The document outlines the migratory patterns and settlement of pre-Columbian Amerindians in the Caribbean, focusing on the Arawaks and Caribs, who arrived from South America and were primarily present by 1492. It highlights the social, economic, and political structures of the Maya civilization, which was advanced in agriculture, trade, and governance, contrasting it with the simpler lifestyles of the Tainos and Kalinagos. The document also covers the cultural practices, technological advancements, and religious beliefs that shaped these societies before European contact.

1. CARIBBEAN HISTORY COMPILED NOTES

2. THE AMERINDIANS AND THE Europeans
Migratory patterns of Pre – Columbian Amerindians and the Locations of the Main Groups
The ancestors of the pre – Columbian Amerindians may have come out of the North Eastern Asia
(Mongolia) across the frozen Bering Strait to Alaska during the 4th Ice Age, some 15 to 20, 000 years
ago. The nomads wandered Southward through North, Central and South America; evolving distinct
Physical and Cultural Characteristics. The Orinoco Basin and the Guiana’s in South America were the
original homeland of the Arawaks and the Caribs who migrated Northwards through the Lesser Antilles
to the Greater Antilles from about 300 BC. By 1492, the main Arawak groups which inhabited the West
Indies were: Lucayans in the Bahamas, Tainos in Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti and Puerto Rico. The Ignerian
Arawaks of Barbados and Trinidad had abandoned these islands before the Europeans arrived. The
Caribs inhabited the Lesser Antilles. The greatest Amerindian civilizations flourished on the mainland of
Mesoamerica and South America: the Maya whose “classic period” of development took place in the
highlands of Guatemala, Honduras, and Belize followed by the Toltec and Itza invasions of the Northern
Yucatan Peninsula during the “Post – Classic” or “New Empire” period; the Aztecs in the valley of
Mexico; the Inca civilization in the Andes mountains.
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE CARIBBEAN
The first group of Amerindians to arrive in the Caribbean was the Ciboney who settled mainly in Cuba. They
migrated northwards from Suriname, Eastern Venezuela and Guyana in South America. Archaeologists have
not found much evidence in order to describe what they were like or how they lived. This is because they left
few artefacts behind. Sometime afterwards, the Ciboney were followed by the Tainos (Arawaks) and
Kalinagos (Caribs). The Tainos’ original homeland was in the forest between the Orinoco and Amazon
Rivers in South America. They travelled in large canoes and usually settled on each island they encountered.
Then after a few years, some would move onto another island. The Arawaks were divided into two principle
tribes which are the Lucayos in the Bahamas and the Tainos in the Greater Antilles. The Kalinagos followed
the Tainos into the Caribbean. They lived further south in the jungles around the Orinoco. They also moved
from island to island. At each one, they fought the Tainos and pushed them out and established themselves on
the island. The Tainos fleeing from their enemies, the Kalinagos, crossed into Trinidad and continued to
move further up the island chain. By the time the Europeans arrived in the Caribbean in 1492, the Tainos
occupied mainly the islands of the Greater Antilles which are Puerto Rico, Cuba, Hispaniola and Jamaica.
They also occupied the Bahamas and Barbados. The Kalinagos occupied mainly the islands of the Lesser
Antilles such as Trinidad, Dominica and St. Vincent. Trinidad, Puerto Rico and Barbados were occupied
by both the Tainos and Kalinagos. The Tainos and Kalinagos in the Caribbean did not develop great
civilizations like the Maya or Inca, rather they have been labeled as ‘’primitive’’ in terms of culture. The
Amerindians dominated the region up until the arrival of the Europeans in 1492.

3. THE MAYA
The Maya were the first group of Amerindians to develop a very high level of culture called a “civilization”
unlike the Tainos and Kalinagos who had a simple way of life which did not develop beyond their family
village settlement stage. The Maya are known as Mesoamericans and made outstanding advancements in
Astronomy and Mathematics, developed an accurate yearly calendar and were one of the first people to
develop an advanced form of writing. The areas where the Maya settled are Guatemala, the Yucatan
Peninsula, Honduras, El Salvador, parts of Belize, and Southern Mexico. This magnificent civilization they
developed in Southern Mexico was the most impressive of all the empires in the Americas and it flourished for
at least 600 years from A.D. 250 to 900. This time period is known as the Classic Period of the Maya
civilization.
Social Organization - Mayan society was strictly divided into rigid classes and each social class had its own
rights and duties. There were even guidelines concerning the clothing and personal adornment worn by
different social classes. At the top of the social pyramid was the Ahaw then the Halach Uinic who was both a
High Priest and a Great Lord. Other members of this upper class group included the Priests, other Lords,
Nobles, the Batabs or Batabobs, and Nacoms or war chiefs. After the rulers and nobles were the majority
of the people known as the working class. They were mainly farmers and artisans (craftsmen). They provided
the tax system of crops and labour which supported the officials and priests. They also built magnificent stone
cities, fine bridges, aqueducts (water path), and roads.
There was also an independent merchant (Ppolms) class; who played an important role in the society. They
had their own gods, lived according to their own laws and did not have to pay taxes or give any personal
service in agricultural labour and road building. They did however perform a very important role in foreign
affairs, since they acted as spies especially during war time. The slaves were the lowest class in the society
and most slaves were people from neighboring tribes; who were captured during war time. They were used as
servants for the upper class people and also as human sacrifices to Mayan gods.
Economic Organization - Most of the Maya people were farmers; who worked the land collectively as one
community. The land was first cleared by cutting and burning forest trees, then the ground was broken with
digging sticks called WOA and grains of corn were planted. Corn or maize was the most important crop and
when it was harvested, the farmers had to give portions to the priests and noblemen as a form of tax. Large
underground storerooms or granaries called CHULTUNES were built for storing the grain. Other crops such
as pumpkin, squash, cassava, potato, and cotton were also cultivated. Huge reservoirs were built to store water
and wells or cenotes were also dug and some this water was used on the fields. The Maya built roadways to
encourage trade between their various cities. Trading also took place outside the Maya Empire. People
came together to trade in large market places which were part of the city in each district. Trading was
carried out by merchants (Ppolms) and as they travelled between city states and areas outside the Maya

4. Empire, they were able to carry out their duties as spies for the Halach Uinic. They did not have the wheel or
any beasts of burden, such as horses and oxen and carried most of their goods on their backs or on rivers
in dugout canoes.
The Maya were the only American Indians who carried on trading by sea as well as land. There is evidence to
suggest that their canoes had contact with Cuba and Dominica. The Lowland Mayas had handcrafted forest and
sea products. The Highland group sold jade, volcanic glass, and quetzal feathers. The Yucatan Maya traded
salt and finely decorated cotton. Cocoa beans were used as a medium of exchange (money) but sometimes
small copper bells or red shells/strings were also used as a medium of exchange. The Maya practiced
surplus farming unlike the Tainos and Kalinagos who practiced subsistence living.
Political Organization - Of the three major civilizations, the Mayans were the most advanced and had built vast
empires and independent city states. As such, they had a fairly elaborate and rigid system of government. Each
independent city state was ruled by a Halach Uinic; which was a hereditary position that was passed down
from father to son only (hereditary) and their powers were wide and were almost an absolute ruler who had the
final say in all matters. He had various civil, military and religious duties to perform and designed all domestic
policies and foreign affairs. The states were divided into villages which were ruled by batabs. There were all
chosen from the noble class so this post was also hereditary. They ensured that the laws and policies were
enforced; since the Maya were constantly engaged in defending themselves from neighboring invaders. The
war chiefs or nacoms were also an important part of the government; however, they were elected for three years.
During their term of office, they were not allowed to drink any strong drink and were responsible for providing
and training soldiers
Religious Beliefs and Practices – The Maya were polytheistic and their religion influenced their whole lives.
They had 166 gods, each of whom could be good or bad so that they needed constant worship. Among them
were Hunab Ku, the chief God; Kinich Ahau the sun god; Chac the rain god; Yum Kax the corn god and Ah
Kinchil the god of the earth. The Ahkin (priests) were so important in Mayan society that early historians
mistook them for rulers. They set and organised festivals, made sacrifices and decided the auspicious days on the
calendar for planting and harvesting. Human sacrifice was an important element in their religion. Even their
famous ball game Pok a Tok, a kind of basketball, had a ritual significance and the losers could be
sacrificed. They believed in:
1. The forces of good and evil. Life after death, Heaven, hell and the underworld
2. There is punishment or reward in the afterlife for those who lived an evil life.
3. Offering human sacrifices to the gods.

