Case of study Fiji

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Case
of
study
Fiji

Globally
Alive
Family

by
Monika
Blanda


GENERAL INFORMATION
Climate
Fiji's climate is warm and tropical year-round, even
in the islands’ “winter” months. The average temperature in
Fiji is 25°C (77°F), but it can climb to above 30°C (86°F) in
summer (December and January) and sink to 18°C (64°F) in
winter (July and August). Many people consider the Fijian
winter, which is the dry season from May to October, to be
the best time to visit the islands. This is when it is drier, less
humid and a bit cooler, so outside activities are more
pleasant. However, this is also Fiji's peak tourist season so
the prices for airfare and accommodation peak as well,
especially in June and July.
Tradewinds and rainfall in Fiji rainfall
The tradewinds, which blow from the southeast,
usually prevail from May to October (the drier winter
months). In December and January, the winds often shift and
come from the east, bringing rainfall with them. The humid
southeastern shorelines of the big islands receive 3,000 mm
of rainfall each year, increasing to 5,000 mm inland.
The leeward northwestern coasts are drier and
receive about 1,500 to 2,000 mm of rainfall per year. But
even in Fiji's wet season (the summer months from
November to April), the sun often follows a rain shower and
it is warm, so the rain is often only a small inconvenience.
During the rainy season, Fiji is more prone to experience
hurricanes and tropical storms. Fiji's hurricane season
usually lasts from November to April.
Wet and dry zones
Certain areas in the Fijian archipelago receive much
more rainfall than others. The islands have distinct wet and
dry zones. Roughly speaking, the wet zone is located in the
southeast region of each island, while the leeward areas in
the north and west are usually drier. An exception to this
rule is Suva, which is not always dry in the official dry
season (June to October). However, much of the rain falls at
night.
Fiji ocean temperature
The ocean surrounding Fiji usually has a pleasant
temperature around 27°C (81°F), so ocean activities, such as
swimming, snorkeling and diving can be enjoyed year-
round. The nearshore waters are usually clearer during the
drier season, when scuba divers enjoy increased visibility
around the coral reefs.
Geography
Where is Fiji located?
The Fiji Islands are located in the Southern
Hemisphere, surrounded by the South Pacific Ocean. Fiji
lies 5,100 km (3,169 miles) southwest of Hawaii and 3,150
km (1,957 miles) northeast of Sydney, Australia. Its exact
geographic location is at latitude 15-22 degrees south and
177 degrees west to 175 degrees east.
What is unique about Fiji's location is that even
though the 180th degree meridian line cuts right through the
Fijian archipelago, the International Date Line goes around
it to the east, so that all islands can share the same date. Fiji
is one of the first countries to experience a new calendar
day.
The archipelago encompasses 1,290,000 square km
(498,072 square miles) of the South Pacific Ocean. Less
than 1.5 percent of this is dry land, or about 18,272 square
km (7,054 square miles). Fiji's two largest islands, Viti Levu
and Vanua Levu, make up 87% of Fiji's total landmass.
About 75% of the population lives on Viti Levu, and about
18% live on Vanua Levu.
Viti Levu is the largest of the Fiji Islands, spreading
out over 10,388 square km (4,011 square miles). It is also
the most populated and developed island. The other main
island, Vanua Levu, is the second largest in Fiji,
encompassing 5,587.1 square km (2,157.2 square miles).
If one counted every single island that belongs to
the Fijian archipelago, this number would be in the
thousands. However, only about 322 are seen as big enough
to support human habitation. Of these 322 islands, only 106


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are inhabited. The other islands are either just too isolated or
lack freshwater.
Fiji's terrain
Most of Fiji's terrain is mountainous. The majority
of these mountains are dormant or extinct volcanoes, though
some were also formed from limestone and coral islets. The
highest point in Fiji is Mt. Tomanivi, located on the main
island of Viti Levu. It rises 1,324 meters (4,344 feet) above
sea level.
Fiji has 50 groups of hot springs and the innermost
areas of many islands feature lush rainforests with an
abundance of tree species, plants and wildlife.
Major areas and industries in Fiji
The capital of Fiji is Suva, located in the southeast
of Viti Levu. The majority of tourist infrastructure, including
various hotel chains, is located here. Suva is considered a
key city for industrial development.
Both Viti Levu and Vanua Levu contain
mountainous terrain and tropical rainforests (Vanua Levu is
home to coconut plantations as well). There are also some
roads and trails in these areas that lead to remote villages.
Other significant parts of Fiji are the town of Nadi, where
the international airport is located, and another town,
Lautoka, which is home to a seaport. Fiji’s major natural
resources include gold, copper, hydropower, offshore oil and
timber.
Flights Information
How you can get in Viti Levu, Fiji and what is the
common price?
Direct Flights from :
• Sydney – from 552 AUD
• Melbourne – from 570 AUD
• Brisbane – from 420 AUD
• Gold Coast – from 440 AUD
• Auckland – from 497 AUD
• Wellington – from 660 AUD
• Christchurch – from 538 AUD
• Los Angeles – from 1260 AUD
• Honolulu – from 894 AUD
• Seoul – from 1765 AUD
Indirect Flights from:
cca 40 cities in Australia, cca 40 cities in USA, 3 cities in
Tasmania, cca 20 cities in New Zealand, cca 20 cities in
Papua New Guinea, 4 cities in Hawaii, Philippines,
Malaysia, Singapore, China, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam,
India, Nepal, South Korea, Mongolia, Russia, Uzbekistan,
Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, United Arab emirates, South
Africa, Spain, Turkey, Italy, United Kingdom, France,
Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany, Czech Republic,
Canada, Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, México, Costa
Rica, Belize
People/ Population
The population of Fiji today is 896,758 according
to a 2013 estimate (CIA World Factbook). Fiji's population
density is 46.4 per km² (120.3 per square mile). The
population growth rate is 0.73% (2013 est). The birth rate is
20.28 births per 1,000 population, and the death rate is 5.96
per 1,000 population (2013 est). The life expectancy in Fiji
is 69.26 years for males and 74.62 years for females (2013
est).
People of Fiji
The people of Fiji are said to be some of the
friendliest in the world and are made up of several different
ethnic groups. According to the 2007 Census, about 57.3%
of them are Fijian natives, who are of mixed Melanesian and
Polynesian ancestry. The next largest group of people
residing in Fiji is of East Indian descent, making up 37.6%
of the population. Europeans, other Pacific Islanders and
Chinese make up 3.9% of the population, and 1.2% are
Rotuman.
Religions in Fiji


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Christianity is now the main religion Fijians
practice. A total of 55.4% of Fiji's population are Protestant.
A variety of denominations can be found, the majority being
Methodist (34.6%), followed by Assembly of God (5.7%),
Seventh-Day Adventist (3.9%), Anglican (0.8%) and Other
(10.4%). Hinduism is practiced by 27.9% of the population,
9.1% are Roman Catholic, 6.3% are Muslim, 0.3% are Sikh,
0.3% Other and 0.7% none, according to the 2007 Census.
Government
Current Political System
The country's current political setup consists of the
president as the head of state with the prime minister as the
head of government. Fiji's constitution provides for a
bicameral parliament, which consists of the president, an
elected house of representatives with one member, and a
nominated senate with 32 members.
Under Fiji's current government, the country is
divided into four districts for purposes of administration: the
central district, based in Nausori, the northern district, based
in Labasa, the eastern district, based in Levuka, and the
western district, based in Lautoka. Each district has
jurisdiction over the provinces that are within its division. In
total, there are 14 provinces, which are each governed by a
council that have an executive head granted by the Fijian
Affairs Board. These councils generally oversee urban
affairs.
The 20th century also brought about important
economic changes. During this timeframe, Fiji developed a
major sugar industry, while establishing tourism, productive
copra milling and other secondary industries as well.
Because of these economic advances, the revenues have
provided for health and medical services, expanded public
works, education and infrastructure.
Also, because of recent developments in air and sea
communication and transport, Fiji now plays a major role in
regional affairs and is known as the focal point of the South
Pacific.
International Relations and Fijian Embassies
Fiji's international relations, which were at first
hampered by political problems that took place within the
country, became stronger after it became a member of the
United Nations in 1970 and actively participated in its
affairs. Its participation in UN peacekeeping has become
very significant, as Fiji's leadership in the South Pacific area
resulted in its vital role in the building up of the South
Pacific forum.
The Fiji embassy represents the government of Fiji
in other countries. It consists of the embassy staff, honorary
consuls, trade bureaus and trade commissions.
Visa
Visa Exempt Countries
Nationals of the following countries are NOT required to
obtain visa before entering Fiji as visitors however, they
need to ensure that the following conditions are met:
• A passport that is valid for at least 6 months from
date of entry into Fiji.
• Return or Outbound tickets;
• Confirmation of accommodation for duration of
your visit
• Copy of latest bank statement
• Re-entry/entry visa to a country other than their
own (for example: permanent residents of Australia
must produce a valid re-entry visa for Australia)
List of visa exempted countries
Antigua & Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Austria, The
Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belgium, Belize,
Bermuda, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria,
Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Cook Islands [NZ passport
holder] Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Commonwealth
Dominica, Estonia, The federal Republic of Germany, The
federated States of Micronesia, Finland, France, The
Gambia, Ghana, Greece, Grenada, Guyana, Holy See
(Vatican), Hong Kong [SAR] Hungary, Iceland, India,
Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Kiribati,
Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lesotho, Luxemburg, Malawi,
Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Moldova,
Monaco, Nauru, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria,
Norway, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, The
Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Republic
of the Marshall Islands, Romania, Russia, Samoa, Serbia,
Slovak Republic, St Kitts & Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent &
The Grenadines, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore,
Slovenia, Solomon Islands, South Africa, South Korea,
Spain, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tanzania,
Thailand, Tonga, Trinidad & Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey,
Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Ukraine, United
Kingdom of great Britain and Northern Ireland, United
States of America, Uruguay, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Zambia
and Zimbabwe
Non-Exempt Countries
All visitors from non-exempted visa countries
require a visa to enter Fiji. All visa applications are
considered on an individual basis and may be granted for
holiday, business, joining a vessel as a crew or passenger
purposes and representatives of foreign governments.
Important Reminder
Neither possession of a visa or meeting the basic
requirements from exempt visa countries guarantees
admission into Fiji. Immigration officials make the final
determination upon entry into Fiji.
Visa Types


