non-
governmentalorganizations)[33].TherecentpracticesofcommunityenergyinEuropearegradu
allyshiftingaspartofsocio-
politicalmovementsfromthegrassrootslevel[27]and,thus,theyaremorelikelytobeconsidereda
sbottom-upinitiativeswhencomparedtotheCEPsinNorthAmerica.Energydecision-
makingattheindividuallevelistraditionallystudiedasapartofconsumerbehaviorstudieswhichv
iewtheindividualastheenergycustomerorend-
user[36,37].Individualsasconsumersmakeeverydaydecisionsrelatedtoenergy;therefore,they
arebecomingthetargetofvariousenergymeasures[37],suchasthebehaviorchangeprogramsine
nergyconsumptionandenergytechnologyadoption[38].Thehighpotentialofnewenergysystem
sandtechnologiessuchasrenewableenergysystemsandsmartgridshaveshiftedthefocusofindiv
idualenergydecision-
making.Inthelightofthesetechnologies,individuals’energydecisionsarenotonlyshapedbythee
nergysystemandpolicy,butcanalsoshapethesystem[39].Thesocialfoundationofsmartgridscon
sistsof“decentralizedsocio-
technicalnetworksthatunderpintheelectricityconsumptionofgroupsofconsumerswhoareincr
easinglybecomingautonomous”[40].However,foreffectivetechnologyadoption,itissuggestedt
onolongerviewtheindividualsolelyasaconsumerofenergy,butalsoasacitizen,partofacommuni
tyorsociety[37].Fromtheresearchrelatedwithenergydecision-
makingabove,itisfoundthatenergydecision-
makingfunctionsoccuratvariousstakeholderlevels,andthedecisionsmadebyonestakeholderm
ayaffectothersinthetotalenergysystem.Thechallengeofshiftingtowardsamorelocalizedanddis
tributedenergysystemcreatesaneedforeverystakeholdernotonlytoactivelyparticipateinener
gydecision-
making,butalsotobecomemoreautonomous.2.4.DefinitionofAutonomousDecision-
MakingInthisresearch,weputmorefocusonautonomyasthepropertyofpersons,notasapropert
yofthesystemorenvironment.Thisstudyconsidersthateachdecision-
makerisseenasanautonomous
Challenges2016,7,96of26system,orinotherwords,autonomyisapropertyofeachstakeholderw
hoparticipatesinthedecision-makingprocess.Thismeansthateverydecision-
makerorstakeholderhastheirowngoaltoachieveandhastheautonomytodecidebythemselves.T
hus,asmentionedearlier,thisstudyviewsthatautonomycanexistinbothcentralizedanddecentr
alizedapproaches.Inlightofthis,wedefinetheautonomousdecision-
makingastheprocesswheredecision-
makershavethefreedomandabilitytofindproblems,selectgoals,andmakedecisionsforachievin
gtheselectedproblems/goalsbythemselvesinaresponsiblemannerbasedonavailableinformati
on.Itfollowsthatpersonshavingtheabilitytoself-determine,self-govern,showself-
control,andself-
learningarepersonswhoexhibitautonomousbehavior.Thedefinitionforeachautonomousbeha
viorusedinthispaperispresentedinTableA1intheAppendix.3.MethodologyforModelinganAut
onomousDecision-MakingProcessTheaimofthisstudyistodeveloptheautonomousdecision-
makingmodelfortheenergyandenvironmentalmanagementprocessbyusingPetri-
net.Forthisaim,anenergy-
environmentalmanagementprojectinIndonesiancommunity(RukunWarga)isselectedasacase
study.Thestepsperformedformodelinginthispaperare:(1)caseselectionanddatacollection;(2)
decomposingthedecision-
makingprocessandextractionofthestakeholders’properties;(3)identificationofstakeholders’a
utonomousproperties;and(4)modelingthedecision-
makingprocessfromtheobservedcaseusingPetri-
netandanalysisofthemodel.3.1.CaseStudySelectionandDataCollectionThispaperundertookon
edecision-
makingprocessasacasestudytobemodeled,andthereisastrongindicationtoselectthisparticular
case.Theselectedcasestudywasincludedandinvestigatedalongwithotherfivecommunitydecisi
on-
makingprocessesinourpreviouswork[41].Thesecaseswere,inturn,selectedfromabroaderseto
faround20casestudies.Thefivecaseswereselectedduetotheirsuccessinprojectimplementation
andtheavailabilityofdetaileddocumentationandinformation.Amongthefivecases,thecommun
itypresentedinthisstudywasconsideredtohaveutilizedbothcentralized(top-
down)anddecentralized(bottom-up)decision-
makingapproaches.Sincewearguedthatautonomousdecision-
makingcanoccurunderbothapproaches,byselectingthiscasewecaninvestigateandmodelauton
omousdecision-
makingunderbothapproachesusingthesamecase.Inadditiontothat,byusingthesamecasestudy
whichexhibitstwodifferentdecision-
makingapproachesoveraperiodoftime,thebehaviorchangeandimprovedcapabilityofthecom
munityinmakingdecisionwereobserved.Themodeldevelopedhereisbasedonacasestudyofapr
acticaldecision-
makingprocessforawastemanagementsystemprojectinacommunityinBandungCity,Indonesi
a.Thewastemanagementtechniqueutilizedinthecommunityprojectisabio-
digesterinstallationtotransformhouseholdwastetoenergy(biogas).Thiscasewasselectedbeca
useaconsiderablenumberofstakeholderswereinvolvedintheactivitieswithrelativelyeveninpu
tstotheproject.Variousstakeholders’involvementinaprojectisarareoccasion,especiallywhenal
mostallstakeholderscancontributerelativelyevenlyintheproject.Thissituationoccurredbecau
setheprojectdevelopedintwophases.Thefirstphasestartedasoneprojectandthenchangedtoan
otherprojectafterthefirstwentthroughastagnantphase.Thesecondphaseachievedquiteasucce
ssfuloutcomeandisstillinoperationatthetimeofwriting.Thestakeholdersthatwereinvolvedine
achphasearedifferent,whichisonereasonwhytherewerevariousstakeholdercontributions.Thi
suniquesituationisconsideredusefulforunderstandingthepossibleoutcomesfromvariousstak
eholders’engagementwhentheprojectchangedcourse.Athoroughdatacollectionisnecessaryfo
runderstandingthecasestudywell.Informationaboutthecommunityactivitiesanddecision-
makingprocesswerecollectedusingsecondaryandprimarysources.Varioussecondaryrecords
usedwereprojectreports,academicreports,journalarticles,newspaperarticles,andweb-
basedarticles.Interviews,informaldiscussions,observation,anddemonstrationofthebiogasins
tallationwerealsoundertakenduringsitevisits.Theprimarysources
Challenges2016,7,97of26interviewedarethechiefofthecommunity,theformercommunitychie