5. Architecture - The Maya lived in round huts with a central wooden pole supporting a conical thatched roof. The walls
were woven reeds with no windows. Set apart was a ceremonial area containing the famous massive stone structures
which archaeologists have uncovered. From their size it has been concluded that the leading Mayan city states had
populations of 8000–10 000. Impressive ruins are to be found in Belize. These include Xunantunich in the west near the
border with Guatemala, Altun Ha to the north of Belize City, and Lubaantun in the south not far from Punta Gorda. A
typical town contained one or more plazas (squares) surrounded by pyramids and stelae (inscribed pillars). On top of
the pyramids were temples. Pyramids were made of a base of rubble faced with limestone blocks. Temples were made
with thick masonry walls and corbelled-arch roofs.
Arts and crafts - The only metals known to the Maya were copper and gold. Wooden hoes and fire-hardened wooden
ploughs were used in the fields and even limestone blocks were cut without metal. Women wore boldly patterned cotton
clothes, and headdresses made from the feathers of the quetzal bird were highly prized. A red dye was obtained from the
berries of the annatto shrub, and a dark blue one from the fruit of the genipa tree. Their craftsmen fashioned lifelike and
symbolic figurines in jade, wood, copper and gold. One of their favourite objects was the figurine whistle found in several
sites. Their excellent artists painted lifelike and abstract pictures. Although the Maya knew of gold and copper, they used
cacao beans for money.
Writing, Mathematics and The Calendar - The Maya began writing about the beginning of the fourth century CE using
a hieroglyphic script with about 850 highly stylized characters. Their books were of bark, folded concertina-like. The
Spaniards destroyed Mayan literature as pagan, but three legible writings have survived although these have not yet been
deciphered. Most existing Mayan writing is on stelae, pottery and ornaments.
The Mayans could add, subtract, multiply and divide in columns working from top to bottom. Their symbols were: a dot
for 1, a bar for 5 and a shell for 0. The famous Mayan calendar was very accurate but complicated and it is not known
how its dates correspond to dates on the Christian calendar. It involved revolving, interlocking circles and showed a well-
developed knowledge of astronomy.
GENDER RELATIONS
1. In Mayan society, women played a subservient role and were not allowed to drink at functions.
2. Women could not hold public office, since their main functions were child bearers and
home makers. In fact, a Mayan man could divorce his wife if she did not bear him any
children.
3. They were also given specific roles and worked to pay the tribute tax. Weaving and pottery were
done exclusively by the women.
4. There were more recreational activities that the men were allowed to participate in. for example there
was only one dance in which the men and women were allowed to dance together. All other dances were
done by the men only.

6. TECHNOLOGY
1. Maya constructed the following to create their magnificent empires with corbelled arch, Roads and
bridges, causeways, massive temples with staircases, built entire cities with huge pyramids and large
public buildings were constructed of stones, for example, Chichen Itza and Tikal.
2. They were skilled in Mathematics, practiced a form of writing (hieroglyphics), Astronomy and astrology -
observed the stars and planets and used these to determine the ‘‘right ‘time to plant, reap and marry
3. They had books made from the bark of trees.
4. They had a Calendar very similar to ours with 365 days in a year and leap as well.
5. They had three farming techniques that also included the slash-and-burn (Mila or Swidden
agriculture) method, Milpas and Terraces in hilly areas to prevent soil erosion.
6. They had a form of currency where Cocoa beans were used for money.
7. They used irrigation method, dams and wells to ensure water supply.
8. The creation of inland fishing ponds: The Mayans engage in massive fishing ventures,
though most of their civilization was inland.
THE TAINOS/ARAWAKS
Physical Appearance - The Tainos were short to medium height, well- shaped, but slightly built, expect in
Hispaniola where they were plump. According to Christopher Columbus, their skin was smooth and had an
olive brown colour. Their heads were flattened at the forehead by the use of boards or bandages when they were
babies. The Tainos had broad noses and nostrils probably flared wide and their hair was black and straight,
but coarse, and was usually worn long.
Social Organization - Taino communities were small, although a few had more than a thousand houses that
could be classed as large villages. The villages were scattered along the coast and near rivers and they often
chose sites on top of hills as a precaution against surprise attack. Their houses were not built as permanent
structures since every few years they moved to new areas for farming. Their houses were strongly built to
withstand fierce hurricanes and were well planned, usually circular in shape, with a ball court or ceremonial
plaza as their central feature. The chief’s hut was built next to the plaza. Not only was each village well
planned, but Taino settlements were highly organized

7. Economic Organization - The Tainos fished, hunted and grew just enough food for themselves and their
families. This is known as subsistence living and there was little or no extra food produced for storing or
trading. They practiced the slash and burn method of agriculture method of clearing the forest and planting
their crops. Manioc (cassava) was their main crop but they also cultivated other crops such as maize or corn,
sweet potato, cotton, groundnuts and tobacco. Since manioc could be harmful, they squeezed the juices out of it
before making flour; then flour was used to make cassava bread.
The Tainos engaged in fishing and hunting and ate various types of fish, crabs, lobsters, turtles, shellfish, and
manatee (sea cow). The coral reefs around the islands were filled with these animals which were easily caught by
harpoon, or by hand. Turtles were caught by tying a remora (sucker-fish) that was caught on a long line to a
canoe. The remora would dive for the turtle and attach itself to the back with its sucker. The turtle would
then be pulled into the canoe by the fishermen. Hunting on land was more difficult as there were few large
animals to put in a stew. The iguana, agouti and the Indian Coney gave the most meat. Birds such as parrots,
doves and wild ducks were also hunted and caught by slipping a noose over their heads. The method of catching
ducks showed a lot of cunning. First, they floated gourds downstream until the ducks became used to seeing
gourds, and then the hunter himself would drift downstream with a gourd over his head, breathing through a
hole and seeing through eye-slits. When he came upon a bird he would pull it under water by its legs and
drown it!
There was only one type of domestic animal called an alcos (a small barkless dog) that were used to help the
Tainos hunt. The Taino food was carefully prepared by stewing, baking, roasting and barbecuing. Iguana meat was
stewed, cassava cakes were baked, and fish was roasted. Seasoning with salt and pepper was common. There was
a special sauce called cassareep, made of salt, pepper and cassava juice. The favorite dish of the Tainos was
pepperpot, a great stew into which went meat, vegetables, nuts, and of course pepper and a good pepperpot lasted
for weeks. Its flavour was changed as some meat was added. Intoxicating drinks were made up of cassava and
maize. In addition, there were also a variety of fruits and vegetables available that included pineapples, star
apples, mammy apples, hog plums, guavas, and paw-paw. The Tainos therefore enjoyed a varied and well-
balanced diet and food was plentiful.
The Tainos had two sorts of houses - the bohio (chief’s house) and the caneye (family house). In
recognition of his status, the chief’s house should have been rectangular but the Tainos found it difficult to
build and so he was often given a round house. The usual Taino house was round and constructed in the
following way: wooden posts were put in the ground in a circle and canes were woven between them and tied
creepers. The roof was thatched in a conical shape and a hole left in the top through which smoke could escape.
There were no windows and only one opening for a door. They had little furniture expect for hammocks made
of cotton in which they slept. There were a few highly polished clay pots for cooking and other food vessels.
Sometimes stools, or even tables were found but these were very rare. Tools were small and made of stone. They
were well shaped and highly polished. There would always be a small statue of a Zemi made of wood, stone
or cotton, or a basket of bones serving as a Zemi, and cradles for children.

