1. The document discusses several theories on the origin of language: 2. The biblical theory suggests language originated from the Tower of Babel story in the Old Testament, where God confounded human language. 3. Other theories propose language developed from the imitation of natural sounds like animal noises (Bow-wow theory) or everyday objects (Ding-dong theory), or from gestures and rituals (Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay theory). 4. The document also mentions that in the Philippines, distinct dialects developed as ancient Filipinos spread across the islands, evolving from an original Austronesian language. However, the exact origin of language remains uncertain.

1. Filipino
1. Teoryang Bow-bow
- ito ay ang panggagaya ng tao sa mga tunog na nalikha ng kalikasan.
2. Teoryang Pooh-pooh
- ipinapalagay na natutong magsalita ang mga tao dahil sa hindi sinasadyang napapabulalas sila
bunga ng masidhing damdamin. Ang tao ang siyang lumikha ng tunog at siya rin ang nagbibigay ng
kahulugan nito.
3. Teoryang Yo-he-ho
- tunog na nalilikha sa pwersang pisikal kung saan natutong magsalita ang tao dahil sa nalilikha
nilang tunog kapag sila ay gumagamit ng lakas.
4. Teoryang Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay
- sa mga tunog na galing sa mga ritwal ng mga sinaunang tao ang naging daan upang matutong
magsalita ang tao. Ang mga sayaw, sigaw o incantation at mga bulong ay binigyan nila ng kahulugan
at sa pagdaan ng panahon ito ay nagbagu-bago.
5.Teoryang Tata
- sa mga kumpas at galaw ng kamay na ginagawa ng mga tao sa mga partikular na okasyon ay ginaya
ng dila hanggang ito ay mag-produce ng tunog at natutong magsalita ang mga tao. Ang tawag dito
ay ta-ta na sa France ay paalam o goodbye.
6.Teoryang Ding-dong
- ito ay katulad lang ng Teoryang Bow-wow. Kasali na rito ang mga bagay na ginawa ng tao tulad ng
doorbell, motor, tv, telepono at marami pang iba.
Another Answer:
teoryang dingdong
teoryang yoheho
teoryang yum-yum
teoryang bow wow
teorayng pooh-pooh
Another Answer:
Ding Dong - bagay. Ipinalagay sa teoryang ito na ang lahat ng bagay sa kapaliran ay may sariling
tunog na siyang kumakatawan sa nasabing bagay. Mga tunog ang nagpapakahulugan sa mga bagay
tulad ng kampana, relo, tren, at iba pa.
Bow Wow - kalikasan. Dito ang tunog ng nalikha ng kalikasan, anuman ang pinagmulan ay ginagad ng
tao. Halimbawa, ang tunog-kulog, ihip ng hanging, at iba pa.
Pooh Pooh - tao. Ipinalalagay na ang tao ang siyang lumikha ng tunog at siya ring nagbibigay ng
kahulugan. Dito ang tunog mula sa mga tao.
Kahariang Ehipto - Ayon sa haring si Psammatichos, ang wika ay sadyang natutuhan kahit walang
nagtuturo o naririnig. Natutunan kahit walang nagtuturo. Unconsciously learning the language.
Charles Darwin - Ito ay nakasaad sa aklat na Lioberman (1975) na may pamagat na "On the Origin of
Language", sinasaad niya ang pakikipagsapalaran ng tao para mabuhay ang nagtuturo sa kanya
upang malikha ng iba't ibang wika. Wika natutunan tungkol sa mga pakikipagsapalaran.
Genesis 11: 1-9 -Tore ng Babel. Story of Tower of Babel. Based on the Bible.
Wikang Aramean - Believes that all languages originated from their language, Aramean or Aramaic.
Syria. May paniniwalang ang kauna-unahang wikang ginagamit sa daigdig ay ang lenggwahe ng mga
Aramean. Sila ang mga sinaunang taong nanirahan sa Syria (Aram) at Mesopotamia. Tinatawag na
Aramaic ang kanilang wika.