f,bio-digesteroperators,andtherecyclingcenteroperator.3.2.DecomposingtheDecision-
MakingProcessandExtractionoftheStakeholders’PropertiesThedecompositionofthecasestud
yisimportantforconstructingtheautonomousdecision-
makingmodelasadiscreteeventsystem.Therearetwostepsinvolvedinthisdecomposition,whic
hyieldtwomajorresultsthatbecomethefoundationofthediscreteeventsystemformodelingauto
nomousdecision-making.Firstly,thecommunitydecision-
makingprocessisdecomposedintodecision-
makingstages.Secondly,thepropertiesofeachstakeholderinvolvedineachstageareidentified.U
tilizingtheframeworkdevelopedinourpreviouswork[41],thedecision-
makingprocessisdecomposed.ModifiedfromSimon[16],Huber[17],andPetrie[18],theframew
orkconsistsoffourimportantphases,namely:(1)problemfinding;(2)knowledgeandinformatio
n;(3)consensusbuilding;and(4)decisionandimplementation(seeFigure2).Thepointsorquesti
onsineachphasefunctionasguidanceindecomposingdecision-
makingstagesandidentifyingthestakeholders’involvement.Figure2.Thedecision-
makingdecompositionframework[41].Theprocedureforextractionofstakeholders’generalpro
pertieswasperformedbasedonourpreviousworkwhichutilizedfivecasestudiesofcommunitye
nergy-
environmentalprojects,ofwhichthepresentcasestudywasone[41].Thefivedifferentcasesofco
mmunityprojectsselected(fromasetofaround20)exhibitvarioustypesofdecision-
makingprocesses,rangingfromcentralizedtodecentralizedapproaches.Allofthefivecaseswere
consideredassuccessfulinreachingtheprojectgoals.Fromanalysisofthesesuccessfulcases,ther
oleandpropertiesofthestakeholders’areextractedbyutilizingtheframeworkinFigure2,withthe
propertiesandtheframeworkdevelopmentitselfbasedonthedecision-makingliterature.
Challenges2016,7,98of263.3.IdentifyingtheStakeholders’AutonomousPropertiesThestructu
redmethodforidentifyingthestakeholders’autonomouspropertiesfromthestakeholders’gener
alpropertiesisexplainedhere.Thelistofstakeholders’generalpropertieswhichcontributedtoth
esuccessofthecommunityprojectwasderivedfromathoroughliteraturereviewintodecision-
makingprocesses,cross-
checkedwithsuccessfulcasestudies.Inordertodeterminewhichofthesepropertiesarealignedwi
thautonomyindecision-making,afurtheranalysiswasundertaken.Thedecision-
makingprocess,asawhole,isconsideredtobeautonomousdecision-
makingifthestakeholdersinthesystemaremakingdecisionsautonomously.Inotherwords,thest
akeholdersneedtoexhibitanautonomousbehavior.Therefore,thestakeholders’autonomouspr
opertiesareidentifiedbycross-
comparingthestakeholders’generalpropertieswithelementsofautonomousbehavior.Thecros
s-
comparisonprocesswasperformedqualitativelyusingcontentanalysisoftheautonomousbehav
iorsandstakeholders’propertiesdefinitions.Thestakeholders’generalpropertiesareidentifiedi
nthepreviousstep,whiletheelementsofautonomousbehaviorareidentifiedinSection2,namely:
(1)self-governance;(2)self-control;(3)self-learning;and(4)self-
determination.Upondefiningeachstakeholders’propertyandautonomousbehavior,eachprope
rtyisexamined.Thosewhichcomplywithatleastonedefinitionofautonomousbehaviorareidenti
fiedasstakeholders’autonomousproperties.Utilizingthismethod,thestakeholders’autonomou
spropertiescanbeobjectivelyidentified.3.4.DevelopingandAnalyzingtheAutonomousDecision
-MakingModelUsingPetri-NetThemethodforconstructingtheautonomousdecision-
makingprocessusingPetri-netispresentedinthissection.ThejustificationofPetri-
netutilizationisexplained,followedbythePetri-
nethistoryanditsutilization.Afterwards,abriefexplanationofastandardPetri-
netmodel.Theautonomousdecision-
makingmodeldevelopedinthispaperisbuiltasadiscreteeventsystembycompilingtheresultsfro
mprevioussteps,whicharethedecisionstagesandthestakeholders’properties.Themethodtore
presentsthediscreteeventsintoaPetri-
netmodelisalsoexplainedinthissection.Inthispaper,weconsiderthedecision-
makingprocessasasystembuiltupondiscreteeventswhichperformandinteractwitheachothers
equentiallyandinparallel.Energy-environmentaldecision-
makingisofpublicinterest,thereforethedecision-
makinginvolvesmanyandvariousstakeholders.Inourresearch,thestakeholdersareautonomou
s.Theyarebeingshapedby,andcanalsoshape,thesystem.Therefore,aninterrelatedbi-
directionalconnectionbetweenstakeholdersandthedecision-makingprocessisexpected.Petri-
nethasanadvantageofrepresentingthemodelintwo-
ways:graphicallyandmathematically.Therefore,weconsiderthatPetri-
netisasuitabletooltorepresentthecomplexityofmultipleautonomousstakeholdersinenergy-
environmentaldecision-making.Moreover,theutilizationofPetri-
netenablesasimplesimulationofautonomousdecision-
makingmodeltobeperformedfurther.Petri-
netisoneofthetoolsoftenutilizedformodelingadiscreteeventsystem,andnowadaysitsapplicati
onhasbeenemployedonaverybroadfieldofstudy,includingdecision-
making.ThehistoryofPetri-netisestablishedbyitsdevelopmentbyCarlAdamPetriin1962.Petri-
netisusefulformodelingtheflowofinformationandcontrolinsystems,especiallythosewhichexhi
bitasynchronousandconcurrentevents[42–44].Petri-
netiscommonlyappliedtomodelvariouskindsofdynamicdiscrete-
eventsystemssuchascomputernetworks,manufacturingplants,communicationsystems,logisti
cnetworks,andcommandandcontrolsystems[45].Inrecentyears,theutilizationofPetri-
nethasreachedfarbeyondcomputerscienceandmanufacturingstudies.Forexample,Petri-
nethasbeenusedtomodeldecision-
makingprocessesinalegalcase[46]andmodelingthestoryplotforgames[47,48].Intheenergy-
environmentalfield,severalstudieshaveemployedPetri-
netinmodeling:amoreenergyefficientmachinetool[49],multisourceenergyconversionsystems
[50],energymanagementsystemforautonomousmicro-
grids[51],municipalwastemanagement[52],andenvironmentaleffectsofbiofuelutilization[53]
.TheadvantageofutilizingPetri-netinthisstudyisthatitcandescribeobjectivelyadecision-
makingprocesswithmulti-stakeholderinvolvement.