8. Political Organization - The cacique or chief was the head of a Taino society. Cacique was a hereditary title
which was passed from father to son. It was unlikely that a cacique would have no heirs as he was allowed
many wives, although the Tainos were monogamous by custom. If he died without an heir, the title was passed to
the eldest son of his eldest sister. The cacique was more of a ceremonial leader than a lawmaker. He dealt with
the distribution of land, the ordering of labour on the land, and the planting and distribution of the crops, made
the decisions of peace and war and was the leader in war but he made few laws and keeping the law and order was
a matter for the individual. For example, if someone stole property it was up to the injured party to inflict
punishment. His house was the largest and it was also built for him. His canoe was built by his tribesmen.
He had a special stool called a duho and was also buried in a marked grave and some of his wives were also
buried with him. He was also given the best food and his wives also wore longer skirts than other women.
As a religious leader, the cacique fixed the day of worship and led the ceremonies playing a wooden gong. He had
his own zemis and they were felt to be stronger than others and thus he commanded additional respect and
obedience. While the Cacique did have much power, he had advisors. Nobles called Mitanyos assisted the
chief. These men had to be the eldest men in society because they knew the Kingdom’s boundaries of the past and
recent years. They remembered the past of their kingdom and other arguments with other kingdoms.
Decisions occurred in a council meeting with the cacique and higher ranking persons in Taino society such as the
nobles. The older noble men had songs and dances which they taught the young villagers their history and laws.
Dress - Taino men were usually naked except for special occasions, when they might wear decorative
loincloths. They painted their bodies and wore sometimes wore decorations or jewellery. The chief wore a long
apron, a coat of feathers, and jewellery or ornaments and the women usually wore a piece of cloth over their
loins. The chief’s wives would wear the longest cotton apron as a sign of their position.
Religion - Religious beliefs of the Tainos included the belief of the sky-god and earth goddess and they made
zemis to represent the forces controlled by these gods, like rain, wind, hurricanes and fire, or like fertility in the
case of the earth-goddess’s Zemi. They also worshipped their ancestors and made zemis for them, often out of the
bones of these ancestors. The Tainos had a creation story which said that the first man escaped from a cave with
the sun when the keeper of the cave forgot to close it. They believed in life after death in Coyaba (said to be a
peaceful place where they could meet their ancestors and be free of natural calamities like sickness and
hurricanes). Other religious practices besides making zemis out of bones of their ancestors include, avoiding
eye-contact with the sun (to avoid being turned into plants and animals) and burning a tribesman with his most
valuable possessions to accompany him in Coyaba.
Leisure time Activities - The Tainos had ample leisure time which they occupied with singing and dancing,
called areytos. The men and women usually danced separately; however, they would come together on special
occasions in which the pleasure of drinking was added. They also had a ball game known as batos, which was
played on a market field (batey), with two teams trying to hit the ball with any part of their body into their
opponent’s goal line, a game somewhere between volleyball and football. Smoking was the most well-known

9. Taino pleasure with the plant called cohiba, or tobacco referred to the pipe in which the leaves were
smoked. The Tainos liked it for peace, contentment and helping them meditate. The Tainos also made craft,
such as pottery, basketry, weaving, feather craft, and jewellery. Painting their bodies was also a leisure time activity
along with a custom.
THE KALINAGOS/CARIBS
Physical Appearance - The Kalinagos were taller than the Tainos, but still only of medium height. They were
described as being strong and built due to the emphasis placed on training for fighting. Their skin was brown and
usually went naked. The women painted their bodies with roucou (a red dye) and made fantastic
decorations in many colours. The men would also paint their bodies would wear headdresses and jewellery.
Very rarely you would also find them wearing cotton clothes around their waist. They had short heads and, like
the Tainos, they flattened the foreheads of babies. They also had a complete absence of body hair.
Political Organization - The Kalinago had no such organization as the Tainos with their caciques. In
peacetime they had only few laws, only those made by the tiubutuli hauthe (village headman) who was the
head of the family since each family lived in a separate village. However, in war the Kalinagos became more
strictly organized. Each piraga (canoe) was captained by its owner and one of the captains was chosen as Ubutu or
Ouboutou (commander-in-chief). If the raid was successful, he would keep this title for the rest of his life. The
Ouboutou planned the raids, chose the captains and distributed the prizes. He was greatly feared among his men for
his power. The Ouboutou became chief either by right of birth or through being an outstanding warrior. The
Chief and village men made plans for fishing, trading, and war and for organizing the settlement. Kalinago men
lived together in a large, rectangular house called carbet, because they were undergoing warrior training.
The women carried food to the carbet but otherwise lived separately. The Kalinagos slept in
hammocks, but they also had a kind of bed called amais. Their utensils were not so well made or polished as those
of the Tainos.
Social Organization - The Kalinagos’ social organization was quite loose as their culture emphasized physical
prowess and individualism. A Kalinago village was made up of a small number of houses, with a karbay or big
meeting house as the central building. The karbay was where the men assembled, but the only way in was
through a small door. There were many stout posts supporting the roof, and from these posts the hammocks
were slung. The roof was thatched with palm fronds or cachibou leaves, which were tied down by mahoe, or
rope, or cords. These cords were made from the bark of mahoe trees.
The houses which surrounded the karbay were oval in shape and much smaller and the walls were made of
reeds. There was only one room for the family, which included the father, wives and unmarried children and
separated huts were used for cooking and storing precious objects such as hammocks, bows and arrows. In the
kitchen, there were utensils such as pottery and calabashes, or couris. The rest of the furniture consisted of cotton
hammocks, small stools and four-legged tables of basket-work called matoutou.