2. 1. Teoryang Biblikal
* ang tore ng babel (Lumang Tipan) * ang pentekostes (Bagong Tipan) 2. Teoryang Sayantifik
FIL 25 PAPER no.1: PINAGMULAN NG WIKA
“Walang taong walang wika at wala ring hayop na may wikang katulad ng sa tao.”
Subukan mong bumuklat ng mapa ng mundo, pansinin mo (haay ang daming bansa) maihahambing mo dito
ang bilang ng wikang binibigkas ng mga iba’t ibang tao sa buong mundo. Itong realisasyon na ito ay
nakakamangha; kahit na maraming wika ang ginagamit ng mga tao ngayon, hindi natin maikakaila na
nagkakaroon pa rin tayo ng mga tulay upang ang bawat isa sa atin ay makapagkomunika at magkaisa.
Pero, saan nga ba nagmula ang wika?
Ang wika ay sumasasakop sa pagsasalita at lengwaheng ginagamit ng iba’t ibang mamayan sa bawat sociedad.
Bilang tao, hindi natin natin maitatanggi na mayroon maykapal na lumikha sa atin at nagbigay kapangyarihan
upang tayo ay gumamit ng napakakomplikadong wika sa tamang paraan. Pero bilang tao rin, sa tingin ko,
sadyang natural sa atin na siyasatin ang kahit napakaliit na bagay na nandito sa mundo, at isa na ang misteryo
kung paano o saan nga nagmula ang wika.
Pero sa totoo lang, hindi talaga tiyak o wala talagang kasagutan sa katanungan na iyan sapagkat wala naman
nabuhay nung mga panahong iyon o di kaya wala naman daw tinatawag na “primitive society” kaya wala
talagang matukoy na takdang panahon ng pagsimula nito. Dahil dito, napakaraming mga teorya ang nabuo, ito
ay ang mga sumusunod:
1. Tore ng Babel – Matapos ang “the Great Flood”, binigyan uli ng pagkakataon ng
Diyos ang mga tao na magbago. Pare-pareho ang lenggwaheng binibigkas noon. Ngunit, mayroon lider, si
Nimrod na naging maramot at nais makita ang kaharian ng Diyos sa alapaap. Hinimok niya ang mga tao ng
gumawa ng Tore,kaya iyon, nagsimula silang magtayo ng Tore. Nang nalaman ng Diyos ito, nagalit siya na
nagiging ganid ang mga tao, kaya inuga niya ang Tore at nahulog ang mga tao. Marami sa kanila ang nagsalita
ng sariling wika at tuluyang hindi na sila nagkaintindihan.
2. Natural Evolution - Sinasabi ng dalubhasa, na mula sa mga society na nagdaan, nagkakaroon ng
“advancement of knowledge” kaakibat na dito ang pagkatuto ng wika dahil sa pang-araw araw na gawain.
3. Gestural Theory – Unti-unting nagkakaroon ng wika dahil kinakailangan ng ating mga ninuno na iangkop
ito sa gawain nila (hunting, walang eye to eye contact sa kausap) dahil dito mas hindi na sila dumedepende sa
gestures lang.
Teorya ayon sa mga tunog ng bagay at hayop:
4. Teoryang Bow-Wow – wika mula sa panggagaya ng mga tunog ng kalikasan
5. Teoryang Pooh-Pooh – wika bunga ng mga masisidhing damdamin tulad ng sakit, kalungkutan, takot (hal.
Aray! Napapa-ouch!)
6. Teoryang Yo-HE-Ho- natutong magsalita mula sa tunog buhat ng pwersang pisikal. (hal. Pagsumusuntok o
nangangarate)
7. Teoryang Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay – likas ang sinaunang tao sa ritwal. Kaakibat ng ritwal ay ang mga
pagsasayaw, pagsigaw, incantation o bulong. Mula dito, nagbabago bago at nilalapatan ng iba’t ibang
kahulugan ang mga ito.
8. Teoryang Ta-Ta – ang kumpas o galaw ng kamay o kung anu man laging ginagawa ng tao ay ginaya ng dila
at naging sanhi ng pagkatuto magsalita. “Ta- ta” sa wikang Pranses ay paalam, sapagkat ang isang tao na

3. nagpapaalam ay kumakampay ang kamay nang pababa at pataas katulad ng pagbaba at pagtaas ng dila kapag
binibigkas ang salitang ta- ta.
9. Teoryang Ding –Dong – wika mula sa tunog na nililikha ng mga bagay sa paligid (kalikasan, mga bagay na
likha ng tao). Ayon sa teoryang ito, ang lahat ng bagay ay may sariling tunog na siyang ginagad ng mga
sinaunang tao na kalauna’y nagpabago-bago at nilapatan ng iba’t ibang kahulugan.
Upang mas maging konkreto, sa Pilipinas naman, nagkaroon daw ng iba’t ibang dialekto o wika dahil sa mga
pagtawid ng ating mga ninuno sa tulay na lupa, ngunit noon daw eh Austronesian lang ang wika. Sa katagalan,
ng sila’y naghiwa-hiwalay, nagkaiba iba na rin ang wika nila na nag resulta sa Ilonggo, Cebuano etc. Patunay
lang ito na mayroon tayong sariling wika bago dumating ang dayuhan.
Sadyang napakarami nitong mga teorya ukol sa pinagmulan ng wika. Hindi natin maaring baliwalain ang isa
dito, dahil may kahinaan at kalakasan ang bawat isa at naniniwala ako na lahat ay mahalaga upang
magkaroon tayo ng sapat na ideya sa kung paano nagmula ang wika. Pero talanggang nakakapagtataka at
nakakamangha kung paano nga umusbong ang wika natin na may kumpletong salita at grammar atbp. Sa
tingin ko, ang wika ay talagang nasa sa tao na at ang kasanayan sa paggamit nito ay nakadepende sa
pakikipagkapwa tao mo. Marahil ang wika nga ay umusbong dahil kailangan natin o sadyang instinct lang kasi
kahit pipe ang isang tao may paraan pa rin ito ng wika gamit ang simbolo. Sa bandang huli, hindi talaga natin
alam ang kasagutan sa tanong, Diyos lamang ang nakakaalam at sa tingin ko dahil pinagkalooban niya tayo ng
wika at paraan para makipagkomunika at makibagay sa iba, iyon ay sapat na.
Teorya ng pinagmulan ng wika
Teorya sa Tore ng Babel
Ang teoryang ito ay nahalaw mula sa Banal na Kasulatan. Ayon sa pagsasalaysay, noong umpisa’y iisa
ang wika ng tao na biyaya ng Diyos. Dahil sa nagkakaunawaan ang lahat, napag-isipang magtayo ng isangtore
upang hindi na magkawatak-watak at nang mahigitan ang Panginoon. Nang nabatid ito ngPanginoon, bumaba
Siya sa lupa at sinira ang tore. Nang nawasak na ang tore, nagkawatak-watak na angtao dahil iba-iba na ang
wikang kanilang binibigkas kaya nagkanya-kanya na sila at kumalat sa mundo.(Genesis kab. 11:1-8)
Teoryang Bow-wow
Sinasabi sa teoryang ito na nagkaroon ng wika ang tao dahil noong umpisa’y ginagaya nila ang tunog na
nililikha ng mga hayop gaya ng tahol ng aso, tilaok ng manok at huni ng ibon.
Teoryang Ding-dong
Maliban sa tunog ng hayop, ipinalagay sa teoryang ito na ang lahat ng bagay sa kapaligiran ay maysariling
tunog na siyang kumakatawan sa nasabing bagay. Mga tunog ang nagpapakahulugan sa mgabagay tulad ng
kampana, relo, tren, patak ng ulan at langitngit ng kawayan, at iba pa.
Teoryang Pooh-pooh
Ang tao ay nakalilikha ng tunog sanhi ng bugso ng damdamin. Gamit ang bibig, napabubulalas ang mgatunog
ng pagdaing na dala ng takot, lungkot, galit, saya at paglalaan ng lakas.
Teoryang Yo-he-ho
Isinasaad dito na nagsimula ang wika sa indayog ng himig-awitin ng mga taong sama-samangnagtatrabaho.
Teoryang Yum-yum
Sinasabi sa teoryang ito na ang wika ay nagmula sa pagkumpas ng maestro ng musika at sa bawatkumpas ay
nagagawa niyang lumikha ng tunog mula sa kanyang labi.
Teoryang Ta-ta
Mula sa wikang Pranses na nangangahulugang paalam. Ginagaya ng dila ang kumpas o galaw ng kamayng tao
na kanyang ginagawa sa bawat particular na okasyon tulad ng pagkumpas ng kamay ng pababa atpataas
tuwing paalam.
Teoryang Sing-song
Ito ay nagmula sa di mawatasang pag-awit ng mga kauna-unahang tao; may melodiya at tono ang pag-usal ng
mga unang tao.Hal: paghimno o paghimig.