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1. Transit Visa
If transit period is 3 hours or less, no visa is required
however if transit period is longer than 3 hours then normal
visa requirements will apply.
2. Single Entry Visa (SEV)
This visa is valid for a single journey to Fiji only for the
period of 3 months from the date of issue and the visit not to
exceed 4 months stay.
3. Multiple Entry Visa (MEV)
This visa is valid for multiple journeys to Fiji for the period
of 12 months from the date of issue and visit not to exceed 4
months on each visit.
4. Visa for Purposes Other than a Holiday
Other purposes can mean, work, internship, study, research,
investment, yachting or residential purposes.
Fiji Culture Overview
Fijian culture is a blend of Melanesian and
Polynesian backgrounds, although Fiji is also influenced by
other vibrant cultures, including Chinese, Indian, European
and other South Pacific cultures, particularly Rotuman and
Tongan. Indigenous Fijian culture is made up of a great
variety of traditional language, art, music, food, clothing and
folklore. This culture also gives high importance to the
family unit. You can experience traditional Fijian culture at
its best by visiting the quaint villages on these islands.
Family values in Fiji
Traditional Fijian culture highly regards the family
unit, the village and the land (or vanua). Villages, tribes and
clans are led by a chief. The position of chief is inherited;
when a chief dies, a male family member takes his place,
though it does not necessarily have to be his son. The largest
social unit in Fiji is known as a yavusa, from which the
members are thought of as the direct descendents. Each
brother in a family then forms his own branch of yavusa,
which is called the mataqali. The mataqali consists of
different levels, which are based upon the duty performed by
the member:
• Turuga: the chiefly and highest position in a
village, tribe, or clan
• Sauturaga: supporter of the chief, enforces his
commands and has final say in the choosing of the
next chief
• Mata ni vanua: in charge of ceremonial functions
and are the official heralds of the village
• Bete: the priest class
• Bati: the warrior class
• Dau and Matai: the specialized skilled and crafts
people
The mataqali are also subdivided into tokatoka, each of
which consists of closely-related families.
Fiji art
Fijian art is made up of varieties of beautiful
pottery, wooden and woven handicrafts. Weaving and
pottery-making is generally performed by the women. Each
region in Fiji has its own unique pottery style, and some
villages are renowned for their fine pottery, including Na
Lotu located on Kadavu, along with the villages in the
Nadroga and Rewa provinces. Weaving material mostly
consists of coconut and pandanus, which are used to create
lovely and intricate mats, hats, baskets and so on. There is
also an art gallery in Savusavu on Vanua Levu where you
can see a wide variety of gorgeous Fijian art.
Fine arts
The traditional dance in Fiji is known as the meke,
which may include some aspects of the seasea (women’s fan
dance) or meke wesi (men’s spear dance). Each district in
Fiji has its own unique form of the meke, and these dances
can be used to narrate celebrations and important events,
such as the installation of a chief or a war.
Fijian music is mostly dominated and influenced by
the Melanesian and Polynesian cultures, although folk songs
also play a large part. Folk music in Fiji consists of a
combination of vocal church music and traditional dance
forms. Instruments often used in traditional Fijian music
include the guitar, ukulele, mandolin and Lali drum, which
is also used to call village members or local people in an
area for a variety of social gatherings.
Language
English, Bau Fijian and Hindustani are the official languages
in Fiji, though English is the most widely spoken. The Fijian
language originated from the Austronesian family of
languages and is made up of many dialects, but Bau Fijian is
the most commonly spoken of these. The Fijian alphabet is
similar to the English version, however the letter “x” is
excluded and “h” and “z” are rarely used. There are also
some pronunciation differences; the letter “c” is pronounced
like the English “th” sound in “this”, the letter “d” is
followed by an “n” sound, “b” is followed by an “m” sound,
“g” by itself is pronounced like the “ng” in “thing”, “q” is
pronounced as “ng” plus a strong “g” like in “finger” and “r”
is rolled as it is in Spanish.
Fiji food and drink
The traditional foods and ingredients for preparing
Fijian meals include fish, rice, sweet potatoes, coconut,
cassava, breadfruit and taro. Fiji also has delicious national
specialty dishes, such as Kokoda, which is raw fish with
coconut cream marinated in lemon or lime juice, and
Coconut Chutney, which consists of grated coconut, green
chile, lemon juice, grated ginger, cilantro leaves and salt.
The national drink of Fiji is yaqona, or kava, which
is prepared from the root of a pepper plant. The drink brings
about the feeling of numbness on the tongue and lips, along
with muscle relaxation. However, it is strong and can
become intoxicating if you drink too much of it. Kava


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drinking is often done in villages during ceremonies or
simply as part of social gatherings.
Clothing
The traditional clothing in Fiji is the sulu, which is
very similar to a sarong or pareau. One dress can be worn in
numerous forms for both casual and formal occasions, and
both men and women wear them. Men wear the skirts to
school, work, events and even for special occasions. The
elder women normally wear floor-length skirts, while the
young women usually prefer short length skirts and dresses.
Religion
Indigenous Fijians are highly religious people. In
Fijian villages, there is usually a beating of the Lali drum at
sunrise, which is meant to awaken the gods. Fijians have
traditionally believed and worshipped in gods that were
thought to bring about both prosperity and misfortune, along
with gods and spirits of the afterlife. The most important of
these gods is Degei, who was believed to take the form of a
giant snake that resided in a cave and also judged the newly-
dead souls. The two places dead souls could be judged to
were either the paradise-afterlife, Burotu (comparable to
Heaven in Christianity) or Murimuria, located at the very
bottom of a lake, where they were appropriately rewarded or
punished.
History
The first inhabitants of Fiji date back to ancient
times. According to Fijian legend, the great chief
Lutunasobasoba led his people across the seas to the newly-
discovered islands of Fiji. Most experts agree that the first
people to land on Fiji were from Southeast Asia and that
they had entered into the Pacific via the Malay Peninsula.
The Polynesians most likely arrived in Fiji over 3000 years
ago, although they were conquered by Melanesian invaders
around 1500 B.C. Both the Polynesians and the Melanesians
mixed to create a unique culture and a highly developed
society long before the first Europeans settled on the islands.
European Arrival in Fiji
The first European arrivals in Fiji had been
accidental. The first discovery was made in 1643 by a Dutch
explorer, Abel Tasman. The second to land on Fiji was
English navigator Captain James Cook in 1774, and he also
continued to explore the islands during the 18th century.
However, much of the credit of the discovery and recording
of the Fiji Islands went to Captain William Bligh, who sailed
through Fiji in 1789 after the mutiny on the Bounty, a
British Royal Navy ship. At around the early 19th century,
shipwrecked sailors and runaway convicts from the
Australian penal settlements were the first Europeans to land
and live among the Fijians, while missionaries and
sandalwood traders came around at mid-century.
The name Fiji was first conceived by Cook. The
Fijians had called their land “Viti,” but the Tongans called it
“Fisi,” and so it was by the differences in foreign
pronunciation that the islands are known as they are today.
As European populations in Fiji increased, they gained
greater influence on Fijian culture as well, and it was during
this time that houses and canoes were built, Western-style
clothing was first adopted, confederations were formed and
wars were fought on a larger scale without precedent but
ended more abruptly. Christianity had also spread
throughout the islands, and cannibalism, which had once
been practiced in Fiji, soon ended.
However, the “golden age” of Fiji took a turn for
the worst in 1874, when Fiji was ceded to Great Britain, and
deadly epidemics nearly wiped out the entire indigenous
Fijian population. The colonial government, though, took the
Fijians’ side, and the population was eventually restored.
Indian Arrival in Fiji
In 1879, Indians first arrived in Fiji as indentured
servants to work on the sugar plantations until 1916. After
the indentured system was abolished, however, most chose
to stay in Fiji ever after they were offered passages back to
India, and the majority became independent farmers and
businessmen. Today, Indians make up a significant portion
of the Fijian population and have greatly impacted its
culture, though they have also faced discrimination
throughout the years.
20th Century and Today
The 20th century brought about major economic
and political changes in Fiji. A major sugar industry was
developed, as well as productive copra milling tourism, and
other secondary industries. Fiji’s economy has been
strengthened by these important industries, which have
helped pay for medical services, education, infrastructure
and an expansion in other public services and works.
In 1970, Fiji gained its independence from Great
Britain, although it has dealt with some governmental and
racial issues. A military coup took place in 1987 to prevent
the shifting of power to an Indian-dominated coalition party.
In 1990, a constitution was granted that gave non-ethnic
Fijians a disproportionate say in the government, although
they were given greater rights when the constitution was
amended in 1997.
Another coup occurred in 2000 after the first Indo-
Fijian Labor Party leader Mahendra Chaudhry was elected
as Prime Minister of Fiji a year earlier. Chaudhry had been
taken hostage by a Fijian businessman, George Speight, who
demanded an end to Indian political participation. An ethnic
Fijian-dominated government led by Prime Minister
Laisenia Qarase took over after the incident, although the
government was later ruled unconstitutional in 2003 because
it did not include members of the Labor Party as they had
refused to join after Chaudhry was excluded from the new
government.
In 2006, Commodore Bainimarama executed a third
coup against the government of Qarase and declared himself
Acting President of Fiji. The coup was ruled illegal in 2009,
and all members of his cabinet were suspended. However,
Bainimarama was later reappointed his position as Prime
Minister, and all Cabinet members had their positions
returned to them as well.