10. Economic Organization - Warfare was the Kalinagos major interest. Internal conflicts were common; there was
no important chief, military organization, or hierarchical structure. The men strove to be individualistic warriors
and boasted of their heroic exploits. The Kalinagos produced several crops and Cassava or manioc was their
main crop just like the Tainos. They also grew yam, sweet potato and maize or corn, tobacco and cotton which
they spun and wove into small strips of cloth. They also made strings for fishing lines and nets for making
hammocks. With the islands free for all the tribe, the Kalinagos planted crops wherever they pleased.
Usually they made farming plots for the entire village. The men cleared the lands using the slash-and-burn
technique, while the women planted the crops and tended them.
The Kalinagos hunted with bows and arrows, not just to get food but also for sport. For this they used arrows
made from slender reeds with tips made of sharp wooden heads. Fish were caught in many ways. The
Kalinagos used bows and arrows to shoot fish which came close to the surface. They also used nets, traps and
fishing lines with hooks made of shells. Lobsters were caught in the reefs with harpoons. Conch and other
shellfish were easily caught and the shells were used to make tools. Many of the islands on which they
Kalinago lived on had streams full of fish. The Kalinagos knew how to poison the rivers by pounding the
leaves of certain plants and mixing them into the water. This would stun the fish, which could then easily be
caught by land.
The Tainos were much better farmers than the Kalinagos, but the Kalinagos were better fishermen and hunters
than the Tainos. The Kalinagos had more protein in their diet than the Tainos due to them consuming more
meat and fish than the Tainos. The Tainos did not hunt or fish as much as the Kalinagos. The Kalinagos were
always travelling back and forth among the islands, and were excellent seamen. The Kalinagos used their
canoes to travel from island to island, fish, trade, hunt, and go on raids. They made two different types of
canoes, and they were not very different from the canoes made by the Tainos. The smaller craft, the couliana, was
at most about twenty feet long and was pointed at both ends. This type was used for fishing close to the shore
and could only hold a few people. The bigger boat was called canoua, the word we still use today. The largest of
these were up to fifty feet long and could carry thirty to forty people. These vessels were dug out of logs and
stretched by fire and soaked with water to make the wood expand. It was in these larger canoes that the Kalinago
went to attack other islands or to make long fishing and trading trips.
Religious Beliefs and Practices – The Kalinago religion was a simple adaptation of the ancestor and nature
worship of the Taino. They believed in an evil spirit called maybouya who had to be placated in order to avoid
harm. The chief function of their shamans, called boyez, was to heal the sick with herbs and to cast spells (piai)
which would keep maybouya at bay. The boyez were very important and underwent special training instead of
becoming warriors. As they were held to be the only people who could avert evil they were treated with great
respect. Their ceremonies were accompanied with sacrifices. As with the Arawaks, tobacco played a large part in
these religious rites. The Kalinagos were polytheistic that means they also believed in many gods. They also
believed in the following:
1. In the forces of evil. In life after death and an existence of Heaven and hell.

11. 2. That there is punishment and reward in the afterlife.
3. That those who were brave warriors went to a place where they were waited on by Tainos slaves.
4. That the souls of cowards went to a dreary desert where they became slaves to Tainos masters.
5. The priest (boyez) was the only one who could communicate with the gods.
LANGUAGE - The language spoken by the Caribs was a branch of the Arawakan language. The Taino and the
Kalinago languages both originated from that spoken in the mainland areas from which they came. Variations of their
languages were found in different parts of the West Indies, but they all stemmed from the same Arawakan source.
The concept that the women of the Kalinago spoke an entirely different language from the men has no foundation
in fact. Many women, being of Arawak origin, would have retained much of their original language, and this would
account for outsiders hearing different names being used by men and women for the same objects. The pidgin
language which Kalinago men used among themselves, developed as a ‘trading language’ to be understood in
any part of the Lesser Antilles, could also have played a part in the creation of what is largely a myth.
DIET - The Caribs eat almost the same food as the Arawaks but had more protein. They were not such good
farmers, so they relied less on maize and cassava though they knew how to grow them. They were much better
fishermen, their canoes were better and they were not afraid of long voyages. However, believing that turtle meat made
one stupid, they deprived themselves of an easily obtainable meat in the West Indies. Other superstitions made their
diet different from that of the Arawaks. They believed that eating pig would give them small, beady eyes and that
eating crab before a sea voyage would bring storms.
The Caribs seasoned their food with pepper, but did not use salt. Couii and taumalin were pepper sauces.
Taumalin was made from pepper, lemon juice and the green meat of a crab. The Caribs made ouicou, a cassava beer
with a strong alcoholic content, and got very drunk on festivals and holidays. Although their diet was not quite so
varied as that of the Arawaks, it was well balanced, prepared in many different ways and served with different
seasonings. In not eating fat the Caribs were wiser than the Arawaks.
WARRIOR TRAINING - At the age of four, Carib boys were taken from their mothers to live in the kabay.
Caribs believed that women were soft and weak and if the boy was to become a warrior he should be moved away from
the influence of women, unless he was to be trained as a priest. Carib boys were trained to make and use weapons
which were considerably better than those of the Arawaks. They were taught to use the bow and arrow and to apply
poison to the arrowhead. The poison was deadly and the victim died in great pain.
Courage was considered the greatest virtue by the Caribs, and the boys were taught to bear pain without flinching.
When they reached the age of fourteen or fifteen they had to pass an initiation test to become warriors. Part of the test
was to endure pain by being scratched with agouti claws and having salt rubbed into the wounds without crying
out. Another test was to shoot a bird off the top of a tree with a bow and arrow. Carib warriors were good swimmers
and Columbus mentions seeing a warrior fire his bow while swimming in the sea.

12. Carib raids were made in canoua. The Caribs often put to sea in bad weather and paddled for long distances. The
women, too, knew how to fight and use a bow and arrow. When Columbus concluded that Martinique was
inhabited by a race of Amazons, he must have visited the island when the men were away on a raid. Caribs liked to
make surprise attacks by sea in their canoes. Their raids were very vicious and destructive. Arawak men who were
not killed were taken away to be integrated into the Kalinago kinship network as poitos (sons -in-law), and the women
were taken as wives for the younger warriors.
Seagoing, fishing and trading were more important to the Kalinago men than hunting or agriculture. They
excelled as seamen. They knew the location of all the islands by heart, and had their own means of navigating in the
open sea using the stars. Their canoes were of two kinds. The smaller coulianas were no more than 20 feet (6 m) long
and pointed at both ends. They were only used for offshore fishing and for making short trips along the coast. The
bigger craft, the canoua, could be up to 50 feet (l5 m) in length, and capable of carrying 30 or 40 people. They
were dug out of the solid trunks of gommier trees, using fire and stone tools. Once the trunk had been gouged out it
was stretched open using a combination of water and stones on the inside and fire on the outside. After this
process had been completed the hull shape was preserved with wooden ribs. Equipped with paddles, a pole for
punting in shallow water, a rope made from bark, a stone anchor, and a calabash for bailing, it was then suitable for use
anywhere in the Caribbean. Such canoes were in constant use, either carrying warriors to attack other islands or on long
trading or gathering voyages.
PORTUGUESE AND WEST AFRICAN CONTACTS BEFORE 1492: IMPACT
Before the 15th century (1400s), Europeans were neither economically nor politically able to set up and
maintain long distance trading relationships outside of Europe. They received all the goods they needed from
trades in the Black and Mediterranean Seas led by the Arabs; who enjoyed a monopoly of the spice and silk
trade. The trades with the Arabs became restrictive and there were rumors of the discovery of gold and spices in
West Africa. This produced an interest in West Africa and also finding a route to reach the East.
Portugal And West Africa - The Portuguese were the first Europeans to explore West African coast. This was
pioneered by Henry the Navigator. From as early as 1420, Henry the Navigator sent expeditions to colonize
African islands on the coast of West Africa. In 1420, the Portuguese captured the island of Madeira and in
1431, the Portuguese captured the Azores. An attempt was made to secure the Canary Islands in 1425, but this
was already annexed by Spain. The Portuguese were able to establish trading posts along the coast of West
Africa. Bartolomeu Dias was able to reach the Cape of Good Hope on the 12th March 1488.
Why The Portuguese Were First To Explore To Africa?
1. Location of Portugal – It was located at the southwestern tip of Europe which was directly above
West Africa
2. Isolation from European Conflicts – Portugal was not trapped in a war with the Moors like Spain
and had expelled the Moors from as early as 1250.