4. Ang wikang Filipino[2] ang pambansang wika at isa sa mga opisyal na wika ng Pilipinas—ang Inggles ang isa
pa—ayon sa Saligang Batas ng 1987. Isa itong wikang Awstronesyo at ang de facto ("sa katotohanan") na
pamantayang bersyon ng wikang Tagalog, bagaman de jure ("sa prinsipyo") itong iba rito.
Mga nilalaman
[itago]
 1 Pagsilang at layunin
 2 Kasaysayan
o 2.1 Mga naiibang pananaw at panukala
 3 Tingnan din
 4 Mga sanggunian
 5 Mga kawing panlabas
Pagsilang at layunin[baguhin]
Isang layunin ng pagkakaroon ng isang wikang pambansa ang pagpapalaganap ng pagkakaisang pambansa,
ang pagkakaroon ng heograpiko at pampolitika na pagkakapatiran, at maging ang pagkakaroon ng isang
sumasagisag na pambansang wika ng isang bansa. Unang sumibol ang diwa ng pagkakaroon ng isang wikang
pambansa sa Pilipinas noong balik-tanawin ni Manuel Quezonnoong 1925 ang isang damdamin ng pagkabigo
ng pambansang bayaning si Jose Rizal, nang hindi nito magawa ng huling makipag-ugnayan sa isang
kababayang babae habang nasa isang bangka patungong Europa.[2]
Kasaysayan[baguhin]
Noong 13 Nobyembre 1936, inilikha ng unang Pambansang Asamblea ang Surian ng Wikang Pambansa, na
pinili ang Tagalogbilang batayan ng isang bagong pambansang wika. Naimpluwensiyahan ang pagpili sa
Tagalog ng mga sumusunod:[3]
1. Sinasalita ang Tagalog ng napakaraming tao at ito ang wikang pinakanauunawaan sa lahat ng mga
rehiyon ng Pilipinas. Papadaliin at pabubutihin nito ang komunikasyon sa mga taumbayan ng
kapuluan.
2. Hindi ito nahahati sa mga mas maliliit at hiwa-hiwalay na wika, tulad ng Bisaya.
3. Ang tradisyong pampanitikan nito ang pinakamayaman at ang pinakamaunlad at malawak
(sinasalamin ang dyalektong Toskano ng Italyano). Higit na mararaming aklat ang nakasulat sa
Tagalog kaysa iba pang mga katutubong wikang Awstronesyo.
4. Ito ang wika ng Maynila, ang kabiserang pampolitika at pang-ekonomiya ng Pilipinas.
5. Ito ang wika ng Himagsikan at ng Katipunan—dalawang mahahalagang pangyayari sa kasaysayan ng
Pilipinas.
Noong 1959, nakilala ang wikang ito bilang Pilipino upang mahiwalay ang kaugnayan nito sa mga Tagalog.
Nagtakda naman ang Saligang Batas ng 1973 ng panibagong pambansang wikang papalit sa Pilipino, isang
wikang itinawag nitong Filipino. Hindi binanggit sa artikulong tumutukoy, Artikulo XV, Seksiyon 3(2), na
Tagalog/Pilipino ang batayan ng Filipino; nanawagan ito sa halip sa Pambansang Asamblea na mag-“take
steps towards the development and formal adoption of a common national language to be known as Filipino.”
Gayundin, nilaktawan ng Artikulo XIV, Seksiyon 6, ng Saligang Batas ng 1987, na ipinagbisa matapos ng
pagpapatalsik kay Ferdinand Marcos, ang anumang pagbabanggit ng Tagalog bilang batayan ng Filipino at
mismong ipinagpatuloy na “as [Filipino] evolves, it shall be further developed and enriched on the basis
of existing Philippine and other languages (pagbibigay-diin idinagdag).” Tiniyak pa ng isang
resolusyon[4] ng 13 Mayo 1992, na ang Filipino “ang katutubong wika, pasalita at pasulat, sa Metro Manila, ang
Pambansang Punong Rehiyon, at sa iba pang sentrong urban sa arkipelago, na ginagamit bilang wika ng
komunikasyon ng mga etnikong grupo (pagbibigay diin idinagdag).” Gayumpaman, tulad ng mga Saligang
Batas ng 1973 at 1987, hindi nito ginawang kilalanin ang wikang ito bilang Tagalog at, dahil doon, ang Filipino
ay, sa teoriya, maaaring maging anumang katutubong wikang Awstronesyo, kasama na ang Sugboanon ayon