Challenges2016,7,99of26AstandardPetri-
netconsistsofP,T,I,O,(places,transitions,inputs,outputs,marking/token).Indetail,Pisafiniteset
ofplaces,whicharerepresentedbycircles;Tisafinitesetoftransitions,whicharerepresentedbyre
ctangles/bars;IisaninputfunctionwhichrepresentsconnectionfromPtoT;Oisanoutputfunction
whichrepresentsaconnectionfromTtoP;andistheinitialmarkingwhichisrepresentedbyasmall
dotcalledatoken[54].Inordertotransformthediscreteeventsofautonomousdecision-
makingintoPetri-
netaccordingly,theresultsfrompreviousstepsarecompiled.First,theresultfromdecomposingth
edecision-makingprocessarethedecisionstages.Thesedecision-
makingstages,whichareconsideredasdiscreteevents,aretransformedinto“transitions”inthePe
tri-
netmodel,whereastheresultfromtheautonomouspropertiesextractionisthestakeholders’pro
perties.Thestateorthecombinationsofthestakeholders’properties,arerepresentedas“places”.
Likewise,theresultsoroutputsfromeachevent/stagearealsorepresentedas“places”.Therelatio
nshipbetweenthestateandthestagesarerepresentedwithinboundandoutboundarcs.Inshort,t
hedecision-makingstagescanbetransformedintothePetri-
netby:1.DescribingthestateofaffairsoraconditionexperiencedbythestakeholderasaPlace(P).2.
Describingthedecision-
makingprocess,orevent,oractionconductedbythestakeholderasaTransition(T).3.Describingt
herelationshipofPlace(s)andTransition(s)andthemovementofthetoken()withinboundandout
boundarcs.Thetokenmovesfromoneplacetoanotherby“firing”throughatransition.Aplacehasa
tokenifaparticularstakeholders’conditionorpropertyissatisfied,thusfiringthetransition.Thee
xistenceortheabsenceoftheconditionisthekeyfactorthatdetermineswhetheratransitioninthe
Petri-netisenabledornot.Thedecision-
makingmodelisconstructedbycombiningallofthetransitionsandplacesrepresentingthedecisio
n-makingstagesintoonePetri-
netmodel.Forsimplificationpurposes,severaldecisionstagesarerepresentedassimplePetri-
netmodels,whicharedrawnhierarchicallyinanotherlayerunderthemainmodel.Theselowerlay
ersofPetri-
netmodelsdonotaffectthepurposeofthewholemodel,whichtriestoshowtherelationshipbetwe
enstakeholders’autonomouspropertiesineachdecision-
makingstageanddecisionoutcomes.TheutilizationofPetri-nettodescribethedecision-
makingprocessmadetheautonomouspartofthedecision-
makingmoreprominentandeasiertobeidentified.Therefore,wecanidentifythecriticalpointsint
hedecision-
makingprocess,wheretheexistenceorabsenceofautonomouspropertieswillleadtoadifferentd
ecisionorachievedifferentoutcomes.Theperformanceofautonomouspropertiesinthesuccesso
fthedecision-
makingisgoingtobeevaluatedbyanalyzingthecombinationsoftheconditionsresultingfromthes
imulation.4.ResultsThissectionpresentstheresultsobtainedfromeachmethodaforementioned
.Abriefdescriptionoftheselectedcasestudyispresentedpriortotheresultsfromdecomposingthe
casestudydecision-
makingprocessintostages.Thestakeholders’autonomouspropertiesareidentifiedafterwards.L
ateron,thedevelopmentandanalysisofthedecision-makingmodelusingPetri-
netareexplained.4.1.OverviewoftheCaseStudyAsdescribedearlier,thecasestudyprojecthadtw
ophases,andeachphasesisbrieflyexplainedhere.TheinitialprojectwascalledaCommunity-
basedBasicInfrastructureImprovementProgram(CBIIP),withthefinalgoaltoimprovethesanita
tionsituationinthecommunity.Thecasestudyconsistsoftworelatedprojects,whichareacompos
tingcenterandbio-digesterinstallation.Thebio-digester
Challenges2016,7,910of26installationprojectwasanimprovementtoanexistingcompostingpr
ojectintheRW11community(RWareoftenidentifiedbynumber.RW11meansitisthe11thcomm
unitytoexistintheparticularvillage).Thiscommunity,inhabitedby3000people,orroughly800h
ouseholds,isoneofthelow-
incomeslumareasinBandung.Itisoneofthedensestdistrictsinthecity.Recognizingtheneedfori
mprovementofcommunitylife,CBIIPwasinitiatedbytheMinistryofPublicWorksintheBandung
BranchwithassistancefromtheBandungCitygovernmentin1996.Focusingoneconomic,social,a
ndenvironmentalaspects,oneoftheprojectsconductedwastheconstructionofacompostingcent
erlocatedinRW11toimprovethepoorsanitationandwastesituation[55].Aftertheprojecttermw
asfinishedandthebudgetterminated,thecompostingcenteroperationbecamestagnant,andwas
thenreplacedbyabio-
digesterinstallation.Thesecondproject,abiogasproductionprojectintheformofabio-
methanedigesterinstallation,wasinitiatedbythecommunityincollaborationwithacademicians
,theprivatesector,andcommunity-
basedorganizations(CBO).Afterthecompostingsystemwasnotassuccessfulasplanned,especial
lyintermsofprofit,itwasterminatedaround2009–
2010.However,viewsonwasteandgarbageintheRW11communityhadchanged.Theymaintaine
dthewastesegregationactivities,andthewomen’sorganization(MyDarling)begansellingplastic
wasteandtriedtoreuseitforhandicrafts.Moreover,theexistingCBOtriedtoseekfinancialsupport