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Governmental and political issues still take place in
Fiji today, though they do not affect visitors to the islands.
Fiji is also now recognized as the focal point of the South
Pacific and plays a major role in regional affairs as a result
of its recent developments in sea and air transport and
communication.
Mythology – Sacred Places
Modern day Fiji is a worshipper’s paradise. It is not
surprising that in a place where people practice diverse
religions and keep alive the mystical stories of their old
religion, sacred sites, such as temples, mosques and
churches lie in abundance.
Before Christianity spread across Fiji, nearly every
village on the islands had a temple, in which worshippers
offered gifts to the gods of the old religion. In the 19th
century, most of these temples were razed and Christian
(predominantly Methodist) churches were erected in their
place. St. Xavier Catholic Church, which located on a hilltop
in Navunibitu, Rotuma, is an old edifice with a sweet
surprise inside: a startling mural of the Black Christ painted
in 1963 by the French artist Jean Charlot. Parish priest
Father Petero Mataca explained what he believes to be the
significance of the Black Christ mural: “The artist painted
that God as a Fijian, a local to show that God [is not a
foreigner but lives among the people].”
Soul-searching visitors arriving at Nadi Airport
should not miss a chance to see the Sri Siva Subramaniya
Temple, located at the end of the main road in Nadi. The
temple, which is the largest Hindu temple in the southern
hemisphere, was originally constructed in 1926 and then re-
designed and re-constructed in 1986. It is a construction
marvel that evidences the architectural principles of the
Vastu Vedic tradition. Worshippers and tourists flock to this
temple en masse every day to witness and participate in the
unique religious ceremonies held here.
The Sri Siva Subrmaniya Temple holds special
importance for Fijian Hindus because the Kendrit Shiri
Sanatan Dharam Shiv Temple, which also used to be located
in Nadi, was destroyed by arsonists in October 2008. Four
other temples were also burned down within just a few
weeks of the Kendrit Shiri Sanatan Dharam Shiv Temple
destruction, evidencing a wide-scale attack against Fijian
Hindus. (The Fiji Times published an editorial condemning
Christian aggression towards Hindus and the destroying of
Fijian landmarks.)
A 30-minute flight away is Vatulele, a small,
pristine island that is home to the Sacred Red Prawns.
Legend has it that long ago in Vatulele there lived a
beautiful chief’s daughter whose hand was coveted by all the
young chiefs. One particularly daring suitor from Viti Levu
brought with him what he thought would be a delectable gift
that the maiden would be unable to resist: giant prawns from
the coastal streams of Viti Levu, cooked to perfection in
coconut milk.
The chief’s daughter was enraged at the emollition of these
beautiful creatures and had the young chief flung off the
highest cliff on Vatulele Island. As the young suitor fell off
the cliff, the prawns fell from his hand into the tidal pools
which lay at the base of the cliff. Immediately, the prawns
came to life again! Today, travellers can still visit the tidal
pools in which these sacred, scarlet-colored prawns swim
Mythology – Myths & Legends
Oral story-telling is a popular and important
pastime in Fiji that helps to keep alive the myths from the
old religion, as well as legends about more modern figures
in Fiji’s history. So when in Fiji, pull up a stool (or a woven
mat) beside the fire, grab a bowl of kava and Fijians will tell
you a tale… a tale of Pacific gods, of indigenous plants and
animals, of cannibals who ate their enemies during war
time...
One popular Fijian creation myth that explains the
existence of human life on the islands is of the ancestral
snake god, Degei. In the beginning, Degei lived a lonely life
with only Turukawa, the hawk, as a friend. One day,
Turukawa disappeared, and Degei went in search of her. He
came across Turukawa’s bird’s nest, in which he found two
abandoned eggs that he promptly took to his own house to
nurture. After several weeks of nesting, the eggs hatched to
reveal two tiny human bodies. Degei raised the humans,
grew vegetation in order to feed them and told them stories
that revealed the nature of all things.
After a good deal of time, Degei traveled through
the ocean with the humans and their progeny and landed in
Lautoka where he established the village of Viseisei, which
is believed to be the first Fijian settlement. According to
legend, Degei created Viti Levu and the smaller surrounding
islands and now lives in a cave in the Nakavadra mountain
range in Viti Levu. Newly dead souls pass through Degei’s
cave and he determines whether they will be sent to paradise
or flung into a lake to await punishment.
Degei is the most powerful god in the pantheon (or
“Kalou”) of deities that make up the old Fijian religion.
Other gods in Kalou include Degei’s son, Rokolo, the patron
of carpenters and canoe-builders, Ratumaibulu, who ensured
and health and abundance of crops, and Ravuyalo, who was
known for obstructing the newly dead from their journey
into the afterlife. Most of the gods who were widely
recognized and venerated throughout the islands were not
viewed as gentle or caring but rather as indifferent to the
affairs and troubles of humans.
Fijian mythology
Fijian mythology is also rife with stories about its
history of cannibalism. Possibly the most notorious of Fiji’s
cannibals was the 19th century chieftain, Ratu Udre Udre,
who is buried off of King’s Road in northern Viti Levu.
Udre Udre was known for practicing cannibalism even after
Fiji had officially ceded to Great Britain and its people had


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widely accepted Christianity. Although some legends claim
that Udre Udre ate over 9,000 people, the actual estimate is
probably closer to 900.
In 1849, some time after Udre Udre’s death,
Reverend Richard Lyth, who was staying in Viti Levu near
the chieftain’s former territory, came across a row of 872
stones placed side by side. Lyth then asked Udre Udre’s son,
Ravatu, about the stones and was informed that each stone
represented a human being that the chieftain had eaten.
According to Udre Udre’s son, the father had a voracious
appetite and had a taste for very little other than human
flesh. He would keep beside him at all times a box of cooked
and preserved human meat and would consume it all
himself, sharing with none.
Language
The Fijian language spoken in Fiji is a type of
Austronesian langauge and is part of the Malayo-Polynesian
family. The Austronesian languages are normally found
among islands in continental and Southeast Asia along with
islands in the Pacific. However, less than half of Fiji’s
population (450,000) speak Fijian as their primary language,
while 200,000 speak it as a second language.
Fijian has many dialects, though the official one is
the speech of Bau. Along with Bau Fijian, the other official
languages in Fiji are English and Hindustani. The Fijian
people have constitutional rights to communicate in any of
the three official languages, though the primary language in
Fiji is English. It is also the main language used in the
courts, the educational system and in business and
association.
History of the Fijian language
Fijian was first introduced in Fiji 3500 years ago by
the islands’ earliest inhabitants, who either originated from
an island in Vanatu or from the Solomons. For a long time, it
was the only spoken language in Fiji. Early missionaries
residing in the country felt that it was very important to use
the local language in all their work. In 1835, two Methodist
missionaries developed a written version of the language,
and by 1840, missionaries had invented a Fijian spelling
system and had published various books in different dialects
of the language. When it was decided that a standard dialect
was needed, Bao Fijian was chosen.
Even though English eventually replaced Bao
Fijian as the main language of Fiji, the Fijian language never
had to struggle too much to remain in existance, unlike some
other Pacific languages, such as the Hawaiian language.
Since Fijian independence in 1970, the Fijian language has
been increasingly used in schools, on the radio and in books
and newspapers.
However, it did not become an official language in
Fiji until it was declared so in the 1997 Constitution, along
with English and Hindustani. Then in May and June of 2005,
several prominent Fijian figures petitioned for an upgrade to
the status of Fijian. Though Fijian is still not considered a
necessary subject in schools, numerous leaders, such as the
current Fijian Educational Minister, Ro Teimumu Kepa, and
the Fiji Labour Party leader, Mahendra Chaudhry, are
working to change that.
A look into the Fijian language
The Fijian alphabet is made up of all the English
letters excluding the letter “x,” though the letters “h” and “z”
are also rarely used and primarily are only found in
borrowed words. Most of the consonants are pronounced the
same as they are in English, except for the letters b, c, d, g
and q..
Arts & Craft
Much of Fiji’s arts and crafts are a reflection of the
country’s Polynesian and Melanesian heritage. Traditionally,
women’s crafts and men’s crafts are separate, the women
predominantly in charge of pottery and the men of
woodcarving.
The village of Nalotu on the island of Kadavu and
the provinces of Rewa and Nadroga are famous for their
pottery, much of which is still made in accordance with the
rules and methods that were used hundreds of years ago. In
these areas, as well as in villages throughout Fiji, travelers
can purchase pottery that is decorative, as well as functional.
Diana Tugea, a famous potter from Sigatoka Valley, makes
pottery that is typically used for cooking, while Taraivini
Wati, a potter from Nasilai, is famed for her ornately
decorated pots that are used to store water.
Craftswomen from Fiji are also known for making
tapa, or masi, which is fashioned out of the bark of mulberry
trees and then decorated with black and rust-colored designs,
often times with stencils representing a particular village or
family. Masi was traditionally used as a loin cloth and
otherwise associated with cultural rituals, but is now
commonly given as a gift on formal occasions and used as
wall hangings. The island of Vatulele, located south of Viti
Levu, is renowned for its masi work.
Female artisans also make mats and baskets by
weaving together leaves of the pandanus tree (and
sometimes the coconut palm). The process involves many
steps, including gathering, de-thorning, boiling, drying and
bleaching the leaves and then decorating the woven mats
with borders of colored wool. The mats come in different
sizes and are often given as wedding gifts and are a popular
tourist item in Fiji. Craftswomen also make taa, a delicate
and difficult to produce material made from the young,
unripe leaves of palm trees, which is used to fashion hats
and handbags.
Male artisans in Fiji, meanwhile, are most famed
for their stunning woodcarving work. Traditionally, the
woodcarving techniques and designs were used for
fashioning items, such as cannibal forks, yaquona vessels
and spears and clubs used in warfare. Some of these