5. sa paggamit ng mga taga-Kalakhang Cebu at Davao. Ididineklara ang buwan ng Agosto bilang Buwan ng
Wikang Pambansa
Mga naiibang pananaw at panukala[baguhin]
Bagaman naitakda na sa Saligang Batas at mga kaugnay na batas ang sariling katangian ng Filipino, may
nananatili pa ring mga alternatibong panukala sa kung ano dapat ang maaging katangian ng wikang Filipino.
Gayumpaman, nararapat itong maibukod sa mga nagdaraing lamang na, sa kasalukuyan, ang Filipino ay de
facto na iisa sa Tagalog at na ang pampublikong paggamit ng Filipino ay sa katotohanan ang paggamit ng
Tagalog.
Tingnan din[baguhin]
 Palabaybayan ng Filipino
 Alpabetong Filipino
 Mga wika ng Pilipinas
Mga sanggunian[baguhin]
1. Jump up↑ Resulta mula sa 2000 Census of Population and Housing: Educational Characteristics of the
Filipinos, National Statistics Office, 18 Marso 2005, nakuha noong 2008-01-21
2. ↑ Jump up to:2.0 2.1 "Filipino language," Simborio, Sharen. History of the Filipino language, Gabby's
Dictionary, Gabby Dictionary.com, nakuha noong 27 Setyembre 2008
3. Jump up↑ Tagalog 101: Pilipino: The National Language, A Historical Sketch, ni Anak ni Filemon, 02
Marso 1998
4. Jump up↑ "Resolusyon Blg. 92–1," Naglalahad ng Batayang Deskripsiyon ng Filipino, mga nakalagda:
Ponciano B. Pineda tagapangulong komisyonerzalez (komisyoner), Florentino H. Hornedo
(komisyoner), Angela P. Sarile (komisyoner), Bonifacio P. Sibayan (komisyoner), 13 Mayo 1992
Limang Antas ng Wika
1. pabalbal
2. lalawiganin
3. kolokyal
4. pampanitikan 5.pambansa/neutral
Another Answer:
Ang mga antas ng wika ay ang mga:
balbal = wikang balbal ay ginagamit sa lansangan..............ang wikang sinasalita ng mga walang pinag-aralan.
kolokyal= wikang sinasalita ng pangkaraniwang tao ngunit bahagyang tinatanggap ng lipunan
== Answer == Ang antas ng wika ay nagsasaad sa paggamitnito
Another Answer:
1.)balbal ang unang antas ng wika-ito ang pinakamababang antas ng wika.
2.)lalawiganin ang pangalawang antas-ito ay kabilang sa antas ng mga salitain ng mga katutubo sa lalawigan.
3.)pambansa ang pangatlong antas-ang antas na ito ay laman parin ang pagtatalo kung ano ang kasama sa
antas na ito.marami ang nagsasabing wikang filipino ang wikang pambansa,samantalang tagalog naman ang

6. sa iba.ngunit wikang filipino parin ang naitala bilang wikang pambansa.
4.)pampanitikan naman ang pang apat-ito ay ang pinaka mayamang uri,madalas itong ginagamitan ng mga
salitang may iba pang kahulugan.ginagamit dito ang mga idioma,tayutay,atbp.
Another Answer:
Pormal. Ito ay antas ng wika na istandardm kinikilala/ginagamit ng nakararami.
1. Pambansa. Ito ay ginagamit ng karaniwang manunulat sa aklat at pambalarila para sa paaralan at
pamahalaan.
Halimbawa: Asawa, Anak, Tahanan
2. Pampanitikan o panretorika. Ito ay ginagamit ng mga malikhain manunulat. Ang mga salita ay
karaniwang malalim, makulay at masining.
Halimbawa: Kahati sa buhay
Bunga ng pag-ibig
Pusod ng pagmamahalan
Impormal. Ito ay antas ng wika na karaniwan, palasak, pang araw-araw, madalas gamitin sa pakikipag-usap
at pakikipagtalastasan.
1. Lalawiganin. Ito ay gamitin ng mga tao sa partucular na pook o lalawigan, makikilala ito sa kakaibang
tono o punto.
Halimbawa: Papanaw ka na ? (Aalis ka na?)
Nakain ka na? (Kumain ka na?)
Buang! (Baliw!)
2. Kolokyal. Pang araw-araw na salita, maaring may kagaspangan nang kaunti, maari rin itor refinado
ayon sa kung sino ang nagsasalita. Ang pagpapaikli ng isa, dalawa o higit pang titik sa salita.
Halimbawa: Nasan, pa`no,sa'kin,kelan
Meron ka bang dala?
3. Balbal. Sa Ingles ito ay slang. Nagkakaroon ng sariling codes, mababa ang antas na ito; ikalawa sa
antas bulgar.
Halimbawa: Chicks (dalagang bata pa)
Orange (beinte pesos)
Pinoy (Pilipino)
Another Answer:
1.Salitang pabalbal o panlansangan
2.Salitang kolokyal
3.Salitang panlalawigan
4.Salitang pambansa
5.Salitang pampanitikan
6.Salitang pang-edukado