bysubmittingproposalstointernationalandnationalnon-
governmentalorganizations(NGOs)[56].Eventually,withassistanceandconsultationfromacad
emicscholars,theEnvironmentalAgencyandalocalNGO,andfinancialhelpfromthelocalbank,the
compostingsystemwaschangedtothebio-
methanesystem,whichproducesbiogasforhouseholdsandliquidfertilizer.Onerecentstudyabo
utthebiogasproductioninthiscommunityhasbeenconductedthoroughly[57].Theoutcomesfro
mthebiogasproductionprojectwerestudiedfromsocio-
economicperspectives.ItwasfoundthatthebiogasproductionatRW11iscurrentlynoteconomic
allyfeasibleduetolimitedmarketreachforthebio-
slurryproducts.Meanwhilefromthesocialpointofview,thestudyidentifiedthatthecommunityw
asrelativelyacceptingoftheprojectdespiteamixofresponsesfoundamongRW11communityme
mbers.Itcanbeconcludedthatthispilotprojectinbiogasproductionisstilloperatingbecauseofthe
socialacceptancefactorsratherthaneconomicfactors.4.2.TheDecision-
MakingStagesandStakeholders’PropertiesThedecompositionofthedecision-
makingprocessresultedintotwomajoroutputs.Thefirstoutputarethedecision-
makingstages,andthesecondarethestakeholders’generalproperties.Theseoutputsarethefoun
dationinestablishinganautonomousdecision-
makingmodelasadiscreteeventsystem.Thecasehistoryandotherrelatedinformationobtainedf
romvarioussourcesareanalyzedqualitativelytodecomposethedecision-
makingprocessofthecasestudyintodecisionstages.UtilizingtheframeworkinFigure2,wedecom
posedthedecision-
makingprocessofthebiogasproductionprojectinRW11intosixstages,whichare:1.Findordefine
theproblem2.Designthesolutionalternatives3.Agreement/consensusbuilding4.Implementati
onandconstructionoftheWasteManagementSystem(WMS)5.Management(OandM)6.Termina
tionoftheprojectEventhoughtheframeworksuggestedfourmajorphases,thenumberofstagesdr
awninthePetri-
netmodelmayvaryand,thereby,bemorethanfour.ThebiogasproductionprojectinRW11hasbee
nestablishedforalongtime,therefore,ithasbeengonethroughthestagesof“management”and“pr
ojecttermination”.Moreover,theprojecthasbeenregeneratedintoanotherproject,whichisstillr
unning.Dependingonthecasestudy,thedecompositionofthedecision-makingprocessmay
Challenges2016,7,911of26resultinvariousnumbersofstages.Thesestagesarerepresentedinth
ePetri-
netmodelastransitions.Therelationshipsbetweeneachtransitionaredrawnbycombiningitwith
thestakeholders’properties.AsmentionedinSection3.2,thestakeholders’propertiesareextract
edfromthesuccessfulcasestudiesbyapplyingthesameframework(Figure2)andbasedonliterat
ureonvariousdecision-makingprocesses.Thesepropertiesweretakenfromvariousenergy-
environmentaldecision-
makingstudies,aspresentedinTableA2intheAppendix.Thisprocessresultedinthestakeholders’
generalproperties,listedinTable1.Theseextractedpropertiesareconsideredtobethosewhichco
ntributedtosuccessfulcommunitydecision-
makingimplementation.Thestakeholders’generalpropertiesarefurtherexaminedusingautono
mousbehaviorelementsinSection2toidentifythestakeholders’autonomousproperties.Table1.
Stakeholders’generalproperties.Stakeholders’GeneralProperties1Self-
control11Trust2Initiative12Interaction3Self-
learning13Collaboration4Motivation14Openness5Abilitytoorganize15Commitment6Leader
ship16Localculture7Self-
governance17Networkingability8Abilitytocollectandunderstandinformation18Creativity9C
ommunicationability19Innovativeness10Responsibility20Proximity4.3.TheStakeholders’Au
tonomousPropertiesIdentificationofthestakeholders’autonomouspropertiesisoneoftheimpo
rtantprocessconductedinthispaper.Thepropertiesextractedinprevioussteparegeneralstakeh
olderpropertiesthatcontributedtothesuccessoftheprojectgoal.Thesepropertiesarecross-
comparedwiththeautonomousbehaviorsmentionedinSection2.Amongthe20generalproperti
eslistedabove,threeofthemarealreadyincludedasautonomousbehaviors(self-control,self-
learning,andself-governance).Theremaining17propertieswerecross-
checkedwiththeautonomousbehaviors.Themethodforidentifyingstakeholders’autonomousp
ropertiesexplainedinSection3.3requireseachautonomousbehaviorandthegeneralpropertiesl
istedinTable1tobeclearlydefined.Fromthesedefinitions(seeAppendix,TablesA1andA2),thest
akeholders’generalpropertiesareobjectivelyidentifiedastowhichautonomousbehaviortheyex
hibit(ifany).Theresultsofthiscross-
comparisonarepresentedinTable2.FromTable2,elevenoutofseventeenpropertiesareconsider
edasexhibitingstakeholders’autonomousbehavior.Theothersixarenotmarkedasautonomous
behaviorofthestakeholder,foratleasttworeasons.First,theyarenotapropertyofpersonsorindiv
iduals.Theproperties,suchaslocalculture,trust,andproximityarecategorizedasasystemorenvi
ronmentproperty.Therefore,eventhoughtheyexhibitsometraitsofautonomy,theyarenotinclu
dedasstakeholderproperties.Second,thepropertiesofcreativityandinnovativeness,bydefinitio
n,arenotregardedascorrespondingwiththeautonomydefinitionordimensions.