13. 3. Isolation from European diseases - They were also isolated from European diseases such as the
Black Plague
4. The capital of Henry the Navigator – he funded several expeditions to West Africa and
created schools to train seamen, ship-builders and Cartography (map designing)
5. Natural seamen who were willing and ready to explore the open seas
FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE EUROPEAN EXPLORATION OF WEST AFRICA UP TO 1492
Portuguese Exploration Of West Africa - Prince Henry the Navigator initiated the search of the West
African coast. Due to his efforts, by 1460 the Portuguese had explored the coast of Africa all the way to Sierra
Leon. Bartolomeu Dias was able to reach the Cape of Good Hope on the 12th March 1488. By 1498, Vasco de
Gama had rounded the Cape of Good Hope. Trade with the coastal West African middlemen
included cowry shells and hardware (cooking pots and brass pans and iron rods) in exchange for the gold,
slaves, ivory, pepper, gum Arabic, and ostrich feathers. The Portuguese purpose was not to colonize, but to
establish a secure trading relationship. They traded on African terms. Since there was some resistance to
European infiltration, and the coastline was unsuitable to large boats, the Portuguese often based themselves on
Islands off the coast of the continent and at coastal ports.
Economic - To find a sea route to the East: They wanted to find a sea route around Africa so that they could
have reached the East. They refused to travel by land because it took long, it was restrictive and dangerous. In
1488, Bartholomew, a Portuguese was able to discover this route after passing the Cape of Good Hope. It was in
1498, that the journey to the East was first successful. To find precious stones and Gold in Africa: In the early
1400s, Prince Henry had traveled to Africa to fight the Moors. He reported to his men and his students that he
had gained sighting of numerous caravans laden with gold, silver and precious stones. Men who wanted to
gain wealth quickly gravitated to his teachings and this pushed them to travel to the region. In the 1400s, Spain
and Portugal wanted gold for their currency (bullionism).
SOCIAL
Skilled men: Countries such as Portugal and Spain had many men who were skilled at sailing. This was
fostered by their love of the sea. Since they had the skill to explore, this pushed their actions along the African
coast. Furthermore, their skills were advanced by the numerous schools established by Prince Henry the
Navigator
Early promise of settlements: There was that desire to expand their influence around the region and so the fact
that there was a promise of early settlement meant that the Europeans were eager to explore Africa. African
coastal islands such as Azores and Cape Verde Island and along with Madeira became great area for trading
posts and could have led them straight down the African Coast, given the extent that they could have picked up
the winds and currents circulating the seas.

14. Slaves: They wanted slaves and this was fostered by developing the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade. Though this
was not very popular then, they had captured numerous moors and African men who were forced to work sugar
plantations, as in the Spanish in Azores and the Canary Islands, and in domestic units. It was this factor that led Las
Casa to persuade the men in the Americas to use Africans in the 1500s.
Political - The emergence and consolidation of nation states: Up to the 1500s, numerous nations had gained
power and had emerged as strong political influences. Spain had just become a reality with the combination of
Aragon and Castile. By the 1250, Portugal had become an independent state with its own language. These
countries had strong desires in overseas trade and exploration. By venturing into Africa, they could have
maintained their power by extending their influence and borders.
Religious - To spread Christianity especially after 1492, with the fall of Granada: Spain was very much co-
occupied with her struggles against the Moors and in 1492 she had finally beaten them. Both Spain and
Portugal, even before 1492, were willing to extend their religion into Africa. Each of them had Christian
monarchs who wanted religious supremacy. There was also fear that Islam would be spread in Africa. The
Moors were Islamic. However, there were hardly any Islamic influences in West Africa when the Portuguese
arrived. To find Prestor John: The legend of Prestor John was widespread in Europe and this belief was kept
alive from the 12th to the 17th Century. Christian states such as Britain, France, Portugal and Spain were
excited about such a “mythical” Christian King that wanted the same view as them - religious supremacy of
Christianity.
THE PENETRATION OF WEST AFRICA
When the Portuguese arrived in West Africa, they remained on the coast for numerous reasons including:
1. They were unable to effectively evade the plethora of diseases that were familiar to interior parts of
West Africa. Mosquitoes were vicious and the Europeans suffered from yellow fever and malaria. The heat was
also a problem.
2. The inland African states were often hostile because they heard of the capturing of Africans on the coast
and had taken steps to protect their cities
3. It was very costly to maintain European troops in the African environment and the Portuguese wanted to
stay close to their coastal colonies – Azores and Madeira.
4. There was much profit to be made on the coast due to the creation of forts and the capturing of
African slaves. There were several African villages on the coast that could be raided.
5. The need to expand the Christian faith, the acquisition of firearm (for protection from the Africans), the
fierce competition on the coast among the European powers and the need for greater number of slaves to
facilitate trades in Europe and the Americas pushed the Europeans to penetrate further into West Africa by the
early 1500s.

15. IMPACT OF PORTUGUESE ON WEST AFRICA
1. European trade with the coastal Africans attracted many Africans from the interior and diverted the flow
of trade across the Sahara to the Atlantic Coast of West Africa. This shift contributed to the decline of
the Sudanese states (Ghana, Mali and Songhai) and a decline in the Trans-Sahara Trades. It also led to the
decline trades with the Arabs.
2. From a cultural point, the Portuguese left their names of places all along the West African coast--Cape
Verde, Cape Palmas, Sierra Leone, El Mina. They also left their slave castles which often changed
hands in the battles between the European states for control of the slave trade.
3. They introduced many new world crops into West Africa and expanded trading opportunities with poor
African states. E.g. The Portuguese introduced Maize to Africa and it became a staple food for many
Africans.
4. The trading of slaves on the coast of West African provided employment opportunities for African slave
traders and farmers
5. Spread of Christianity in West Africa – Many African leaders became Christians to continue trades with
the Europeans. The Portuguese were able to convert the King of Congo to Christianity in 1495. This also
actively prevented the spread of Islam in West Africa up to the 1500s.
6. Expansion of Slavery – Slavery was a natural aspect of African society. It was argued that many of the
African leaders who sold Africans into slavery were of the view that slaves would be treated well
because it was customary to treat slaves well in African society. The trading of slaves expanded
African slavery and paved the way for the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade.
EUROPE IN THE LATE 15TH CENTURY
Influence of Catholicism – The spiritual powers of the Roman Catholic Church permeated every aspect of life
and made the church the dominant institution in Western Europe. It fostered the desire to spread
Christianity in foreign lands. The Pope became the arbitrator of political disputes, particularly those involving the
discovery of new lands. Yet, new political and religious ideas began to undermine the pre - dominance of
Christendom
Political - The archaic feudal system had practically disappeared with the establishment of new city states and
nation states, namely England, France, Spain, Portugal and the Italian city – states. Though they retained
monarchial systems of government as in the feudal period, nationalism replaced the old ideals of an overruling
Christian empire.
Social – Because of the Renaissance and the decay of feudalism, the serfs, society’s lowliest and largest class
of manual labourers, were unshackled from the semi – slavery of serfdom; personal enquiry and
personal enterprise became the hallmarks of society. A new middle class of merchants and tradesmen
came into existence and above them was the nobility, forming the ruling class