9

woodcarvings can be found on display at The Fiji Museum
in Suva while others can still be bought from local artisans.
The Tanoa drinking bowl, used for serving kava, Fiji’s
national drink, is the most common woodcarved item
available for purchase.
The promotion of arts and culture and the
preservation of traditional crafts are an important part of
Fiji’s development strategy. The Department of Culture and
Heritage organizes arts events and attempts to maintain and
grow a market for traditional handicrafts from Fiji. It also
organizes the Melanesian Arts & Cultural Festival, which is
held every four years.
Heritage
The founder of modern Fiji, former prime minister,
president and statesman Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, asserted
time and again that the strength of The Republic of Fiji lay
in “Unity in Diversity,” a term he borrowed from Jawaharlal
Nehru, India’s first prime minister.
Mara was referring to the diverse backgrounds that
comprise Fiji’s cultural heritage. The inhabitants of modern
Fiji are of indigenous Fijian background, as well as of
Indian, Chinese and European ancestry. These varied
influences shape the nation into a unique admixture of
cultures – sometimes a salad bowl, sometimes a melting pot.
The blending of cultures can be seen in virtually every
aspect of Fijian life: food, festivals, rituals and the arts.
A street like Victoria Parade in Suva, Fiji’s capital
and main metropolis, is a lovely microcosm of Fiji’s cultural
heritage. The street is dotted with restaurants that offer local
Fijian food, as well as Indian, Chinese, Thai and even
continental fare such as pizza. The country’s calendar of
holidays is also testament to Fiji’s cultural diversity. In
addition to secular holidays, official bank holidays in Fiji
include Christmas and Easter, as well as the Prophet
Muhammad’s birthday and Diwali, the Hindu Festival of
Lights.
While the indigenous Fijians and the Indo-Fijians
often live peacefully together, the political history of Fiji is
rife with stories of animosity and discord between the two
communities. Extreme forms of Fijian nationalism espoused
by some indigenous Fijians have led to a racialized voting
system in which politicians claiming to support indigenous
interests over “outsider” interests sometimes thrive. And as
the majority of land in Fiji is owned by indigenous Fijians,
land disputes between the two groups also abound.
The Fiji Arts Council, established by the
Department of Culture & Heritage in 1964, works to
preserve Fijian heritage by promoting the works of local
visual and performance artists and by creating a market for
Fijian art by running competitions and festivals. The Council
also organizes the widely celebrated holiday, “Fiji Day,”
which falls every year on October 10, but which locals
spend up to one week celebrating. A different theme is
chosen each year for Fiji Day (such as the 2009 theme,
“Educating Fiji towards Change, Peace and Progress”), and
local artists and performers are given an opportunity to
showcase their work and talents.
The Fiji Museum and the National Trust of Fiji
(NTF) are other governmental organizations that are charged
with promoting the nation’s cultural and natural heritage by
preserving and presenting for public view historical artifacts
and documents, as well as living flora and fauna that
symbolize Fijian life. The NTF protects 14 heritage sites
throughout the islands, five of which are community
conservation projects, demonstrating the involvement of
local Fijians in heritage preservation.
Agriculture
Agriculture, which was once a major stronghold of
Fiji’s economy, now comprises only 8.9% of the nation’s
GDP. More than three-quarters of all Fijian households used
to engage in agricultural-related activities, but now many of
those workers have switched over to the growing service
industry.
Sugarcane is Fiji’s most important agricultural
industry, accounting for over one-third of all of Fiji’s
industrial activity. Indigenous Fijians own most farmland
and local residents of Indian ancestry farm it and produce
about 90% of all sugarcane, which is then processed into
raw sugar and molasses in the Fiji Sugar Corporation, which
is predominantly owned and run by the government. The
European Union is the largest export market for Fiji’s sugar.
Coconut and copra (the dried meat of the coconut) are also
important agricultural products that are widely used and
exported from Fiji. There was a ban on exporting copra until
1998, and since then a new copra-buying company has
emerged, raising the price of copra considerably. Fiji also
grows and exports bananas, pineapples, watermelons, cereal,
rice, corn, ginger, cocoa and tobacco.
A flood in January 2009 devastated areas in the
central and western regions of Fiji and destroyed most of the
farmland in Sigatoka Valley, an area that supplies 70% of
vegetables to all local farms. Agricultural production
suffered massively and relief from Fiji’s government, as
well as seedlings donated by the Taiwan Technical Mission
and AUSAID allowed many farmers to stabilize their
vegetable production and make up some of the profits they
lost due to the flood.
According to the Fiji government, the January flood
as well as the devaluation of the Fiji dollar by 20% (which
also happened in 2009), have had a positive impact on
agricultural production by adding value to harvested crops.
Other sources indicate that the flood and the global
economic crisis actually have the potential to devastate Fiji’s
agricultural economy.
In April of 2009, the government of Taiwan advised Fiji to
curtail its falling rate of the GDP in relation to agricultural


10

production by vigilantly increasing its export business in
whatever way possible. Currently, Fiji imports more than it
exports, which contributes to its widescale trade deficit. In
August 2009, the government of Australia announced that it
would give Pacific island nations a relief package in the
amount of $150 million to combat the effects of climate
change on its agricultural production.
Every ten years since 1968, the government of Fiji
has conducted an agriculture census, which enumerates and
evaluates all farming programs by village, tikina and
province. The information collected in the census is used by
the government to make plans for agricultural reforms and
rural development. The newest census has been conducted in
2009 and will be published at the end of the calendar year.
(At the time of writing, new data was not available.)
Flora
Fiji’s tropical climate, along with its geographic
location in the Pacific Ocean, make it possible for over 113
kinds of unique flora to speckle its landscape. Burgeoning
clouds shed their rain onto the islands and the tradewinds
that blow from the east spread the rain across the eastern
sides of its islands, causing the rainforests which crowd this
region to flourish with plant life. Bamboo trees and shrubs
are commonly found in these rainforests.
The stunning beaches of Fiji are covered by a
variety of pine trees, such as silver, fishtail, fantail, umbrella
and the ever useful coconut palm. Coconut palms are
resilient and can survive the salty waters of the beaches and
provide Fiji with one of its most versatile manufacturing
resource – coconut oil – which is used to make cosmetics,
soap and margarine. Many beaches of Fiji are also covered
by the sprawling, 30-foot vines of the lovely and resilient
“Beach Morning Glory,” whose purple and pink trumpet-
shaped flowers can grow in seawater.
Pine tree varieties such as the Screw Pine and the
Casurina Pine also add to the diversity of Fiji’s tree life. The
Screw Pine, whose many-legged shape makes it look like
something out of a Dr. Seuss book, grows on the hillsides in
Fiji, and the Casurina Pine, which reaches over 20 meters in
height, is found along the Fijian coastline.
Visitors to Fiji to wish to systematically explore the flora of
the island should make a trip to the Kula Eco Park, located
on Queens Road in the town of Sigatoka. Here vacationers
can wander leisurely through the rainforest or explore the
bushwalk at their own pace. And Perry Mason fans should
definitely not miss out on “The Garden of the Sleeping
Giant” in Nadi, which was founded in 1985 by the actor
Raymond Burr. An avid cultivator of orchids, Burr endowed
this lovely garden with many varieties of exotic orchids and
native trees, which visitors can explore on their own or with
a tour guide. Orchid Island, conveniently located 10 km (16
miles) out of Suva, Fiji’s capital, is another terrific place for
nature lovers to expose themselves to the diversity of Fiji’s
plant life.
All loveliness and exotica aside, perhaps the most
unique and important of Fiji’s flora are its mangroves, which
are flooded forests that stand in shallow water and whose
roots are sunk deep into the seabed. Mangroves are crucial
to Fiji’s geography because they strengthen the islands’
coastlines against the ravages of a warming ocean.
Mangroves also protect Fiji’s beautiful reefs by absorbing
much of the force from high ocean waves and by producing
a chemical that keep harmful algae from growing on the
reefs. Some scientists and Fiji locals fear that as the climate
changes due to global warming, the mangroves may be
destroyed by rising water and salt levels of the ocean,
thereby making the Fijian islands vulnerable to one day
being absorbed into the ocean.
Sugarcane is another significant aspect of Fiji’s
plant life, as it is the most popular of Fiji’s cultivated crops.
About 90% of all refined sugar produced in Fiji’s four
surviving sugarmills is exported by the government and
accounts for over 35% of all of Fiji’s export revenue.
Bananas are the other mainstay export item in Fiji.
Fauna
Fiji Birds
The Fijian archipelago is a paradise for bird lovers,
who can spend endless hours discovering the 100 plus
species of birds that can be found on the islands. The
rainforests along the Coral Coast and Pacific Harbour on the
mainland of Viti Levu and the rainforest island of Kadavu
are especially good areas to sight birds, in particular musk
parrots, fantails and honeyeaters. The island of Taveuni has
a diverse birdlife as well, and the southeastern region of
Vanua Levu hosts endangered silk tails. Several small
islands have been set aside as bird sanctuaries, especially for
nesting boobies. Amongst those worth visiting are:
Namenalala Island off Vanua Levu and Qamea and Matangi
islands off Taveuni in the north, and Bird Island off of
Vatulele in the south.
Fiji Reptiles
Fiji has 30 species of reptiles, 12 of which are
endemic, such as the crested iguana. These beautiful
creatures are mostly found on Yaduataba Island off Vanua
Levu, an area which has become a sanctuary for crested
iguanas since their numbers started to decline rapidly in the
1990s. The banded iguana is also found in Fiji, but is
difficult to spot due to its size and camouflaging abilities.
Three of the 30 reptiles in Fiji are frogs (including the tree
frog, which is found in the rainforests of Viti Levu and the
common cane toad, which was imported from South
America to fight the proliferation of cane beetles), 10 are