Challenges2016,7,912of26Table2.ExtractionofStakeholders’autonomousproperties.NoGene
ralDecision-MakingPropertyAutonomousBehaviorSelf-GovernanceSelf-ControlSelf-
LearningSelf-
Determination1InitiativeXXXO2MotivationXXXO3AbilitytoorganizeOOXX4LeadershipOOXX
5AbilitytocollectandunderstandinformationXXOX6CommunicationabilityOXXX7Responsibil
ityXOXO8TrustXXXX9InteractionXXOX10CollaborationXXOX11OpennessXXXX12Commitme
ntXOXO13LocalcultureXXXX14NetworkingabilityXXOX15CreativityXXXX16InnovativenessX
XXX17ProximityXXXXAftercorrelatingthesepropertieswiththeautonomydimensions,selecte
dpropertiesarefurtherclassifiedintosevenpointsbasedondefinitionalsimilarity,andtheyareasf
ollows:1.Motivation,initiative;selectedbecausethedecision-
makersneedtohavemotivationorinitiative,orabilitytothinkbythemselvesinordertobeconside
redasautonomous.2.Leadership,abilitytoorganize;selectedbecauseautonomyalsorequiressel
f-governanceandself-
control.Inordertohavetheabilitytogovernororganizethemselves,thedecision-
makersneedtohavesomelevelofleadershipandabilitytocoordinateandcommunicatetheirgoal
withtheirsubordinatesormembers.3.Self-
learning,abilitytomanageinformation;selectedbecauseanautonomousdecision-
makerneedstohavethewillingnessandabilitytolearn,tomanageandcollectinformation,andtou
nderstandtheinformationnecessarytomakedecisions.4.Interactionbetweenthecommunityme
mbers;oneoftheresultsoftheanalysisconductedonthefivecaseswasthattheinteractionamongc
ommunityleadersandmembershasanimportantroleinreachingaconsensusordecision,aswella
sindecisionimplementation,andsustainingtheoperationandmaintenanceoftheproject.Adecisi
onthatisreachedthroughgroupinteractionperformsbetterwhencomparedtoadecisionreached
byagroupofpeoplethatdoesnotinteractatall[58].5.Networkingandcollaborationbetweenstake
holders;thispropertyislinkedwiththepreviousproperty.Wedifferentiateitbecause,inthisprop
erty,thecommunity(leadersandmembers)isconsideredasonestakeholder.Thenetworkingand
collaborationbetweenthecommunityandotherstakeholdersoutsidethecommunity,suchasgov
ernmentagencies,officials,localNGOs,privatesectors,andothers,wasseeninthefivecasesandco
ntributedtothesuccessoftheproject.6.Persuasionandnegotiationability;thispropertyisclosely
relatedwiththeleadershiplevelofthestakeholder.Thispropertywasalsoveryusefulinreachinga
consensusordecision,especially
Challenges2016,7,913of26whentheprojectinvolvedmultiplestakeholders.Thispropertyisfou
ndpredominantlyinthecaseswheretheinitiativedoesnotcomefromgovernments.7.Responsibi
lityandcommitment;thispropertyisespeciallyimportantwhenthedecisionisreadytobeimplem
ented.Inorderfortheprojecttobeconstructed,eachstakeholderinvolvedneedstoberesponsiblef
ortheirdutyandcommittothedecisionthathasbeenmade.4.4.ThePetri-
NetModelTheautonomousdecision-
makingmodel,whichinthispaperisregardedasadiscreteeventsystem,isrepresentedusingPetri
-net.Theprincipalprocessofmodelingthedecision-makingintoPetri-
netcanbedescribedasfollows.Eachstageofthedecision-
makinginSection4.2istransformedintotransitionforthePetri-
netmodel.Forgraphicalpurpose,weprovidetwoversionofPetri-netgraphs.ThesimplifiedPetri-
netdiagramforthiscasestudyispresentedinFigure3,meanwhilethecompletePetri-
netgraphusingYasperispresentedinFigureA1intheAppendix.Theconditionsforeachstakehold
erinvolvedaregivenatthebeginningofthenet,andarenotchangedduringthecourseoftheprocess
.Therearethreesubnetsadded(fordetailseeAppendix,FigureA2–
A4).Eachsubnetisdesignedforoneautonomousproperty,namelytheMotivationSubnet(T1),the
LeadershipSubnet(T2),andtheabilitytomanageinformation,shortenedastheInformationSubn
et(T3).Thereasonbehindthesubnets’creationisbecausethemodelwillbesimulatedbychangingt
henumberofstakeholdersinvolvedandchangingthecombinationoftheirproperties.Therefore,i
tisimportanttoshowtheprocessofhoweachstakeholderbecomesautonomousornon-
autonomousindetail.However,werealizedthatthisprocesscanmakethewholedecision-
makingprocessmodelmorevisuallycomplex.Therefore,weaddedseveralsubnetsinthePetri-
netmodel,hence,makingitahierarchicalmodel.Thesubnetsshowtheprocessofeverystakeholde
rinbecomingautonomousornon-
autonomous.Autonomousstakeholderswillhaveatokeninthecorrespondingplaces,whereasth
osewhodonothaveautonomouspropertieswillhavenotoken.Theotherreasonisbecausethecon
tentofthesehierarchicaltransitionsarefluid,dependingonhowmanystakeholdersareinvolved.
Thismakesitinefficienttodrawdirectlyontheprimarylayer.Theresultsfromthesehierarchicaltr
ansitionsfromthesubnetsareshownontheprimarylayerasonesingleplace,whichisasimplificati
onofthenumberofplacescorrespondingtoeachstakeholderinvolved(inFigure3,thesearedesig
natedbybluecoloring,hereaftertheyarecalled“blue”places).Ifthenumberofstakeholdersismor
ethanone,theneachblueplaceconsistsofacombinationofstakeholders’conditions.Thissimplific
ationispurelyforgraphicalpurposes.Theseblueplacesaredrawnasseveralsingleplacesintheco
mpleteversionofthePetri-
netmodel.TheexamplegiveninFigureA1oftheAppendixshowsthatiftherearefiveautonomouss
takeholdersinvolvedinthedecision-
makingprocess,thiswouldresultineachofthehierarchicaltransitions(T1,T2,andT3)producing
fivetokensineachofthecorrespondingplaces.Therefore,eachblueplaceinprimarylayer(P2,P3,a
ndP4)actuallyconsistsoffivesingleplaceswithatokeninit.Forsimulationpurposes,itisnotpossib
letosimplyputfivetokensineachofP2,P3,andP4.Thisisbecauseatlatertransitions(T6andT8),th
erulesarespecificallydifferentiatedbasedonthestakeholdertypes.Decision-
makingprocessesmayrequirecertainspecificstakeholderstomakeanautonomousdecision—
inthiscaseatokenfromthesestakeholderswillbecompulsory.Inadditiontothis,thespecificdirect
ionthatadecisiontakesmaybedesignatedbywhich,orhowmany,otherstakeholdershaveautono
mousproperties(atoken,inthiscase).InFigure3,therearethreevariationsoftransition.First,isth
estandardtransition,whichismarkedbyablackbox.Second,theorangediamond-
shapetransition,whichrepresentsanXORtransition.AnXORtransitionconsumesonetokenfrom
oneofitsinputplacesandproducesatokeninoneofitsoutputplaces.Thismeansthatthistransition
canbefiredifthereisatleastonetokeninoneofitsinputplaces.Thethirdtransitionisahierarchicalt
ransition(T1–T3).Asmentionedbefore,thePetri-
netmodelinthispaperisahierarchicalone,meaningthereisanotherprocessoranotherset