16. Trade – A lucrative commerce had developed between Europe and the Far East with Venice, Genoa and
Florence as the most important trading cities. European articles such as wine, salted fish, furs, woolen goods and
linen cloth were exchanged for silk, muslin, velvets, cotton, dyestuffs, spices, jewels, ivory and gold in the Orient.
These luxurious and exotic items were then transported overland to Europe where they were in great demand by
the wealthy and affluent. But further expansion of the Euro – oriental trade was hindered by: the dangers and
difficulties of the overland route; Venetian and Genoese monopoly of the spice trade; the limited amount of
produce transported by pack – animals; the captive of Constantinople by the Turks closing one of the best trade
routes. The easiest way to overcome all these difficulties and satisfy demands for oriental products was to
find a new route to the East.
Technology – Scientific advancement during the Renaissance resulted in a wide range of inventions and
improvements in ship design which aided maritime exploration: invention of the compass, astrolabe, quadrant,
hour –glass, sundial and windlass; the design of ocean going carracks and caravels; the development of printing
which spread new information to all levels of society. Learned men believed that the world was a sphere not a
rectangle and it was therefore possible to reach the East by sailing West across the Atlantic. One such learnt
person was Don Cristobal Colon of Genoa.
REASONS FOR EUROPEAN INTEREST IN THE NEW WORLD
1. Desire to find a route to India and China - This would reduce the need for middle, traders and increase projects.
2. Increasingly difficult land routes - The “Silk road” to china and India became difficult and dangerous especially
given the threat of the moors and the muslim movement
3. Desire to spread Christianity - Europeans wanted to spread Christianity to other parts of the world
4. Developments in navigation - Improved compass, the astrolabe, quadrant and portolani maps, hour –glass,
sundial and windlass; the design of ocean going carracks and caravels (ships)
5. Improved ship building - Ships were sturdier than previously built ships
6. The Renaissance - This was a period of revival in the Arts and letters in Europe as well as nationalism and search
for new wealth
7. Mercantilism - There was a desire to increase national wealth through trade with foreign countries
8. Glory - A desire for fame and popularity in Europe
9. Breakdown in the system of vassalage - Only first – born son was entitled to inheritance from parents. Other
children were keen on acquiring their own wealth
10. Emergence of a new class of merchants and traders - These people were willing to fund overseas voyages

17. GOLD, GOSPEL AND GLORY: COLUMBUS MOTIVES
This basic idea was to reach the “Indies” or Asia by sailing Westward across the Atlantic. He expected to get
riches of the East by trade or conquest. He reached America purely be accident. After failing to gain support for
his Empresa de las Indias from Portugal, Columbus convinced the Spanish crown to provide 3 ships for the
enterprise – The Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria. Their majesties’ motives for supporting Columbus were: to get the
riches of the Orient before the rivals, the Spanish to spread the catholic religion; personal and national
glorification. Spanish settlement in the Caribbean had its genesis in 1492 when Christopher Columbus laid his
eyes on the Bahamas on his first voyage to the region. The sight of land gave him confidence that he had
reached “the Indies”. One of Columbus’ ships, the Santa Maria, thereafter, crashed on the coast of Hispaniola,
modern day the Dominican Republic and Haiti, where he first made contact with the indigenous people in the
Caribbean and created a fort. The Caciques in Hispaniola were so pleased by the seemingly benevolent
strangers that they provided them the timber to create a fort called “La Navidad” - the first European
settlement in the Caribbean. It could not have been the first European settlement in the Americas because we
know of the arrival of the Norse in AD1000 and they settled at L’Anse Aux Meadows.
COLUMBUS’S VOYAGES TO THE CARIBBEAN
1st voyage (1492) - Columbus reached Guanahani and renamed it San Salvador then he explored the rest of the
Bahamas, Cuba and established a colony in Hispaniola before returning to Spain.
2nd voyage (1493-1496) - Columbus took to the Caribbean at least 1200 seamen, colonists, clergy and
officials. He also brought with him horses, cattle, sheep, goats, poultry and sugar cane from the Canary
Islands. He explored Dominica, Guadeloupe and named the islands of Montserrat, Redonda, Antigua, Nevis, St.
Christopher, St. Eustatius, Saba, Santa Cruz, and the Virgin Islands
3rd voyage (1498-1500) - Columbus started his journey from the Cape Verde Islands, off the coast of West
Africa, which was colonized by Portugal. This put him in the best position to reach Trinidad and the mainland
Territories of South America.
4th voyage (1502-1504) - Columbus made his final voyage to the Caribbean. His last 3 trips were deemed
utter failures because he had not reached the east and he had not found sufficient mineral wealth as was
desired by Spain. Spain was particularly interested in mineral wealth due to the economic practice of
bullionism (using gold as currency) and the drainage of their treasury following the wars with the Moors that
ended in 1492 with the fall of Granada. Columbus, nonetheless, convinced the Spanish monarchs to give him
one last chance to find the East because there must be a route beyond the islands. A route did not exist

18. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) - After the discovery of the Americas, Spain was quick to sign the Treaty of
Tordesillas with Portugal. The treaty was important because it effectively gave Spain exclusive claim to the
Americas. Spain created a monopoly in the Caribbean (and the Americas) and argued that all lands in the
Americas fell under the Spanish crown. It further argued that all peoples, wealth and trades in the Americas are
to exclusively benefit Spain and no other country in Europe. While this ended conflicts with Portugal, it caused
resentments with other European nations. Spain grew wealthy over time and used its wealth to create a massive
military in Europe and naval fleet. This brought to the forefront the issue of “occupation” in the Caribbean
because several European nations questioned whether Spain had exclusive rights if it did not occupy the
entire region.
Spanish Settlements - Notwithstanding Spanish claims for all the lands in the Caribbean, Spain settled only on
the larger islands in the Greater Antilles which are Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba.
1. The first settlement was created in Hispaniola with some 300 Spanish men in 1502. The number of
settlers increased to 8000 Spanish men by 1509
2. Settlements were then created in Jamaica and Puerto Rico in 1509
3. Settlements were created in Cuba in 1511 and mainland Mexico in 1518.
Abandoning The Lesser Antilles - The Lesser Antilles was abandoned for several reasons:
1. The lack of mineral wealth in these small islands;
2. The presence of aggressive indigenous people (Kalinagos);
3. Refusal of many Spanish people to migrate to the Americas.
4. The development of commercial activities in the larger colonies attracted more attention to these
areas.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE SPANISH COLONISTS
Gold mining – The main economic activity in the initial stages of Spanish colonization in the Caribbean is gold
production since gold was used as currency (bullionism). Indigenous labour was used predominately to mine
gold. The indigenous labourers had to search for gold and other mineral wealth (silver and pearl) by risking
their lives in dark deep caves.
Agriculture – It became clear that the most profitable economic activity for the Spanish settlers was
agricultural production. The colonists were restricted from planting crops that would compete with Spain in
commercial enterprises such as wine, olive oil and other items. This meant that their focus was on sugar and
tobacco production. Tobacco was naturally grown in the Caribbean and was used by the indigenous people and
so it flourished. However, tobacco was for domestic markets at first rather than export. It was expanded by the
English in the early 1600s