11

geckos, 12 are skinks and three are snakes (including the
elusive Boa snake, which is considered a god in Fijian
mythology). Mongooses were imported to Fiji to help curtail
a rat problem, but now they pose a threat to the harmless
snakes native to the area.
Fiji Underwater Life
The underwater life of Fiji may be the most
impressive of the archipelago’s fauna. The warm waters of
the South Pacific offer a home for many dolphins, rays and
reef sharks, and Fiji’s many coral reefs host a rich marine
life, which includes sea snakes, anemone and a plethora of
exotic fish species. Five species of turtle can be found in
Fiji’s waters, and three of these species lay eggs on the
beaches in Fiji. Some resorts on the islands have started
conservation programs to protect the turtles and to
discourage villagers from killing them for their meat.
Kula Eco Wildlife Park on the Coral Coast near the
town of Sigatoka is an excellent conservation park that has
taken on the significant task of breeding many of Fiji’s
endemic species. Visitors can spend hours observing the
park’s wildlife collection, which includes iguanas, orange
doves, parrots, falcons, hawks, fruit bats, snakes and even
some of Fiji’s marine life. The park offers free hands-on
environmental education for children.
Volcanoes
Nabukelevu Volcano is located on the southwestern
end of Kadavu Island. The summit, Mt. Washington, has an
elevation of 805 meters (2,641 ft), and although Nabukelevu
has not erupted in over 10,000 years, it still poses some
geological complications in the Fijian archipelago. Three
fault lines run through Nabukelevu, making the volcano
prone to failure. Frequent earthquakes cause avalanches and
landslides of debris and volcanic rock, which slide into the
ocean, disrupting the underwater life.
A study of this debris, conducted by researchers
from the Massey University in New Zealand and the
University of the South Pacific in Suva, Fiji, revealed
deposits of pottery and human remains. These geological
findings corroborate a widespread local myth about how
catastrophic events in Nabukelevu over the last 2,000 years
destroyed an entire settlement on Mt. Washington. The
earthquakes induced by the ill-placed fault lines, combined
with cyclone activity in the region have a potential to cause
a large-scale edifice failure, which would send large chunks
of Nabukelevu Volcano into the ocean, causing a tsunami
that could reach Suva, Fiji’s capital city, which is located
110 km (68 miles) north of Kadavu Island.
Taveuni, the third largest island in Fiji, is the top of
a massive shield volcano whose base is on the floor of the
Pacific Ocean. The volcano last erupted in 1658 AD, and the
island is dotted with more than 150 craters. Abel Tasman,
the European who first sighted Taveuni in 1643, actually
mistook these craters for separate islands. Historically,
Taveuni was comprised of warring villages whose chieftains
divided the island into two distinct areas. Now, only a small
part of the village of Somosomo is controlled by Chief Tui
Cakau, who runs the area as a fiefdom. The villages of
Somosomo and Naqara make up the urban area of Taveuni,
the latter of which is settled by Indo-Fijians and is the
island’s commercial center.
Known as the “Garden Island of Fiji,” Taveuni is a
popular destination for tourists, especially those who wish to
explore the unique flora of the area. It is also a stunning
place to go diving, as much of Taveuni’s beauty is actually
located under water. The Rainbow Reef, located on the
western side of the island, is known as one of the world’s
best soft coral dive areas; and Vuna Lagoon, on the southern
side of the island, offers breathtaking views of the pelagic
and schooling fish species that swim in the South Pacific.
Koro is another volcanic island worth visiting in
Fiji. Made up of a chain of basaltic cinder cones that stretch
from north to south, Koro’s summit peaks at 522 meters
(1,713 ft). It has not had any volcanic eruptions in the last
10,000 years and currently has a population of 4,500 people
who live in the 14 villages throughout the island. Koro is
Fiji’s sixth largest island and is accessible via ferry from Viti
Levu and Vanua Levu. Travelers who wish to visit the island
can catch a flight from Suva on Saturdays to the airport
located on the eastern coast of Koro.


12

POPULATION
Historical aspects
Historically, Fiji’s economic and political
development has created inequalities and deep-rooted
divisions between its diverse ethnic groups. The country has
experienced four military coups and a military mutiny since
1987, mainly as a result of tension between the majority
indigenous Fijian population and an economically powerful
Indian minority.
Smaller minorities, including Banabans, Rotumans, Chinese,
Melanesians and other Pacific islanders are largely
politically invisible, and socially and economically
excluded.
The most recent 2006 coup, led by Commodore
Josaia Voreqe Bainimarama, has presented itself committed
to creating a multi-ethnic Fiji and ending a system that
classifies Fijians based on ethnicity. However during this
time, Fiji’s military government has been heavily criticized
for its infringement of rights to free speech, press, peaceful
assembly, and association.
Now the country is again at a crossroads. In
January 2013, Fiji’s government rejected a draft constitution
drawn up by an independent commission, and submitted it to
be re-written by the Attorney-General’s office. This
intervention threatens to significantly undermine the
people’s confidence in the process, the final document and a
democratic future for Fiji.
Against the backdrop of these upheavals, this report
aims to address the most intractable problems the
constitution set out to address: tackling discrimination and
exclusion based on ethnicity and improving intercommunity
relations. It is based on evidence drawn from interviews with
individuals from nearly all ethnic groups from various walks
of life, including government officials and representatives of
NGOs, religious communities, trade unions, employers,
farmers, university students and diplomats.
Their responses reveal a complex picture of ethnic
relations in Fiji and reflect perceptions of both greater ethnic
integration and growing divisions.
On the one hand, Fijian society is undergoing huge
changes. Rapid urbanization, a growing modern economy
and demographic shifts (indigenous Fijians are now the
country’s largest ethnic group) are eroding entrenched ethnic
divisions. People of different ethnicities are living and
working together and their children are going to multi-ethnic
schools. Increasingly, how an individual relates to members
of their own and other ethnic groups depends more on their
education and socio-economic status than their ethnic
identity or gender.
However, indigenous Fijians expressed disquiet
about what they perceived as the government’s anti-Fijian
policies. For example, the abolition of the indigenous Fijian
Great Council of Chiefs, the suppression of the Methodist
Church and the withdrawal of affirmative action
programmes. They argued that these policies have damaged
inter-ethnic relations and fuelled ethnonationalism.
Land ownership and access to natural resources
also remain the cause of much inter-ethnic tensions. Large
numbers of Indo-Fijians, who rely on land leased by
indigenous Fijians, have lost their land; and indigenous
Fijians fear their land will be expropriated by the
government for development.
While educated women from all ethnic groups have
greater opportunities for employment and getting their
voices heard, Fiji remains a male-dominated society.
Banaban, Tuvaluan and Melanesian, and some Rotuman
women in rural areas particularly struggle to participate in
decision-making beyond their families and church groups.
This report explores the historical factors that have
shaped inter-ethnic relations in Fiji, the impact of the 2006
coup and subsequent government policies, and the legacy of
the work of the Constitution Commission. The report also
provides policy recommendations, based on the evidence
drawn from extensive interviews.
This report calls on the Fiji government to:
• Rescind its decision to reject the draft
constitution, developed by the Constitution Commission
through a legitimate and participatory process, and submit
the draft to the Constituent Assembly.
• Enact comprehensive legislation to prohibit
discrimination and provide transparent, accessible and
effective access to justice for all victims of discrimination.
• Carry out an audit of all affirmative action
programmes to identify the extent to which the most needy
communities and individuals are receiving assistance. The
current complex system should be replaced by a streamlined,
simplified programme which ensures that access to support
is on the basis of need.
• Commission a comprehensive review of school
curricula by a body including representatives of all ethnic
and religious communities and propose a new curriculum
that includes teaching about the history, culture, religion and
language of all communities in Fiji.
The report also urges civil society, ethnic,
community and religious leaders to take efforts to build
understanding, tolerance and dialogue between ethnic and
religious groups
Introduction

Fiji is an archipelagic state in the South Pacific
comprising citizens from diverse cultural backgrounds
fragmented along ethnic lines. It is made up of more than
300 islands, of which 100 are inhabited. Fiji’s population of
nearly 900,000 live predominantly on the two main islands
of Viti Levu (80 per cent) and Vanua Levu (15 per cent).
English is a common language for all citizens, and
increasingly Bauan Fijian (the lingua franca of indigenous
Fijians) and Fiji Bhat (spoken by Indo-Fijians) are also
becoming more widely used. Fiji has a great potential to
become an integrated, equitable and peaceful multi-ethnic
state, ‘the way the world should be’, according to Pope John
Paul who visited the country in 1987.


13

But the country has experienced political instability
and military coups d’état over the past decades. These coups
have been justified as protecting the paramountcy of
indigenous Fijians (or iTaukei) against the supposed threat
of Indo-Fijian domination, or to promote equal rights for all
citizens irrespective of ethnicity. Because of political
instability and sense of personal insecurity, some 150,000
Fiji citizens, mostly Indo-Fijians have emigrated since the
1987 coups, and 5,000 people leave permanently each year.3
The most recent of these coups was executed by the
Republic of Fiji (previously Royal) Military Forces in
December 2006. The post-coup government, led by
Commodore Voreqe (Frank) Bainimarama, has presented
itself as firmly committed to a multi-ethnic Fiji and opposed
to the ethno-nationalistic policies of the allegedly corrupt
government led by Lasenia Qarase that was deposed.
However, the Qarase-led government was the very first
experiment with power-sharing between the two major
ethnic political parties as required by the 1997 Constitution.
This report is based on a study of inter-ethnic
relations and discrimination in the period since the last coup
in December 2006, based on detailed interviews with a
crosssection of people in Fiji about their experiences and
perceptions. An Indo-Fijian female respondent asked:
‘What kind of country is this that all its citizens want to
leave? First Indians began leaving, and now indigenous
Fijians.’
The research sought to (1) investigate and collect
information on inter-ethnic relations, discrimination and
exclusion, (2) explore the impact of government policies and
practices on levels of ethnic exclusion, and (3) look at the
future prospects of government policies on interethnic
relations and discrimination. The research also explored
gender issues and addresses intersectional discrimination,
including gender, ethnicity and religion.
This report first identifies ethnic groups and
discusses ethnicity in the context of Fiji, where it is
officially and in popular parlance used interchangeably with
‘race’. It then examines historical and contextual factors, the
2006 coup and its aftermath, the post-coup government
policies with respect to inter-ethnic relations, and the work
of the
Constitution Commission. The report then analyses
the responses of interviewees from different ethnic groups
and their views on policies to improve inter-ethnic relations.
Backround
Fiji has been multi-ethnic from prehistoric times
but has become even more ethnically diverse since the mid
nineteenth century. An ethnic group is defined by itself and
other groups by its distinctive cultural, linguistic and
religious attributes. This is a different term from ‘race’.
Sometimes there is a conflation of the two terms where race
and ethnicity are combined in a somewhat confused way.
This has been the case in Fiji where it is common
practice to speak in terms of ‘races’ rather than ethnic
groups or ethnicities. Fiji has a population of 837,271
people, according to the 2007 Census. iTaukei, or
indigenous Fijians, are the majority group (475,739),
followed by Indo-Fijians (313,798 ). Other groups include
Chinese, European, mixed race, Rotuman and Pacific islands
origins as well as expatriates of various nationalities.
‘Other Pacific islanders’, previously deemed to be
‘Fijian’ and now categorized as ‘others’ comprise
‘Melanesians’ (descendants of Solomon Islanders and Ni-
Vanuatu labour migrants), IKiribati, Banabans, Tuvaluans,
Tongans, Samoans and Wallisians.
Ethnic minorities in Fiji
Asians - This is a very small minority, which consists of
Filipinos, Koreans, Burmese and other Asians
who have taken up Fijian citizenship. They are mostly
professional and business people.
Banabas - Mostly live on Rabi Island. Others live in various
urban centres around Fiji. They were relocated to Rabi in the
1940s after their homeland, Ocean Island, was used for
phosphate mining. With the mismanagement of the Banaban
Trust Funds derived from phosphate mining reparation and
royalties, Banabans on Rabi and elsewhere are generally
impoverished and marginalized. The community’s marginal
political influence means that Banabans barely feature in
government affirmative action programmes.
Chinese - The ‘first wave’ arrived in the early twentieth
century and the ‘second wave’ in the 1980s and
1990s. They are mostly businesspeople and commercial
farmers. Unlike the relatively well integrated local Chinese,
the new Chinese immigrants tend to speak their own
languages and dialects. Despite the community’s economic
success, the community has remained politically
marginalized.
Europeans - Some have been in Fiji since the 1800s and
others came later. Europeans are mostly involved in business
and professional occupations. They and the Chinese are
among Fiji’s wealthy.
Gilbertese ( I-Kiribati ) - Small communities of Gilbertese
have been in Fiji since the late nineteenth century. They
have largely been ‘invisible’ in mainstream national life.
They are generally poor and marginalized.
iTaukei ( indigenous Fijians ) - They now constitute the
majority group (57 per cent of the population), whose
ancestors settled the country over 3,000 years ago. They are
physically Melanesian and culturally a mixture of
Melanesian and Polynesian with eastern parts of the
archipelago more Polynesian. They are culturally diverse
and follow several Christian denominations but Methodism
is dominant. Indigenous Fijians are to be found among the
highest income earners as well as among the majority of
low-income and poor people. In many areas, including
educational performance, and representation in commercial
and economic sectors of the economy iTaukei are