Kolokyal/pambansa - ordinaryong wika na ginagamit ng mga kabataan sa kanilang pang-araw-araw
na pakikipag-usap na kadalasang malayang pinagsasama ang mga wikang Ingles at Filipino

Kolokyalismong karaniwan - ginagamit na salitang may "Taglish"

7. 
Kolokyalismong may talino - ginagamit sa loob ng silid-aralan o paaralan

Lalawiganin/panlalawigan - wikang ginagamit ng isang partikular na lugar o pook.

Pabalbal/balbal (salitang kalye) - pinakamababang uri ng wikang ginagamit ng tao, na nabuo sa
kagustuhan ng isang partikular na grupo na nagkakaroon ng sariling pagkakakilanlan. ito rin ay
maaring nabuo sa pag-baliktad ng mga salitang Kolokyal/pambansa.

Pampanitikan - wikang sumusunod sa batas ng balarila at retorika.
ang mga antas ng wika ay ang mga:
balbal = wikang balbal ay ginagamit sa lansangan..............ang wikang sinasalita ng mga walang pinag-aralan.
kolokyal= wikang sinasalita ng pangkaraniwang tao ngunit bahagyang tinatanggap ng lipunan
Mga antas
Kabilang ang mga sumusunod sa mga kaantasan ng wika:
1. Kolokyal/pambansa - ordinaryong wika na ginagamit ng mga kabataan sa kanilang pang-araw-araw
na pakikipag-usap na kadalasang malayang pinagsasama ang mga wikang Ingles at Filipino
2. Kolokyalismong karaniwan - ginagamit na salitang may "Taglish"
3. Kolokyalismong may talino - ginagamit sa loob ng silid-aralan o paaralan
4. Lalawiganin/panlalawigan - wikang ginagamit ng isang partikular na lugar o pook.
5. Pabalbal/balbal (salitang kalye) - pinakamababang uri ng wikang ginagamit ng tao, na nabuo sa
kagustuhan ng isang partikular na grupo na nagkakaroon ng sariling pagkakakilanlan. ito rin ay
maaring nabuo sa pag-baliktad ng mga salitang Kolokyal/pambansa.
6. Pampanitikan - wikang sumusunod sa batas ng balarila at retorika.
pormal at di pormal na salita
balbal- epal,, iskapo,, istokwa,, haybol,, bomalabs..
lalawiganin- "Ala ay" - Batangas. "Wen manong" - Ilocos "Labi, Tiyang" - Pangasinan.
pambansa- tagalog o filipino
Pampanitikan- agham,, Simbilis ng lintek. Wagas na pag-ibig. Huwad na ngiti.

8. Intercultural Communication Studies XVII: 2 2008 Wang entire world system, the global human
condition. According to Harvey (1989), it is a process involving a compression of time and space, and in the 20
th
century, the relationships between time and space have developed in unforeseen ways. “Specifically, time has been
separated from space and both have been dramatically compressed, with time becoming shorter and space being
shrunk” (Monge, 1998, p. 144).
Globalization shrinks concepts of distance between existing cultures by dramatically reducing the time taken to
cross distances that physically separate them. Therefore, the world seems smaller, and in a certain sense brings
human beings in closer contact with each other. On the other hand it can also stretch social relations, “removing the
relations which govern our everyday lives from local contexts to global ones” (Tomlinson, 1997, p. 170-171).
Media Globalization Theories: McLuhan and Giddens
It has been argued that the globalization of media will result in the decentralization of power and permit more
bottom-up control. Marshall McLuhan provides two important concepts: “the medium is the message” and “the
global village” (Marchessault, 2005, p. 213). This insightful phrase “global village” was chosen by McLuhan to
highlight his observation that an electronic nervous system, the media, was rapidly integrating the globe - i.e. events
in one part of the world could be experienced from other parts in real-time. What human experience was like when
we lived in small villages.
Wheeler (1997) argues that the new media challenges the one-way flow of information by enhancing
interactivity.
Thus, the production of knowledge is decentralized and democratized. Through such decentralization,
technologies prevent dominant authorities from managing the flow of information. In turn, the new
technologies allow for the globalization of the media economy, compress time, make spatial relations
horizontal, relocate information and undermine the role of nation states…The globe’s citizens may engage
in a shared culture, a global village, which undermines the previously hierarchical, uniform or
individualizing methods of ideological control. (p. 182-183)
Giddens points out the tensions that exist between globalization and localization. According to Giddens,
globalization is “the intensification of world-wide social relations which link distant locations in such a way that
local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa” (1990, p. 64). As we might have
noticed, people become more conscious of both shared opportunities and shared problems. For example, the news of
world events is frequently contextualised according to the local situation. However, Scholte (1996) argues:
Globality introduces a new quality of social space, one that is effectively non-territorial and distance-
less…Global relations are not links at a distance across territory but circumstances without distance and
relatively disconnected from particular locations. Globalization has made the identification of boundaries
and associated notions of “here” and “there,” “far” and “near,” “outside” and “inside,” “home” and
“away,” “them” and “us” more problematic than ever. (p.145)