19. Ranching – On Columbus’s second voyage to the Caribbean, he brought with him several animals such as pigs,
horses, cattle and sheep. These animals reproduced rapidly because they were larger than the indigenous animals,
they had no natural predators in the region, there were no diseases in the Caribbean (such as cattle diseases that
were in Europe) and they had sufficient land space and grasslands to graze. In Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, pigs
and cattle multiplied so rapidly that they started to run wild in the mountains. The Spanish settlers were able to
create circular landholdings to keep animals. This led to the production of beef, pork and mutton which were sold
to ships passing the Spanish colonies. The fats from animals also led to the production of different by-products such
as lard, tallow, candles and hides, most of which was sent back to Europe.
Trading – Spanish colonists were keen to the idea of trading in the Caribbean and this was easy because
Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica and Puerto Rico became important trading posts in the Spanish American Empire. It
meant that ships passed these countries rapidly. Many small items, animal meat, manufactured goods and crops
became important trades for residents in these colonies. Trading was important because it ensured that Spain
received revenues in the form of trade duties, import duties and export duties. So important was trades in
the Spanish Caribbean (and the Spanish Colonial Empire) that it led to the creation of the House of Trade or
Casa de Contratación in Seville in 1503 which supervised trades in the Caribbean, collected duties and act
as a court in cases of trade disputes. Eventually, the Casa became a political entity in the Caribbean and
developed into a supreme, advisory and executive body.
MORTALITY OF THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE
1. There was a clash of culture between the Spaniards and the indigenous people the Greater Antilles. The
Spanish effectively laid waste to the indigenous people and led to their destructions and genocide.
2. During the 1500s, the indigenous people in the Greater Antilles suffered a high mortality under Spanish
colonization. By the mid-1500s, the Taino population dwindled significantly.
3. Bartolome de las Casa wrote in 1561 that, “There were 60,000 people living on this island, including the
Indians; so that from 1494 to 1508, over 3 million people had perished from war, slavery and the mines.”
4. The decimation of the indigenous people in Caribbean were due to:
a. Open warfare with the Spanish - There was open warfare between the Spanish and the Taino people.
Warfare with the Taino people in Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba were particularly gruesome because
Taino leaders were gathered and executed in public. Some were burnt alive. In 1503, the Spanish led a
massacre in Hispaniola and in 1511; they led a massacre in Cuba. This led to the subjugation of the
indigenous people

20. b. Organized enslavement - Under Spanish control, the indigenous people were then forced to work on
plantations planting sugarcane and other crops and in gold mines. This was dangerous because the
Tainos had to deep into dark caves. Some drowned from underground currents, some were lost, and
some were exposed to suffocation.
c. Starvation: The Taino suffered from starvation because they were unable to cultivate their own crops.
The Spanish consumed most of the crops the indigenous people grew and because they were forced to
work, they were unable to plant additional food for themselves. The animals that the Spanish took
(cattle, sheep, pigs and horses) grazed on indigenous crop and created more incidences of starvations.
d. European diseases: The Europeans took with them several deadly diseases such as smallpox, measles,
chicken pox, whooping cough, diphtheria, scarlet fever, trachoma, typhus fever, typhoid fever,
influenza, cholera and bubonic plague. The Taino people had no natural immunity to European
diseases.
Enslavement (The Introduction of Amerindian Slavery)
Most of the Spanish colonists had come to colonize the New World, in search of riches. They had no sympathy for
the peaceful Tainos and enslaved themthat is they forced them to work for the Spaniards. The Tainos were
overworked and poorly fed and many of them died. Others drowned while diving for pearls for the Spaniards. The
first system of slavery the Tainos were subjected to was called the Repartimiento System. The Repartimiento
System was later extended by Ovando who was the first governor of Hispaniola from 1502 to 1509. The new
system was called the Encomienda System. Under this system, grants of Tainos were given to the Spanish Settlers.
The Tainos were to work for the Spaniards who were responsible for Christianizing and educating them. The
Spaniards had no intention of educating the Tainos and the encomienda system was just a means of obtaining labour
from the Tainos. There were no paid wages and neither schools nor churches were built in Taino villages.
THE ENCOMIENDA AND REPARTIMENTO
The Spaniards, who had occupied the newly ‘discovered’ lands, came to these lands not expecting to do much work.
Indeed, they used the native peoples as labourers in the gold mines and later on the plantations and cattle farms that came
to dominate the region. However, for the colonization process to take place, it was necessary to set up labour systems to
partition off the land and the native people to Spanish overlords or conquistador. The initial system that was instituted
was called the encomienda system.
The encomienda system was based, in theory, on the belief that the native people would be Christianized by the Spanish
colonists and, in return, the native people would provide labour services for the Spaniards. The system was first
established by Columbus in 1499 when he made an initial assignment of three hundred neo-Indians to Spaniards. The
system became official Spanish policy when it was championed by the first Spanish royal governor in the region,
Nicolas de Ovando. De Ovando arrived in Hispaniola in 1502 and by Royal Order of 1503 began granting neo-Indians to
deserving Spanish colonists.

21. Under the system, the colonists were allotted a number of Indians whom they were supposed to clothe and feed as well
as Christianize and pay wages. In return, the neo-Indians were supposed to work for the Spaniards. This system quickly
broke down because of the extreme abuses that the Spanish colonizers inflicted on the native peoples. As a
consequence, some humanitarian concern for the native peoples was expressed by the Spanish king and the Catholic
Dominican Religious order. However, the desire of the conquerors to reward their supporters led to the overall
continuity of the system.
The system was in fact, a thinly disguised system of slavery and, as a result of the many abuses the Spanish Crown was
forced to intervene. This intervention took the form, in 1512, of the passage of a Royal Ordinance (laws) or the Laws of
Burgos to regulate the treatment of the native peoples. This Ordinance was further strengthened in 1542 when “The New
Laws” were passed which sought to end the forced laboring of the native people under the encomienda. The end of the
encomienda system did not mean the end of the abuses since it was replaced by the repartimiento and finally led to the
system of debt peonage.
The repartimiento system which replaced the encomienda in some places had first been official policy under the
rulership of the Spanish governor, Francisco de Bobadilla, in 1500. It sought to allocate the native people as workers
amongst the Spaniards and it ultimately led to the natives being nothing more than slaves of the Spanish in the
Caribbean fields and mines. The situation was almost similar in the Americas where the Spanish had arrived seeking gold.
From the time of their first settlement of San Salvador, they realized that they needed to utilize the labour services of the
native peoples. This they did in the failed gold mines and then later in the agricultural fields of cacao and indigo of the
region. To effect colonization, the land was again partitioned out under the familiar encomienda system which tied the
natives as workers to the land grants. Again, the abuses of the native people continued both by the Spaniards who came
from Spain (peninsulares) and the native born Spaniards (criollos)
Reasons for the Enslavement of the Indians
1. Historical evidence supported that the Tanios were a very peaceful group of people. Most of their
weapons were created for hunting and not war. When the Spaniards came with their horses and guns, it
was extremely easy for the indigenous people to be forced into slavery because they were unable to
protect themselves.
2. Most of the Spaniards felt that they were above planting and mining and claimed that they were Spanish
of noble birth, hidalgos. It was therefore important for the Indians to work as slaves.
3. The Spaniards were well accustomed to the practice of slavery. In the Canary Islands, located off the coast of
West Africa, for example, the Spanish had used enslaved Africans to plant cane. It was therefore
inevitable that they would have preyed upon the weak.
4. The Spaniards had come to exploit the resources of the New World. If this were the case, then the
Spaniards had the right to enslave the Indians because they were ideal human resources. The
plantations needed large supply of effective human resources