14

underrepresented. However, they also maintain privileges;
land-owning groups own about 88 per cent of Fiji’s land;
they make up 70 per cent of civil service positions, 90 per
cent of senior government positions and 99 per cent of the
military; and, with the application of the principle of
paramountcy, their chiefs and political leaders have wielded
considerable influence on the country’s development,
particularly through the Great Council of Chiefs. However
the current government has vowed to abolish the principle of
paramountcy, for example by removing the powers of the
Great Council, and symbolic moves such as expanding the
term “Fijians” to cover all communities.
Indo- Fijians - They comprise the second largest ethnic
group (37 per cent of the population) and are culturally and
economically diverse. More than 90 per cent are descendants
of indentured labourers (Girmityas) and the remainder are
descendants of free migrants. The majority are Hindu and a
minority are Muslim and Christian. A small number of Indo-
Fijians can be defined as wealthy or engaged in business
enterprises, but the majority of Indo-Fijians are workers and
peasant farmers, and also include the poorest of the poor in
the country. Indo-Fijian tenant farmers rely on leased
agricultural land and since 1999 many of these leases have
not been renewed, or are on the point of expiring, resulting
in the lease-holders being displaced. As a result, Indo-Fijians
are among the largest category of landless people in Fiji.
This is a source of anxiety and hardship as they often have
no other means of sustenance, and feel a real sense of
political marginalization. As a group there has been a high
degree of anxiety since the coups of 1987 and 2000;
particularly after the events of 2000, in which many Indo-
Fijians were beaten and raped, and their property looted and
burnt, the community has been traumatized.
Melanesians - They are among the landless and the poorest
and most marginalized people in the country.
They are descendants of labourers forcibly brought to Fiji to
work in plantations during the
1800s. They largely live in communities around the main
urban centres. With other Pacific islanders, they were
classified as ‘indigenous Fijians’ until the 1990 Constitution.
Studies show that Melanesian communities fare worst on
almost all social and economic indicators.
Part- Europeans - They are of mixed European and Fijian
descent, usually of Fijian matrilineal linkage. This has been
the preferred name of the community. There are very-well-
to-do families as well as a much larger group who are
landless and impoverished.
Part – Chinese - These are those of mixed Chinese and
Fijian descendants, usually of Fijian matrilineal lineage.
They are mostly tradesmen, professional and business
people.
Rotumans - Numbering just over 8,000 (1981 figures), their
home is the Polynesian outlier of Rotuma situated about 500
km north of the Fiji group, although increasing numbers are
seeking education and employment on Fiji’s main islands. In
previous constitutions, they have been officially classified as
‘indigenous Fijians’ and usually accorded the same
privileges, such as a reserved seat in parliament, and
affirmative action programmes. Yet Rotumans feel that
successive governments have neglected their communities.
Samoans - Most have been in Fiji since the early 1900s and
live in isolated small communities around Fiji.
Samoans who came to Fiji two centuries ago have been
absorbed into the Fijian community.
Tongans - Tongans have been in Fiji for a number of
centuries and have been absorbed through intermarriage and
cultural mix over the years. However, some of the
latecomers now live in isolated communities.
Tuvaluans - A long-established Tuvaluan community is
locked in a poverty and social exclusion trap. Many live on
Kioa Island and some live in communities around Suva.
Wallis and Futuna - Many of these live in communal
settlements such as the one in Tamavua, Suva. Many have
been gradually absorbed in to the Fijian community through
marriage.
Indigenous Fijians, or iTaukei, are Christians, with
a majority being Methodist. Europeans, Part-Europeans,
Chinese, Rotumans and other Pacific islanders are also
predominantly Christian. Some Chinese are Buddhists.
Indo-Fijians are mainly Hindus and Muslims, with a small
but increasing minority who are Christians.
There is further linguistic, cultural and religious
diversity within each of the officially recognized ethnic
groups. Indigenous Fijians have linguistic and cultural
differences. Indo-Fijians include those of north and south
Indian descent. Distinction is made among them between
descendants of indentured labourers (girmityas) and free
migrants. Among the Melanesian minority, people
differentiate themselves on the basis of whether their
ancestors came from the Solomon Islands or Vanuatu.
Bauan Fijian (commonly referred to as ‘Fijian’) is
the lingua franca of iTaukei and is one of three officially
recognized languages, along with English and Hindi.
Bauan Fijian is used widely because it was used to translate
the Bible by missionaries who proselytized indigenous
Fijians. It is widely used for official purposes and in
churches, while regional dialects such as Cakaudrove and
Nadroga continue to be popular among people from these
areas.
Fiji Bhat emerged in the sugar cane plantations
from the Bhojpuri dialect of north Indian immigrants. Later
arriving south Indian migrants had to learn this language and
adapt to plantation work. However, Fiji Bhat does not have a
distinct written script, and indeed is seen by ‘sudh’
(‘pure’ or proper or ‘Delhi’ Hindi speakers) as ‘pidgin’. For
official purposes sudh Hindi is used. The language for social
mobility is English followed by Bauan Fijian. The ability to
speak all three languages is increasingly preferred for certain
government positions.


15

Usually government and academic discourse
centres on the two major ethnic categories, indigenous
Fijians (iTaukei) and Indo-Fijians (na Kai idia ni Viti). Other
groups are very rarely considered and little information is
available about them.
For persons of mixed ethnic origins, until the
adoption of the 1997 Constitution, only their father’s
ethnicity was taken into account when classifying them
ethnically. The women’s rights movement had campaigned
against using paternal descent as the exclusive criterion for
citizenship. This had meant that, for almost 30 years after
independence, children born to Fiji women but with foreign
fathers were not entitled to automatic citizenship or rights to
customary land. This has serious consequences of a whole
category of people, especially rural PartEuropeans, many of
whom are landless and, culturally, indigenous Fijian.
Historical and contemporary factors in
inter-ethnic relations and discrimination
Contemporary inter-ethnic relations and
discrimination have historical and contextual dimensions.
This section briefly describes how differential treatment of
different ethnic groups during Fiji’s colonial and post-
independence period has adversely affected ethnic relations.
Colonial legacy
Under British rule, indigenous Fijians were
governed by a system of indirect rule through their chiefs.10
In 1874, the British governor created a Great Council of
Chiefs, or Bose Levu Vakaturaga, to secure their active
collaboration.
Following the signing of the Deed of Cession in
1874 by some (but not all) leading chiefs of Fiji, the British
colonial administration instituted pivotal policies that affect
inter-ethnic relations to the present day.
First, the native policy required that ethnic Fijians
reside in their nucleated villages and engage in agricultural
livelihoods as small-holder or peasant farmers until the
1960s.A significant aspect of the native policy related to
customary ownership of land and its non-alienability. The
British governor decided that only 10 per cent of Fiji’s land
area could be alienated to white settlers. A further 7 per cent
accrued to the ‘Crown’. Close to 83 per cent of the land was
recognized as owned by indigenous Fijian land-owning
groups.
The second significant policy was the invitation to
the Colonial Sugar Refining Company (CSR) of Australia to
establish sugar cane plantations and mills in the colony.12
Between 1879 and 1916, 60,500 Indian indentured labourers
were brought to Fiji to work for CSR and other planters.13
Social and economic inequalities
Colonial society was founded on a hierarchy of race
and on differential treatment based on ethnicity. The
colonial administration encouraged the separate economic
development of different communities. Historically, the
mainstream market economy – the large commercial
plantations, sugar mills, port and mill towns, mining,
tourism and other commerce – were the domain of
Europeans and migrant workers and their descendants.
Indigenous Fijians were compelled to live in rural villages.
However, over time, iTaukei acquired education and some
sought to break out of the village way of life.14 This system
created a three-tiered economic structure with Europeans
and Chinese at the top tier, followed by ‘Indians’ in the
middle tier, and ‘Fijians in the bottom tier’.
This image of inequality is widely held among
iTaukei, although the reality has always been somewhat
more complicated. However, perceptions play a critical role
in inter-ethnic relations, and indigenous Fijian leadership has
maintained that iTaukei must hold political power in their
own country, as economic power is held by others.
Stereotypes of ethnic groups emerged; these
stereotypes and accompanying prejudices have survived into
the contemporary period.
The politics of ethnicity
Ethnic groups in Fiji entered local- and national-
level political institutions at different times and in very
unequal ways. This representation was entirely gendered,
with men seen as legitimate political leaders for each ethnic
group. For much of the colonial period, Europeans – who
constituted less than 2 per cent of the population – enjoyed
equal representation in the colonial legislature with iTaukei
and Indo-Fijians.
Demographic trends – strangers in their
own land
Lack of immunity to introduced diseases resulted in
the indigenous Fijian population declining from an estimated
300,000 in the seventeenth century to 84,400 in 1921. Indo-
Fijian numbers increased, to overtake indigenous Fijian
numbers in 1946. Besides being seen as a threat in the
political domain, they were also considered to be a danger to
iTaukei ownership of land. There was talk of iTaukei
becoming ‘strangers in their own land’. Table 2 shows
population trends since 1881.
The Indo-Fijian population growth rate began to
decline in the late 1960s and 1970s as their literacy
improved. The coup of 1987 was accompanied by an exodus
of Indo-Fijians18 to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the
United States. The current estimate is 60 per cent for iTaukei
and 36 per cent for Indo-Fijians. By 2022, the projected
population of these two categories is 64.38 per cent and
29.70 per cent respectively. It is expected that all the other
minorities will increase to almost 6 per cent.
Land – Noqu Kalou, Noqu Vanua (My
God and My Land)