9. Intercultural Communication Studies XVII: 2 2008 Wang Cultural Globalization and Cultural
Imperialism
Because of the American monopoly in communication research since the Second World War, some people
viewed mass media as a channel of Westernization. The flow of media from the West to less developed countries
was regarded by the developed West as good not only for the recipients but also for the senders who saw it as an
integral part of their fight against socialism and totalitarianism. But this ethnocentric view of global communications
has drawn a critical response from international scholars and receiving countries. During the Cold War and the
numerous resistance movements within many semi-colonial areas, the issue became an inevitable argument. New
media imperialism seemed to succeed more easily than the previous international propaganda because of its form of
ordinary entertainment and the willingness of mass audiences to enjoy popular culture.
According to detractors of globalization, global communications are mostly connected with notions such as
cultural imperialism and media imperialism; they see global communications as a vehicle which aims at controlling,
invading or undermining other cultures. The transmitted cultural or ideological pattern has often been seen as an
invasion of Western values, particularly those of America (McQuail, 2000). Cairncross further claims, “In countries
other than the United States, people fear a future in which everybody speaks English and thinks like an American,
with cultural diversity engulfed in a tidal wave of crass Hollywood values” (2001, p. 266).
While some people criticize Western media exports as predatory, others support it as an expression of the free
market and regard the imbalance of flow as a characteristic of the wider media market, which has benefit for all
(Noam, 1991). Free-flow theorists tend to assume that global media has little predatory effect because the audience
is voluntary, claiming that global media content is culturally neutral and ideologically innocent (Biltereyst, 1995).
However, receiving countries have often complained of media imperialism, arguing that global mass media is
having negative effects on the culture and traditional values of their citizens. The idea is that cultural autonomy is
undermined by imbalance in the flow of mass media content and, therefore, its national identity in an age of
globalism is in danger of being subverted. McQuail points out, “The unequal relationship in the flow of news
increases the relative global power of large and wealthy news-producing countries and hinders the growth of an
appropriate national identity and self-image” (McQuail, 2000, p. 222). Such views have even been supported by
other leaders of western countries. Jacques Chirac has frequently spoken in developing countries about the negative
effects of American culture as transmitted through its mass communications machinery.
Supporters of the idea that globalized media is cultural imperialism also view global mass media as a process of
cause and effect, pointing out that the media conveys opinions and ideas from one place to another, from senders to
receivers. But media does not work so simply, except in certain cases of planned communication. We have to
consider the active participation of the receiving end -- the audience that shapes the media content (Liebes & Katz,
1990). The audience has as much power to shape media content through assigning meaning to it as media producers
do through creating it. The aims of media suppliers are also no longer the only element that can determine the
characteristics of the information flow within the media. The media must also respond to the wants and needs of the
receivers.
However, recently, new voices have supported media globalization. Where, a few
205 Intercultural Communication Studies XVII: 2 2008 Wang