Challenges2016,7,914of26ofPetri-
netmodelsundertheprimarylayer.Adetailexplanationonthevariationsoftransitionswiththeco
rrespondingdecisiontypeusedinthispaperispresentedinTable3.Therearethreeotherimportan
telementsofthePetri-
netmodelshowninFigure3,namelytheinboundarcs,outboundarcs,andtokens.Theinboundand
outboundarcsbetweenplacesandtransitionsshowthedirectionoftokenmovement.Inaddition,t
heyalsoshowtherelationshipbetweenplacesandtransitions.Sinceplacesrepresenttheconditio
nsneedingtobefulfilledforfiringthetransitions,itiseasytoidentifywhatkindofconditionsarereq
uiredforanactionoreventtooccur.Thebidirectionalarcrepresentsasimplificationofasituationi
nwhichwheneveratransitionisfired,thenthetransitionwillproduceatokenintheoutputplacean
dalsoputthetokenbackintheinputplace.ThelegendforthePetri-
netinFigure3ispresentedinTable4.ThePetri-
netdevelopedinthispapershowsthatthediscreteeventsystemconsistsofdecision-
makingstagesandtheroleofstakeholdersinvolvedinadecision-
makingprocesscanbeobjectivelyandlogicallymodeled.Utilizingtheproceduresexplainedabov
e,otherdecision-makingcasescanalsoberepresentedusingPetri-
net.Althoughthemodelmightbedifferentindetail,thedecision-
makingstagesarerelativelysimilar.Table3.Typeoftransitionswithitscorrespondingdecisionst
ype.TypeofTransitionTypeofDecisionStandardtransitionUsedifthecondition(s)toreachaparti
cularaction/decisionisunnegotiable,orifthenumberofstatesresultedfromaparticularaction/d
ecisionaredefinite.XORtransitionUsediftherearetwoormorestatesthatpossibleasinputsorout
putsoftheparticularaction/decision.Thistypeoftransitionisusuallyappliedtodecisionsthatbra
nchessubjecttocertainconditions.HierarchicaltransitionUsedasarepresentativeofasub-
layerinthePetri-net.Thesub-layercontainsanothersetoftransitions-
placeswhichisdeliberatelyhiddentosimplifythemainPetri-
netmodel.Table4.LegendforplacesandtransitionsinthePetri-
netmodel.PlaceDescriptionTransitionDescriptionP1:WasteandsanitationproblemsituationT
1:MotivationsubnetP2:Setofstakeholders’motivationlevelT2:InformationsubnetP3:Setofstak
eholders’abilitytomanageinformationlevelT3:LeadershipsubnetP4:Setofstakeholders’leader
shiplevelT4:ProblemfindingprocessP5:ProblemisdefinedT5:DesigningalternativesprocessP
6:AlternativesaredesignedT6:Decision-
makingP7:WMStechniqueisselected(decisionismade)T7:ConstructionofWMSP8:WMSisconst
ructed(decisionisimplemented)T8:Operation&MaintenanceP9:WasteisreducedT9:Terminat
ionoftheprojectP10:ProjectstoppedP11:Projectcontinued
Challenges2016,7,915of26Figure3.HierarchicalPetri-net(simplified)describingthedecision-
makingprocessofaWMScasestudy.
Challenges2016,7,916of265.AnalysisandDiscussionsTwomainstepswereperformedthrought
hemethodsexplainedinthispaper.Firstisthemethodtodecomposethecommunitydecision-
makingprocessintodiscreteevents.Thisprocessresultedintotwooutputs,whicharethedecision
-
makingstages(Section4.2)andthestakeholders’autonomousproperties(Section4.3).Thesecon
dstepisthemethodtobuildthediscreteeventsystemintheformofthePetri-
netmodel,whichgeneralizesthedecision-
makinginacaseofenergyandenvironmentalmanagement(Section4.4).Thedecompositionproc
essproducesdecision-
makingstagesandthestakeholders’autonomousproperties.Thedecision-
makingstagesareperformedutilizingtheframeworkinFigure2.Asaresult,sixdecision-
makingstagesareobtained;namely,problemdefinition,alternativesdesign,agreementorconsen
susbuilding,implementationandconstruction,management,andprojecttermination,whereast
hestakeholders’propertiesareidentifiedbyqualitativelycross-
comparingthestakeholders’generalpropertieswiththeautonomousbehaviors.Thereareseven
autonomouspropertiesidentifiedhere;namely,(1)motivationandinitiative;(2)leadershipanda
bilitytoorganize;(3)self-
learningortheabilitytomanageinformation,(4)interaction;(5)networkingandcollaboration;(6
)persuasionandnegotiationability;and(7)responsibilityandcommitment.Amongthese,proper
ties(4)and(5)areconsideredasmoreapropertyofgroupsofpeople,meaningtheyexistifthereare
atleasttwotypesofstakeholdersinvolvedinthedecision-
making,whereastheotherpropertiesbelongtoanindividualstakeholder.Theresultsfromthedec
ompositionprocessarethenrepresentedbyPetri-
net.Themodelisconstructedbycombiningthedecision-
makingstagesthatalreadyconvertedintotransitionsandplaces.AnalysisofthePetri-
netprovideafurtherunderstandingthatthereareseveraltransitionsthatwouldyielddifferentou
tcomesiftheconditionsattheblueplacesarechanged.Thesetransitionsareidentifiedascriticalpo
ints,whichareidentifiedfromPetri-
netgraphinFigure3.AsdiscussedinSection4.4,ablueplacecontainstheresultfromthehierarchic
altransitionsandeachblueplacecanrepresentmorethanone“standard”place.Atokeninoneofthe
sub-
placescontainedinablueplacerepresentstheparticularstakeholders’autonomouspropertiesan
ditwillnotbechangedduringthecourseofthesimulation.Forexample,ifastakeholderissetsincet
hebeginningasnothavingmotivationproperties,thenitwillcontinuetolackmotivationuntilthee
ndofthemodelortheterminationofthemodel.Acriticalpointinthisstudyreferstoacertaintransiti
oninthePetri-
netmodelthatisinfluencedbytheconditionssetintheblueplaces,whichhaveparticularinfluence
onautonomy.Fromthemodel,thecriticalpointsidentifiedinthisdecision-
makingprocessare:1.Problemfindingprocess(T4).Atthiscriticalpoint,therearetwodeterminin
gproperties,whichresultedfrommotivationsubnet(T1)andinformationmanagementcapabilit
y(T2).T4firesifthereisatleastonetokeninoneofitsinputplaces(P2andP3).Thismeansthatatthis
stage,anystakeholder,regardlessthetype,cancontributeinfindingtheproblemaslongtheyhave
highmotivationorstrongleadership.2.Designingalternatives(T5),firesdependingontheproper
tyofinformationmanagementcapability(T2).T5firesifthereisatokeninP5andthereisatleastone
tokeninP3.Thismeansthatinordertodesigndecisionalternatives,atleastonestakeholdermusth
avethecapabilitytomanageinformation.3.Decision-makingprocessorconsensus-
buildingprocess(T6),whichisdeterminedbythepropertyofleadershiplevel(T3).T6firesiftherei
satokeninP6andatleastonetokeninP4.Thismeansthatinordertoreachadecisionoraconsensust
ogether,atleastonestakeholderneedstohavestrongleadership.Theoutputofthistransitionisdiff
erentiatedbythespecificstakeholders’conditions.