16

As outlined earlier, the colonial administration
divided land ownership into three types: customary or
indigenous Fijian mataqali-owned19 land now accounts for
88 per cent; a further 8 per cent is freehold land and
remainder is state owned. Freehold land has been owned by
Europeans and their Part-European descendants. Indo-
Fijians owned 1.7 per cent of freehold land in the 1970s and
it is likely that currently they own around 3 per cent of such
land. Since 1940 the Native (now iTaukei) Lands Trust
Board has administered leaseholds for land-owners. The
relationship between indigenous land-owners and Indian and
Indo-Fijian farmers spans more than a hundred years, with
periods of cooperation and times of friction.
In recent years, there has been considerable
interethnic disagreement over what constitutes fair rent for
agricultural leases as well as over the non-renewal of leases
and evictions of tenant farmers, and the return of state land
to customary owners. Among iTaukei nationalists, the
underlying belief is that Fiji is their Godgiven land and, as
owners of the land, they have special rights and privileges
that override the rights of citizens of other ethnicities. This
belief has been nurtured and reinforced historically by the
notion of the ‘paramountcy of Fijian interests’.
Ethnic capture of the state
The 1970 Independence Constitution safeguarded
the interests of indigenous Fijians, entrenched the power of
chiefs and the system of land ownership. It continued the
unequal representation of Fiji’s ethnic groups.
These communal arrangements of representation
meant that ethnically based ‘identity politics’ was deemed
normal. In political campaigns, candidates mainly appealed
to members of their own ethnic group, safeguarding and
promoting their interests. Calls for ethnic unity were integral
to these campaigns. All general elections in Fiji have been
times of ethnic tension and, over time, voting along ethnic
lines intensified.
Under the 1970 and 1990 constitutions, the
electoral system was first past the post (FPTP), which meant
that the winning party (or parties) ‘took all’. Given the
ethnic nature of political parties, it became normal for
indigenous Fijian leaders to rule and Indo-Fijian leaders to
be in opposition.
The Indo-Fijian National Federation Party (NFP)
won the 1977 general election. However, the then
GovernorGeneral reappointed the defeated indigenous
Fijian-dominated Alliance Party leader, Ratu Sir Kamisese
Mara as prime minister, using the provision of the 1970
Constitution that empowered him to decide who had the
support of the majority of members of parliament.
The 1997 Constitution’s alternative vote system24
was supposed to encourage cooperation and even coalition
of moderate political parties; but the very opposite happened
in each of the three general elections held under it. Ethnic
polarization further increased between 1999 and 2006.
Military coups
The Republic of Fiji (formerly Royal) Military
Forces comprises over 99 per cent indigenous personnel. It
is seen as an exclusively ethnic institution that caters for the
employment needs of young male indigenous Fijians. It has
a very good international reputation for peacekeeping in the
Middle East and other trouble spots, but within Fiji it is
known for its coups d’état against elected governments.
Until December 2006, the military identified itself
with iTaukei leaders and interests. It illegally overthrew two
multi-ethnic governments whose main supporters were Indo-
Fijian voters.
The 1987 military coups
In May 1987 a first military coup led by Colonel
Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Dr Timoci Bavadra’s government
– a coalition between the multi-racial Fiji Labour Party
(FLP) and the Indo-Fijian-based NFP.
Government ministers were forcibly removed from
parliament by the army, and then divided into ‘Fijian’ and
‘Indian’ groups for separate detention. The ‘Indian race’ was
seen by the army as an enemy and Rabuka was portrayed as
the ‘saviour of the Fijian race’, and made life member of the
Great Council of Chiefs.
Methodist Church ministers were prominent in the
destabilization campaigns against the Bavadra government
and openly supported the coup. Some Methodists expressed
their intolerance of non-Christian religious by burning
places of worship as well as religious books and destroying
‘idols’.
When the Governor-General tried to broker an
agreement between Dr Bavadra and Ratu Mara for a
government of national unity without Colonel Rabuka,
extreme nationalists felt marginalized. A second military
coup in September 1987 again overthrew the government.28
Rabuka abrogated the 1970 Constitution and declared a
republic.
The government decreed a new Constitution in
1990. This Constitution reserved the positions of president
and vice-president, prime minister and other senior
government positions for indigenous Fijians. It guaranteed
37 of the 70 seats in the House of Representatives for
indigenous Fijians. The senate was two-thirds indigenous
Fijians.30 A revised Constitution was adopted in1997 after a
Constitutional Review Commission recommended
amendments to the 1990 Constitution, which it described as
feudalistic and racist. This included several positive features,
including provisions for power-sharing and a comprehensive


17

Bill of Rights. However, it failed to make a firm break with
ethnic-based representation.
During the 1980s, and especially since 1987, a
number of multi-ethnic NGOs emerged to provide refuge for
battered women and advocate against gender violence and
for human rights, women’s rights and religious tolerance.
They included Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre (FWCC), Fiji
Women’s Rights Movement (FWRM), the Citizens’
Constitutional Forum (CCF) and Interfaith Search Fiji.
However, following the coup some iTaukei public servants
formed the ethnically exclusive, ‘Viti Public Servants
Association’, breaking away from the Fiji Public Service
Association.
The 2000 military coup: ethnic power
struggles resurface
The People’s Coalition group won power in the
general election of April 1999. This coalition was led by
Mahendra Chaudhry of the FLP, the Fijian Association Party
and a number of minority parties representing indigenous
Fijians and general voters. As required by the new
Constitution’s power-sharing provision, the FLP invited the
Rabuka-led Soqosoqo Ni Vtakavulewa Ni Taukei (SVT)
party (which ruled the country from 1988 to 1999) to be part
of government, but promptly withdrew the offer when SVT
set certain conditions to its participation. Instead the FLP
combined with a number of minority iTaukei parties to form
government. A majority of the cabinet was iTaukei and
Chaudhry became Fiji’s first Indo-Fijian prime minister.
During his 12 months in office, Chaudhry managed
to alienate powerful businessmen who were investigated for
tax evasion, media personalities, certain chiefs, civil servants
and even the commissioner of police. Indigenous ethno-
nationalists revived the iTaukei Movement to organize
public protests against the supposedly, ‘Indiandominated’
government.
In May 2000 the indigenous Fijian businessman,
George Speight and his military supporters entered
parliament and took the Coalition government hostage.
Indigenous Fijian youths rampaged through Suva,
looting, burning and trashing shops belonging to IndoFijians
and others. Harassment of rural Indo-Fijian communities,
home invasions, beatings and rapes, thefts of household
items, farm implements, produce and animals continued for
weeks without effective police response. These incidents
were reminiscent of scenes of President Robert Mugabe’s
land appropriation in Zimbabwe publicized previously in the
local media.34 Traumatized and insecure, scores of Indo-
Fijians fled their rural homes and set up as displaced at the
Girmit Centre in Lautoka.
Prime Minister Chaudhry and his government
ministers were held hostage for 56 days. After the Great
Council of Chiefs was unable to broker a settlement with
Speight, the then military commander, Commodore Voreqe
(Frank) Bainimarama took over the reins of government,
deposed the president and declared that he had abrogated the
Constitution. An interim government was appointed, led by
Lasenia Qarase as prime minister. The ministers in the
government were mostly iTaukei professionals. In
November a mutiny at the Queen Elizabeth Barracks (which
evidently had the support of a leading chief) resulted in the
killing of three loyal soldiers and Commodore Voreqe
(Frank) Bainimarama had to flee for his life.
From the outset, Qarase sought to placate
ethnonationalists. He proposed an affirmative action
blueprint for iTaukei and Rotumans. He strongly opposed
the legal challenge to the attempted abrogation of the 1997
Constitution.36 He formed the Soqosoqo Duavata
Lewenivanua Party (SDL), an exclusively iTaukei party, to
contest the general election.
The SDL Party won the 2001 general election.
Acting deliberately against power-sharing required by the
Constitution, Qarase refused to form a multi-party
government with the FLP, the other major party. He instead
chose to align with George Speight’s Conservative Matanitu
Vanua Party.
Qarase blamed the 2000 instability and the coup on
Chaudhry. Several people implicated in the coup served as
ministers. There was a reluctance to support investigation
and prosecution of those implicated in the coup and mutiny.
Qarase sought to remove Bainimarama as commander of
military forces.
The Qarase era and
contemporary Fiji
Affirmative action policies and
institutionalized discrimination
Convinced that the reason that iTaukei caused
political instability evidenced by the protest marches,
hostage taking and riots was because they were deprived in
economic terms compared to other ethnicities, and especially
Indo-Fijians, Qarase introduced a comprehensive plan for
affirmative action called ‘50/50 by 2020’. The economic
objective was for iTaukei and Rotumans to control 50 per
cent of the country’s modern economic sector by 2020.
Besides making the $20 million allocated by Rabuka to
Fijian Holdings Limited into an outright grant, he
established 29 programmes under the Social Justice Act
2001 (see Table 3 - overleaf - for a breakdown of these
programmes).
The NGO Coalition on Human Rights report
presented to the Committee on the Elimination of
Discrimination (CERD) in 2002 maintained that there was a
strong bias in favour of iTaukei and Rotumans, with 55 per
cent of the programmes specifically for these ethnicities, 4.7
per cent for Indo-Fijians and 40.5 per cent for all
communities. ‘So altogether, of the F$70 million for
affirmative action programmes in 2003, over F$60 million
(85 per cent) is for indigenous Fijian and Rotumans’.
Further legislation in 2002 reserved 50 per cent of
government contracts, licences and permits for companies
owned by indigenous Fijians and Rotumans, and reserved 50
per cent of shares in government-owned companies for