10. countries previously dominated global media channels, now other countries and cultures are able to take advantage
of them, as well. According to Sreberny-Mohammadi, “cultural imperialism was based on a situation of comparative
global media scarcity, limited global media players and embryonic media systems in much of the Third World”
(1996, p. 177-203). The situation has changed substantially in recent years, and the mix of players has become ever
more complex.
Cultural & National Identity
Those opposed to media internationalization believe that imported media undermines the development of the
national culture of the receiving countries. On the other hand, Rupert Murdoch, CEO of The News Corporation,
giving a speech before the Singapore Broadcasting Authority, argues:
Consumers want choice and lots of it. They want to be empowered. It’s our job to empower them… We
cannot be cultural imperialists, imposing Western notions of decency and openness on countries that have
different histories, totally different values and different cultures. (Demers, 1999, p. 58)
We can also draw lessons from the European case. Most European nations have stopped claiming cultural
sovereignty and relaxed the cultural controls on the media. Now, many European citizens share cultural information
from other European countries and, to some extent, from all other countries. This has become an accepted principle
of European countries:
… [Cultural identity] is not something that is easy to manipulate by acting on the mass media, nor does it
seem to be much influenced by media culture. It survives and flourishes in many a form, and the general
expansion of television, music and other media have added some widely (internationally) shared cultural
elements without evidently diminishing the uniqueness of cultural experience in different nations, regional
and localities of Europe. (McQuail, 2000, p. 237)
In the case of Western Europe, internationalization is not the result of imperialism but of self-determination.
From this viewpoint, media is not destructive to national culture, but helpful for a nation’s cultural development and
dissemination. Some modern theorists offer evidence in support of the hypothesis that “media-cultural ‘invasion’
can sometimes be resisted or redefined according to local culture and experience” (McQuail, 2000, p. 237). For
example, after Vietnamese music was crossbred with a North American producer, a new cultural hybrid came into
being.
Some theorists, such as Liebes and Katz (1986, cited by McQuail, 2000), argue that audiences may interpret the
same alien media content differently depending on their own cultural backgrounds. In “The Export of Meaning:
Cross-cultural Readings of Dallas,” the authors present an analysis of how this American soap is seen in other
cultures. The viewers were asked to re-tell an episode of Dallas. Arabs and Moroccan Jews recounted the basic
linear story paying particular attention to action-based sub-stories. Russians, on the other hand, spoke of the episode
in terms of themes, messages, ideological content and perceived
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11. manipulative intent. Americans and kibbutzniks told the story from a psychoanalytic perspective. They
analyzed the characters’ intrapersonal and interpersonal problems (Liebes & Katz, 1993). The study showed that
people from different cultures decode the same drama differently.
The cultural damage from globalized media might be overstated. Let us admit that there are many American
cultural goods distributed around the world. But research provides evidence that home-produced programs top the
ratings (Silj, 1988, cited by Tomlinson, 1997); furthermore, imported media operates at a “cultural discount,”
judging by its popularity among local audiences (Hoskins and Mirus, 1988, cited by Tomlinson, 1997). Morely and
Robins find just such a conclusion regarding the reception of American television in Europe:
US imports tend to do well when domestic television is not producing comparable entertainment
programming - and whenever viewers have the alternative of comparable entertainment programming in
their own language, the American programmes tend to come off second best. (Morely and Robins, 1989, p.
28, cited by Tomlinson, 1997, p. 181)
It is part of the everyday experience of the British audience to watch British soap operas like Coronation Street
and East-enders. Their cultural specificity makes them more popular than American drama imports such as Dallas,
which depend on their lack of specific cultural reference to attract an international audience (McGuigan, 1992). For
this reason, it can be argued that the presence of American programs on non-American TV channels does not
necessarily cause overwhelming damage to national cultures or threaten national cultural identity.
The Case of India
During the 1990s, Indian media experienced its efflorescence. The most salient example of such Indian media
influences is the advent of Bollywood, India’s version of Hollywood, which has grown quickly in popularity since
the 1950s, and especially so in the 1990s, when India joined the countries embracing globalism. Indian media
products increasingly began to be seen as an instrument of Indian cultural/media imperialism within South Asia,
similarly to how American products were perceived starting in the 1960s. This challenged the linear West-centric
perspective in this globalization age.
In the early 1990s, Indian television channels had their highest audience ratings within the region and forced
foreign channels to adjust their programs so as to fit into the Indian national and local culture (Sonwalkar, 2001). At
the same time, a UNESCO report shows that India has been one of the lowest importers of international
programming. In 1990 only 8 percent of the Indian television programs were from foreign sources (UNESCO, 1994,
cited by Sonwalkar, 2001). India’s import of foreign media has further dwindled since 1992 due to the rapid
development of domestic channels and the growth of domestic production houses. The national experience of India
indicates a transition in the previously unbalanced cultural flow: “Between 1975 and 1991, the flow of cultural
goods from the developed to the less developed countries has gone down and the flow from [less developed
countries] to [developed countries] has increased” (Ambirajan, 2000, p. 2146).
207 Intercultural Communication Studies XVII: 2 2008 Wang

12. Technological Reasons
International communications systems redistributed among regions and countries have been growing more and
more complicated since the boom in information technology. The earlier theory of “blanket effects” of western
media products is now being criticized for failing to account for this much more complex cultural interaction. Due to
the effects of globalization, technology is being transferred at a much faster rate from the West to the rest of the
world; and new knowledge, ideas and notions spread quickly. Yanal (1999) argues that “thanks to the multi-pronged
channels of globalization, the gap between the haves and the have-nots today has a fairer chance of being narrowed
at a faster rate than has been the case so far” (cited by Sonwalkar, 2001, p. 507). The one-sided, incomplete picture
given by critical theorists of the US and European media influences on the Third World has ignored those cultural
flows not originating from the west.
Cultural Reasons
Indians prefer to be entertained in their mother tongues (Malhotra, 2000, cited by Sonwalkar, 2001), with Hindi
being the most widely spoken. This has forced the main foreign satellite channels such as Star TV to adopt Hindi-
language programming. Patrick Cross, the managing director of the BBC World Service, said that his corporation
had plans to introduce programs in Hindi (Mitra & Anjan, 2000, cited by Sonwalkar, 2001). This is the first time the
BBC has shown interest in local language broadcasting outside the UK, although England has had an intimate and
protracted relationship with the Indian subcontinent.
Still, the foreign organizations who have made attempts to reach Indian audiences through adopting Hindi in the
development of programs have so far failed to make a profit. For example, early entrant Star TV continues to lose
heavily on its Indian operations, even after it adjusted its programming and shifted popular English language soaps
like Baywatch and The Bold to Star World to make way for Hindi shows (Ninan, 1999, cited by Sonwalkar, 2001).
In the localized backdrop of India, the concept of imperialism acquires new meanings. “…Within South Asia,
the notion of Western-based media imperialism is being replaced by the Indian-based version. Within India, the pre-
eminent position hitherto enjoyed by Hindi in the national cultural discourse until recently has given way to the
suzerainty of local languages” (Sonwalkar, 2001, p. 506). In the case of India, internationalization of media clearly
does not tend to undermine national culture. Reversely, the strong local and regional media in India play a very
important role in protecting their national culture.
The Case of Zee TV
In the early 1990s, the viewership of foreign channels likes Rupert Murdoch’s Star TV dwindled in India after
the emergence of local channels such as Zee TV. The audiences turned to channels with culturally familiar
programming and now prefer increasingly localized cultural content. This can be seen from the program viewership
pattern of eight major Indian cities during a single global event – the turn of the century. Although the global
channels carried special live telecasts of the first millennium ray, the audience did not switch to them
208 Intercultural Communication Studies XVII: 2 2008 Wang