Challenges2016,7,917of264.Operationandmaintenancephase(T8),isdeterminedbyallthreepr
opertiesof:leadershiplevel(P4),motivationlevel(P2),andinformationmanagementcapability(
P3).Basically,T8firesifthereisacombinationbetweenthepropertiesofseveralstakeholderstoge
ther.Thismeansthatcollaboration,networking,andinteractionbetweenstakeholdersplaysani
mportantroleinthisOperationandMaintenancestage.However,sincetheleadershipproperty(P
4)isalreadygiveninT6,thereforethereisnoneedtoconnectT8withtheinboundarcfromP4.There
sultofT8willbedifferentiatedbasedonthepropertiesfromblueplacesbasedontypesandproperti
esofstakeholders.5.Terminationoftheproject(T9),determiningproperty:resultfromtheOand
Mphase(T8).Theoutputsfromtheprevioustransition(T8)aredifferentiatedbasedonthestakeh
oldertypesandproperties.Inthesimulation,therulewillbeimposedonT9astowhethertoproduc
eatokenforP10orP11,basedonthetokenconditioninP9.Forexample,ifthetokenproducedfromT
8showsaconditionofautonomouslocalpeople(communityleadersorinterestedindividuals),th
entheprojectwillbemorelikelytogobeyondprojecttermination,andthereforeT9willproduceat
okeninP11.SinceT9isanXORtransition,thefiringofT9canonlybeproducedinoneofP10orP11.A
mongthesecriticalpoints,thefirsttwopoints(T4andT5)determinewhethertheprocesswillreac
hadecisionorfailtoreachadecision.Thelatterthreepoints(T6,T8,andT9)determinethevarietyof
successlevelsinachievingtheprojectgoal.MeanwhileT7isnotidentifiedasacriticalpointbecause
thetransitiononlydependsononeinputplace.ThePetri-
netmodelinthispaperrepresentsthedecision-
makingprocessasitoccurredincommunitycasestudies.Thecommontraitsofcommunitydecisio
n-
makingshouldnotbeneglected.Forexample,inacommunity,ifacertainproblemexistsandastake
holderproposessomesolutionalternativesbuttheremainingstakeholdersarenotabletoreachac
onsensusordecision,thenthewholedecision-
makingprocessfails/stagnatesandtheproblemwillpersist.Thismeansthat,forsolvingthesamep
roblem,thedecision-
makingprocessneedstobestartedfromthebeginningagain.Inthesimulation,thistraitwillberepr
esentedbytheinstantterminationofthemodelsimulationeverytimeatransitionisnotfired.Thecr
iticalpointsinthispaperareidentifiedbydevelopingthePetri-
netmodelwhichresultedfromcarefullydecomposingthecasestudy.Therefore,themostimporta
ntpartisdecomposingthecase’sstoryintodecision-
makingstages,whichcanonlybeperformedifthecasestudyorprojecthistoryiswellunderstood.T
hismadethedatacollectionprocedureholdsanimportantroleinunderstandingthecontextunder
whichthedecisionwastaken.Althoughcompleteinformationmightbeavailableintheformofrepo
rtsandsecondaryrecords,directfieldvisitsandobservationsarehighlyrecommendedtoobtainat
horoughunderstandingofthetargetedcommunity,andalsotoavoidbiasfrompreviousresearche
rs.Anotherimportantpointistheselectionofprincipalinformantstobeinterviewed.Itisbesttoint
erviewstakeholdersthatareinvolveddirectlyatthebeginningoftheprojecteventhoughtheymig
htalreadybeveryoldorhavealreadysteppeddownfromtheirpositioniftheprojecthasbeencondu
ctedforanumberofyears.Themethodexplainedthroughoutthispapercomprisesofdecomposin
gthecommunitydecision-
makingprocess,extractionofthestakeholders’autonomousproperties,andmodelingtheautono
mousdecision-
makingprocess.Theresultsofthesestepsarecomplementedbytheresultsobtainedfromvariousl
iteratureanddatacollection.ThestructuredmethodutilizedinthispapercanbesummarizedinFig
ure4below.
Challenges2016,7,918of26Figure4.Generalmethodfordevelopingautonomousdecision-
makingmodel.6.ConclusionsThispaperpresentsamethodtobuildanautonomousdecision-
makingmodel,whichisconsideredtobeimportantwithinthedevelopmentofdecentralizedgener
ationanddemand-
centeredprojectsinenergyandenvironmentalbeneficiation.However,theapproachisgeneraliz
abletootherfieldsandcasestudiesbeyondthatpresentedhere.ThespecificPetri-
netmustbedesignedgiventheunderstandingofthestakeholdersandprojectelementsinvolvedin
decisionmaking,whichisperformedbydecomposingadecision-
makingprocessintodiscreteeventsordecision-makingstagesasshowninFigure4.UsingPetri-
netasatool,thedecision-makingstagesaretransformedintoasetofplace-
transitionsorsimplePetri-
netmodels,andthesesmallmodelsarecompiledtoconstructtheautonomousdecision-
makingmodel.TheutilizationofPetri-nettorepresentdecision-
makingmodelshelpsthedecision-
makingprocesstobeanalyzedobjectivelyandimportantstagesofautonomousdecision-
makingareprominentlyshown.Theseimportantstagesareidentifiedascriticalpointsofautonom
ousdecision-
making.Acriticalpointisinfluencedbythestakeholders’propertiesanddeterminestheoutputoft
hemodel,orwhetherthemodelcanreachtheendofthenetworkornot.Theresultsofthispaperareg
oingtobefurtheremployedforsimulationsbasedonthePetri-netmodel.TheutilizationofPetri-
netinbuildingtheautonomousdecision-
makingmodelisconsideredasoneoftheeffectivewaystoperformthemodelsimulationinthefutur
estudy.Someofthestakeholders’autonomouspropertiesidentifiedabovesuchasmotivation,lea
dership,andabilitytomanageinformation,aregoingtobeassigneddeterministicallytoeachstake
holderinvolvedinthedecision-
makingprocessandvariousoutcomesfromthesimulationswillbeobservedinordertoidentifythe
keyconditionssuitableforsuccessfullyachievinggoals.Acknowledgments:Theauthorsaregrate
fulforthecommentsandsuggestionsfromthreeanonymousreviewers.Thefirstauthorwouldlike
toextendhergratitudetotheMinistryofEducation,Culture,Sports,ScienceandTechnology(MEX
T),Japan,forsupportingthisstudy.AuthorContributions:ThemanuscriptispreparedbyNikenPri
landita,underthesupervisionofTetsuoTezukaandBenjaminMcLellan,whoassistedinco-
authoringandimprovingpaper.ConflictsofInterest:Theauthorsdeclarenoconflictofinterest.