18

them. Special tax exemptions were allowed for indigenous-
owned companies. Corruption increased.
Qarase’s government actually disadvantaged many
ordinary iTaukei. In education, additional funding was
directed to iTaukei schools that were owned by government
or managed by iTaukei. But the government only owns 2 out
of 700 primary schools and 12 out of 150 secondary schools.
Non-iTaukei owned and managed schools actually have
more iTaukei students than those of other ethnicities. These
schools were not supported. With respect to enhancing
iTaukei share in business, it turned out that the most
lucrative ‘A’ class shares in Fijian Holdings Limited were
bought out by a select group of iTaukei and less well-paying
‘B’ class shares were allocated to iTaukei provinces.
Discrimination in access to land
Indo-Fijians have been very heavily dependent on
iTaukei land-owners for leases of land. In the period
between 1997 and 2007 many such leases began to expire.
Broadly speaking, periodic lease renewals were
politically determined, but individual leaseholders were
required to make ‘goodwill’ payments for renewal of their
individual leases to land-owning mataqali heads. Some
goodwill payment demands could be large and cause long-
term indebtedness. Most of the sugar cane farm leases are on
indigenous-owned land.
It was estimated that, by 2003, 70 per cent of the
farms that had been vacated were no longer productive.
Sugar cane production declined by a third.
The amount of land allocated by government to
resettle ‘evicted’ farmers was a fraction of what was needed.
A majority of these farmers moved to urban centres, where
many of them joined the mushrooming squatter settlements.
These settlements of makeshift homes also house substantial
numbers of iTaukei who no longer reside in their own
‘vanua’.
While being well aware of very large proportion of
Indo-Fijians and other ethnic communities becoming
landless, in 2002 the Qarase government transferred nearly 4
per cent of state-owned land to the Native (now iTaukei)
Lands Trust Board, seriously affecting any sense of security
that sitting Indo-Fijian tenants had from being on state land.
Discrimination in allocation of
scholarships
Post-independence, there have been three broad
categories of government scholarships for studies in tertiary
institutions: the Public Service Commission (PSC)
scholarships that everyone can apply for but 50 per cent are
reserved for iTaukei and Rotumans; the Fijian (now iTaukei)
Affairs Board (FAB) scholarships that are only for iTaukei;
and the Multi-ethnic scholarships for other ethnicities. The
PSC awards are the most competitive and for non-iTaukei
students, marks required for eligibility have been increasing
each year. The FAB awards are open to all iTaukei with no
family income threshold. However, for the Multi-ethnic
awards there is an income threshold of F$10,000. A quota
for Melanesian and other minorities was put in place to
ensure that Indo-Fijians did not end up taking all the awards
in this category.
Employment discrimination
Since 2006 there has been a militarization of the
public service as senior military personnel have secured
positions at the level of commissioners of divisions and as
district officers.42 According to a confidential report by the
Citizens’ Constitutional Forum (CCF), in mid 2012, the
cabinet comprised ‘36 per cent military officers, 18 per cent
civilians with military connections and 45 per cent
civilian’.43 On the same date, 12 out of 23 ministries (52 per
cent) had a minister or permanent secretary who was a
military officer or reservist.44 Fiji’s civil service currently
comprises close to 70 per cent indigenous Fijians, with the
highest echelons of government being close to 90 per cent
iTaukei.
In the contemporary period, in the private sector,
banks, finance companies and large businesses employ
increasing numbers of suitably qualified iTaukei. However,
in the small business sector, especially family-run retail
shops, there are not many indigenous Fijian owners. In
most
tourist resorts and hotels, there is an ethnic and gender
division of labour. Front office positions, waitressing and
chamber maid positions are generally allocated to iTaukei
and people of mixed ethnic origin. The back office jobs of
keeping records, accounting and administration, as well as
gardening and trade jobs, are allocated to Indo-Fijians. Much
of the cleaning and laundry work is done by women.
Generally, senior managerial positions are held by whites
and Asian expatriates.
The 2006 coup d’état: the power
struggle between ‘moderates’ and
‘extremists’
Receiving 80 per cent of iTaukei votes in the
general election of May 2006, Qarase’s winning SDL Party
invited FLP to form a multi-party government in accordance
with the Constitution. This was unprecedented; the
experiment in power-sharing between the two political
parties representing the major ethnicities appeared to be
working.


19

With a clear majority and elements of the FLP in
tow, the SDL confidently pushed its ethno-nationalist
agenda. The military challenged this orientation of the
government, asserting that it was the final protector of
national interest as clearly stipulated in the 1990
Constitution. When the government persisted in pushing
bills that were vehemently opposed by the commander of the
military, the 2006 coup began to unfold.
In December 2006, the Commodore Voreqe
(Frank) Bainimarama overthrew the Qarase government.
While justifying his illegal removal of the government as a
move to ‘clean up corruption’, there were other possible
reasons for his action. These included the intention to
investigate him and other officers responsible for the brutal
deaths of five alleged rebel soldiers following the 2000
mutiny, and also efforts by Qarase to have him removed as
commander of Fiji’s military. The attempted mediation
between the two men by the New Zealand government was
unsuccessful.
The situation post-2006
In the immediate aftermath of the coup, protests
against the military take-over were firmly suppressed.
Anyone openly expressing anti-government sentiments was
detained, humiliated and tortured. A number of indigenous
Fijians died from beatings and torture at the hands of the
police and military. The immunity decreed by the
government has meant that members of the security forces
have not been held accountable for gross violations of the
human rights of citizens yet again.
Unlike the previous three coups, the 2006 military
usurpation of power is widely perceived to be antiindigenous
Fijian and pro-Indo-Fijian. Highly respected iTaukei
institutions, such as the Great Council of Chiefs, the
Methodist Church, the Fijian (now iTaukei) administration
and the Native (now iTaukei) Land Trust Board were seen to
be under attack, as were measures of affirmative action for
indigenous Fijians. The Great Council of Chiefs was
rendered ineffective and has been abolished. The dominant
faction of the Methodist Church leaders had supported all
the previous coups and had actively supported the SDL
Party. Bainimarama swiftly stopped meetings and gatherings
of Methodists, such as the Annual Conference and choir
competitions, which raised substantial funds that the church
relied on.
Even though the Bainimarama government has
been predominantly indigenous Fijian (currently all except
two people in the cabinet are iTaukei), it is seen as an
antiiTaukei regime. With the initial involvement of
Mahendra Chaudhary as Minister of Finance, the
government was seen as pro-Indo-Fijian. The coup and the
government have also been seen as being ‘Muslim’ on
account of the involvement of individuals of this faith in the
government and judiciary.
In 2007 a National Council for Building a Better
Fiji (NCBBF) was established, chaired jointly by Prime
Minister Bainimarama and Archbishop Petero Mataca, head
of the Catholic Church in Fiji,50 and comprising
representatives of ethnic groups, religious groups, trade
unions, NGOs and civil servants. However, this council and
subsequent efforts at wider consultation and engagement
have not been supported by political and religious
(especially Methodist) leaders, trade unionists and leaders of
other civil society organizations.
The NCBBF established three task teams to work
on good governance, economic growth and ‘social cultural
identity and nation building’. It prepared a report on the state
of Fiji’s economy and society which described the country’s
poor economic performance, growing poverty and
corruption, and a citizenry that was divided ethnically. The
document, the People’s Charter for Change, Peace and
Progress, has sought to address these matters. Although the
process has been divisive, the government has persisted with
it, and has claimed that the charter has popular support.
Subsequently, a Roadmap for Democracy and Socio-
economic Development 2009–2014 was drawn up. This
encapsulates a strategic framework to achieve ‘sustainable
democracy, good and just governance, socioeconomic
development and national unity’.
Given the country’s increasing ethnic polarization,
the government is apparently committed to moving Fiji
firmly away from its ethnic preoccupations. In terms of
political representation it is committed to the principle of
‘one person, one vote and one value’, and a system of
proportional representation with no ethnically-based
reservation of seats. It has decreed ‘Fijian’ as the common
national name for all citizens. It has also allowed multiple
citizenship for Fiji’s citizens.
The Bainimarama government has emphasized the
importance of merit in appointments and promotion. It has
established the Fiji Independent Commission Against
Corruption (FICAC) to investigate corruption, especially in
public service. However, government ministers are mainly
indigenous Fijian and so are the senior public servants. One
factor in this state of affairs is the travel sanctions placed by
Australia and New Zealand on anyone who takes up a
government appointment. So it is left to the predominantly
indigenous Fijian military to provide personnel for
leadership positions in the public service.
On land matters, the government has set up a
Committee on Better Utilization of Land (CBUL) and the
Land Use Unit, which is responsible for the ‘land bank’
scheme. CBUL seeks to identify idle land to bring it into
productive use. Land-owners voluntarily designate land that
they do not need and also indicate their preferred use of the
land. The state then leases out the land to investors for up to
99 years.
A number of pro-poor measures have been
undertaken. These have included the provision of ‘free bus
fares’ for children whose parents are below a certain
threshold of income, as well as free textbooks for students.
Besides the review of the Family Assistance Allowance
Scheme by the World Bank (which controversially
recommended that hundreds of recipients should no longer
receive the monthly support), a system of food vouchers for
those on this scheme has been implemented. Squatter
settlement upgrade as well as squatter resettlement
programmes have been being implemented.

Case of study Fiji

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Case of study Fiji