13. on 31 December 1999 and 1 January 2000, as had been expected. In major southern Indian cities such as
Bangalore, Chennai and Hyderabad, new, local language channels dominated the airwaves (Sonwalkar, 2001).
National and regional channels may play a crucial role in the resistance to the international media invasion. The
private, national Zee TV group offers programs in several southern Indian languages and some new channels in
Bengali, Punjabi and Marathi. Its success witnesses the fierce competition in these market niches.
Zee TV is the largest commercial satellite channel in India; through its success, we can see the degree of
indigenization of media around the world. Recognizing this, Murdoch’s News Corporation picked up a 49.9 percent
stake of Zee Group in 1993. It is believed by Indian analysts that the money was used by Subhash Chandra, the Zee
Group chairman, to expand the channel further. At the time when the partnership began, few could foresee that
Charndra’s media entity would grow strong enough to buy out Murdoch’s stake by September 1999, and that it was
Chandra, not Murdoch, who would emerge stronger and richer in this competition. From “a less than shoestring
operation…to without a doubt probably the most successful story in broadcasting history” (Channel 4 Television,
1995, cited by Sonwalkar, 2001, p. 511), Zee TV has become the main multimedia group covering various services.
“His status as a media baron was barely a year old, Murdoch was already a legend, the world’s best known media
predator. But the irony is that in Chandra, he was to meet his match” (Ninan, 1999, cited by Sonwalkar, 2001, p.
511).
Zee News, which has 51 percent of the total viewership, is the most watched news channel in India. Star News
has 38 percent of the viewership (Ninan, 2000b, cited by Sonwalkar, 2001, p. 514). Language may well be the most
important reason for Zee News’ popularity. The channel uses Hindustani, a mixture of the Hindi and Urdu languages
spoken in most of north, west and central India and understood by many in other parts of India. However, the use of
Hindustani is less widespread in southern India. To solve this problem, Zee News uses English for most titles and
subtitles, a combination that can still attract viewers with a working knowledge of Hindustani. Besides language, the
Zee newscasters use Indian dress, which helps to improve the Zee News image and root it in an Indian cultural
ethos. On the contrary, Star newscasters’ slickly westernized appearance and English ethos are widely criticized as
contributing to its lower viewership (Sonwalkar, 2001). Star has learned a very good lesson from this experience and
adjusted its strategy.
Spider-Man 3
The globalization of Spider-Man 3 provides another salient example of the indigenization of mass media.
Spider-Man 3 is currently the biggest-ever Hollywood hit in India. By the end of May, 2007, Spider-Man 3 had
already collected 570 million rupees (US$14 million, €10.5 million) across India, according to the Economic Times.
The previous biggest Hollywood hit in India was Titanic, which collected 555 million rupees.
A major reason for Spiderman 3’s popularity in India was Sony Pictures’ decision to simultaneously dub the
movie for release in four major Indian languages – Hindi, Tamil, Telugu and Bhojpuri. This was the first time that a
Hollywood film was dubbed and released in regional languages on the same day as its worldwide release.
209 Intercultural Communication Studies XVII: 2 2008 Wang

15. Conclusion
Internationalization of media can influence national cultures in different ways. However, the cultural hegemony
of media exporters is unlikely in and of itself to result in cultural domination. “Media may be a necessary, but are
unlikely to be a sufficient, condition for cultural resistance or submission” (McQuail, 2000, p. 238). International
media’s effect on local culture should always be examined within the context of different economic, technological
and cultural situations. Economic and technological internationalization of media not only recharges the existing
media strengths, but also allows new media outlets to emerge and grow. In the case of India, the national and local
media players grow increasingly stronger; due to cultural factors, they have an edge over foreign competitors. The
national and regional media groups such as Zee TV develop quickly and play an important role in the development
and perpetuation of Indian cultural identity.
Whether the internationalization of media has the potential to undermine national culture depends on how
strong a particular national culture is. Circumstances exist, of course, under which national culture is damaged by
aggressively marketed foreign media imports. However, the theory that local cultures will be drowned out and
completely disappear under a tide of Western/American media at present does not appear to hold, at least not in the
case of India. This is partly because of the strong cultural identity of groups in India. The cultural preferences of
Indian viewers are so strong that foreign imports are put at a clear competitive disadvantage relative to the regional
and national media produced. In fact, the strong national culture forces more savvy international media
conglomerates to tailor their output so as to fit into the local cultural setting.
In conclusion, depending on the circumstances, the driving forces behind global cultural homogenization can be
weak. In all cases, imported media is never a sufficient condition to dominate local cultures. Other intervening
factors must coincide, such as a weak national identity or the political and/or economic suppression of local media
and local culture. In any case, local cultures are likely to redefine the semiotic and social meanings of imported
content. The internationalization of media needs not necessarily undermine national culture; rather, global media is
always indigenized. To what extent that indigenization occurs is a more complex question than many critical
theorists make it out to be.
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