Challenges2016,7,919of26AppendixTableA1belowlistedthebehaviorsorcharacteristicsthatc
ommonlyassociatedwithautonomousindividual,orevenusedtodefinetheconceptofautonomy.
Thesecondcolumnshowsthatthesebehaviorsappearedorevenmentionedasaprerequisitefors
ucceedingadecisionimplementationbasedonvariousliteratureindecision-
making,especiallyintheenergyandenvironmentalsector.Thethirdcolumncontaingeneraldefin
itionofeachbehavior,whichareusefulforthecross-
comparingprocessinSection4.3.TableA1.Definitionofelementsofautonomousbehavior.Auton
omousBehaviorDefinitionMentionedinSelf-
governanceGovernancereferstotheprocessesofinteractionanddecision-
makingamongtheactorsinvolvedinacollectiveproblemthatleadtothecreation,reinforcement,o
rreproductionofsocialnormsandinstitutions[59].Therefore,self-
governancedefinedasthecapabilityofanindividualorgrouptodeveloptheirownwaytoestablish
thegovernanceandrunningitwithoutintervention.[40]Self-
controlReferstoasetofprocessesthatenableindividualstoguidetheirgoaldirectedactivitiesover
timeandacrosschangingcontexts[60].Oftenusedinterchangeablywithself-regulation[61].[61–
63]Self-
learningThecapabilitytoperformtheactoflearningbyoneself.Learningheredefinedastheacquis
itionofknowledgeand/orskillsthatserveasanenduringplatformforadaptivedevelopmentandt
ocomprehendandnavigatenovelproblems[61].[15]Self-
determinationThecapacitytochooseandtohavethosechoices,ratherthanreinforcementcontin
gencies,drives,oranyotherforcesorpressures,bethedeterminantsofone’sactions.Self-
determinationofteninvolvescontrollingone’senvironmentorone’soutcomes,butitmayalsoinv
olvechoosingtogiveupcontrol[64].[2,65]TableA2belowaretheobservedstakeholders’properti
esexistedinthesuccessfulcasesofcommunityprojectinenergy-
environmentalmanagement.Thesecondcolumnshowsthatthesepropertiesappearedorevenm
entionedasaprerequisiteforsucceedingadecisionimplementationbasedonvariousliteraturein
decision-
making,especiallyintheenergyandenvironmentalsector.Thethirdcolumncontaingeneraldefin
itionofeachproperties,whichareusefulforthecross-
comparingprocessinSection4.3.TableA2.Definitionofstakeholders’generalproperties.Propert
iesMentionedinDefinitionInitiative[4]Behaviorcharacterizedbyself-
startingnature,proactiveapproach,andbybeingpersistentinovercomingdifficultiesthatarisein
thepursuitofagoal[61].Motivation[3,4]Referstothesetofpsychologicalprocessesgoverningthe
direction,intensity,andpersistenceofactionsthatarenotduesolelytooverwhelmingenvironme
ntaldemandsthatcoerceorforceaction[61].
Challenges2016,7,920of26TableA2.Cont.PropertiesMentionedinDefinitionInitiative[4]Beha
viorcharacterizedbyself-
startingnature,proactiveapproach,andbybeingpersistentinovercomingdifficultiesthatarisein
thepursuitofagoal[61].Motivation[3,4]Referstothesetofpsychologicalprocessesgoverningthe
direction,intensity,andpersistenceofactionsthatarenotduesolelytooverwhelmingenvironme
ntaldemandsthatcoerceorforceaction[61].Abilitytoorganize[4]Capacitytocoordinate,manage
,facilitate,aparticularobject/tasksamonggroupofpeopletoreachacertaingoal[61].Leadership[
66,67]Asetofrolebehaviorsbyindividualsinthecontextofthegroupororganizationtowhichthey
belong.Theexerciseofinfluenceoverothersbyutilizingvariousbasesofsocialpower,tactics,ands
ooninordertoelicitthegroupmembers’compliancewithcertainnormsandtheircommitmenttoa
chievethegroup’sobjectives[61].Abilitytocollectandunderstandinformation[3]Capacitytocoll
ectandunderstandinformationwithouthelpfromotherparties.Communicationability[4]Capac
itytoexchangeinexchangeinformation,formunderstandings,coordinateactivities,exerciseinflu
ence,socialize,andgenerateandmaintainsystemsofbeliefs,symbols,andvaluesamongmembers
ofinstitution/organizations[61].Responsibility[68,69]Anattributethatanadultpersonisduty-
boundtoundertake[70].Inenvironmentalbehavior,itdefinedasanindividualsenseofobligation
ordutytotakemeasuresagainstenvironmentaldegradation[71].Trust[3]Ageneralizedexpecta
ncyheldbyanindividualorgroupthattheword,promise,verbal,orwrittenstatementofanotherin
dividualorgroupcanbereliedon[61].Interaction[72–
74]Aparticularkindsofsocialrelationshipthataredifferentfrom,butconstitutiveof,groups,orga
nizations,andnetworks.Interactionoccurswhentwoormoreparticipantsareineachother’sperc
eptualrangeandorienttoeachotherthroughtheiractionandactivity[75].Collaboration[76,77]C
ollectiveactionoreffortperformedbyagroupofpeopletosolveproblemoradjustenvironmentsin
ordertodiscovernewmutuallybeneficialoptions[77].Openness[4]Referredastransparencytoa
ccessinformationwithinorganization,institution,orsociety[78]Commitment[79,80]Referreda
sthelevelofidentificationwith,andattachmentandloyaltyto,anorganization,anoccupation,orso
meotherfeatureofwork[61].Localculture[61]Somesharedsetofcharacteristicsincommontoap
articulargroupofpeople[61].Networkingability[73,81]Capacitytoperformaprocessofcontacti
ngandbeingcontactedbypeopleinone’ssocialortechnical/professionalworldandmaintainingt
heselinkagesandrelationships[61].Creativity[4,82,83]Thegenerationofideasorproductsthata
rebothnovelandappropriate(correct,useful,valuable,ormeaningful)[61].Innovativeness[83,8
4]Thedegreetowhichanindividualisrelativelyearlierinadoptingnewideasthantheothermemb
ersofasystem[85].Proximity[86,87]Referredtothespatialdistanceorfamiliarityofacertainobje
ctorproblemtoapersonorgroupofperson.
Challenges2016,7,921of26FigureA1.ThePetri-
netmodeldrawnusingYasper(nosimplification).
Challenges2016,7,922of26FigureA2.The“Motivation”Subnet.FigureA3.The“Leadership”Subn
et.
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