22. 5. It was impossible for the Spanish men to transform the Indians into civilized Christians if they had their
free-will. Slavery was a necessary part of the process so that the enslaved Indians were groomed into
Christian practices by force.
END OF THE ENCOMIENDA SYSTEM
Repartimiento were grants of land to Spanish settlers and Encomienda were grants of Indians to Spanish
settlers given in trust for protection, conversion and instruction. This really meant de facto enslavement of
Indians and “Repartimiento and Encomienda” quickly came to mean the same thing. Spanish clergy worried
by the treatment of the Indians.
1511 – Protest of Montesinos
1512 – Laws of Burgos. Greater protection of Indians but Laws were evaded or ignored
1515 – Protest of Bartolome de las Casas who had witnessed the massacre at Caonas in 1511. Las Casas
named “Protector of the Indians”
1521 – Las Casas mainland experience started
1522 – Las Casas became a Dominican Monk
1544 – Las Casas made Bishop of Chiapas. Attempts to protect Indians unpopular with Spanish settlers and
new lands [1542; prohibiting further Indian enslavement] were suppressed in 1543. In a monastery, Las Casas
spent years writing 20 reasons [against Indian enslavement], brief relation of the destruction of the Indians
and history of the Indies.
Extermination – 50, 000 Arawaks in Hispaniola in 1492 reduced to 20, 000 by 1512 and 14, 000 by 1514.
Virtually exterminated by 1550 and similar extermination in Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Bahamas.
THE ENSLAVEMENT OF THE AMERINDIANS
a. Columbus, Bobadilla and Ovando - All three introduced enslaving measures
1494 – Columbus sent 500 Caribs and 500 Arawaks to Spain as slaves
1500 – Bobadilla encouraged settler attacks on the Arawaks
1502 – 08: Ovando saw Amerindians as a pool of free labour and encouraged the encomienda

23. b. AMERINDIAN RESISTANCE
Hispaniola – Despite their pacific nature, the Arawaks resisted immediately. The Spanish abused Indian
hospitality. Cacique Guacanagari remained loyal to Columbus and aided in unsuccessful defense of La
Navidad in 1493 when attacked by Caonaba
1493 – League of Hispaniola Caciques [Guarionex, Caonaba, Behechio and Cotabanama] against
Spaniards
1494 – Caonaba attacked settlement at St Thomas and captured by Ojeda
1498 – Rising of Guarionex – cacique captured and freed by Bartholomew Columbus
1500 – 02: Bobadilla allowed settler outrages against Amerindians
1503: Anacaona [wife and successor to Caonaba and sister to Behechio] captured by Ovando with 40
minor chiefs and massacre of chiefs and hanging of Anacaona. Esquivel captured and hanged
Cotabanama’; Puerto Rico – Unsuccessful resistance of Arawaks and Caribs to Ponce de Leon; Jamaica –
Unsuccessful resistance of Arawaks to Juan de Esquivel and in Cuba – Arawak resistance to Diego
Velasquez was led by Hautey; who was burnt alive and had no desire to go to a Christian heaven if
Spaniards resided there Massacre of Arawaks at Caonas
EUROPEAN RIVALRY AND SETTLEMENT
1. Spain’s support of Columbus 1st Voyage sprang from a desire for a Westward sea route to the Far East and
the riches thereof. Instead Columbus Atlantic voyages revealed new continents whose agricultural potential
and mineral wealth drew a flood of Spanish adventurers, colonizers and exploiters.
2. Wealth from Spain’s American empire financed wars against the Protestant states of Holland and
England, provoking their jealousy and hatred. Along with France, these states rejected the papal donation of the
Americas to Spain. They estimated that the New World was a valuable producer of tropical agricultural raw
materials, a market for their agricultural raw materials and manufactured goods, a naval training ground, a
dumping ground for the unemployed and a source of mineral wealth, all were ample reasons to seek their
share of “Adam’s Will”.
3. The Portuguese entered the Caribbean waters to trade illegally with the Spanish colonists who needed
manufactured goods and African slave

24. ATTACKS ON THE SPANISH AMERICAN EMPIRE: 16TH CENTURY
Smuggling or Illegal Trade - Spain’s rigid commercial laws created shortages of manufactured goods in the
empire and Spanish colonists took the risks of satisfying their needs from illicit traders. Until 1580, the
Portuguese were the main smugglers; particularly of slaves. The English privateer John Hawkins carried out
three (3) triangular slave trading voyages between England, Africa and the Caribbean from 1562 to 1568. His
1st and 2nd were profitable but the Spaniards wrecked his 3rd expedition and the Elizabethan seamen sailed
for plunder thereafter
ARMED ASSAULT
Pirates – professional sea –robbers fought only for themselves; while privateers carried “letters of Reprisal” or
“letters of Marque” granted by their home government.
1523 – The French privateer Jean Fleury seized 2 Mexican galleons laden with Cortez's treasure
1536 – French pirates captured 9 galleons carrying the spoils of the conquest of Peru.
1553 – A fleet of 10 warships commanded by the French privateer François Le Clerc raided ports on the
mainland and Hispaniola
1555 – Jacques Sores twice pillaged Havana
1559 – Treaty of Cateau–Cambresis; France and Spain made peace in Europe but excluded the Caribbean by
a formula of “No Peace beyond the line”
1572 – Francis Drake robbed a fortune in silver from a mule train on the Isthmus of Panama. The Dutch
began their long for independence from Spain. Dutch privateers or “Sea Beggars” attack Spanish
shipping in European and Caribbean waters but it was not until 1628 when Piet Hein captured a Spanish
treasure fleet that they achieved spectacular success.
1577 – 1580: Drake circumnavigated the world and captured a galleon laden with bullion off Peru.
1585 – 1586 - Drake’s “Indies Voyage”; a part of Santo Domingo and Cartagena were sacked.
1595: Death of Drake and Hawkins during their last expedition to the Caribbean. Sir Walter Raleigh raided
Spain settlements in Trinidad, and then journeyed up the Orinoco River in a futile search for the legendary
city of El Dorado.
1598 – Treaty of Vervins; France and Spain made peace
1600 – 1605: The Dutch stole salt from Araya near Cumana on the Spanish Main.
1604 – Treaty of London; England made peace with Spain

25. 1609 – Truce of Antwerp suspended the war between the Netherlands and Spain and laid down the “Principle of
Effective Occupation”; the Netherlands would accept Spanish rule only in areas that were effectively
occupied by the Spaniards. Thus a limit was imposed on the extent of the Spanish American Empire.
However, 16th century attempts to break the Spanish monopoly of the new world were ineffective; they
merely paved the way for more aggression in the 17th century
NON – IBERIAN COLONIZATION: THE 1600s
Guiana - The first English attempts of colonization on the remote, inhospitable “Wild Coast” made by
Charles Leigh [1604], Robert Harcourt [1609] and Robert North [1620] were all ill fated, but they stimulated
interest in the likewise remote and neglected Lesser Antilles.
1500s- The Spanish Empire claimed the entire Caribbean and most of Latin America; especially Hispaniola,
Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica, and Trinidad were settled.
1612 - British colonized Bermuda.
1623 - British colonized St. Kitts (formerly called St Christopher)
1627-1635 - British colonized Barbados, Nevis, Antigua, Montserrat, Anguilla, Tortola, and the Windward
Islands.
1635 - French contested colonization of St. Kitts. French colonized Guadeloupe and Martinique.
1655 - English conquered Jamaica by defeating the Spanish
1650-1680 - Dutch colonized Saba, St. Eustatius, Saint Martin, Curacao, Bonaire, Aruba, Tobago, St. Croix,
Tortola, Anegada, Virgin Gorda, Anguilla, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
1664-1674 - St. Eustatius changed hands ten times in British- Dutch disputes over the island.
1697 - Spain ceded Haiti to France. France controlled Tortuga.
1750s - Turks and Caicos captured by the British.
1761-1778 - British captured Dominica from France.
1762 -1783 - British and French forces contested for Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in which Britain won and St.
Vincent and the Grenadines came under British rule.
THE NEEDS OF THE EARLY SETTLERS
1. Food – When the colonist left Europe they had to abandon their European diet as most foodstuff could
not be imported from Europe; it was vitally important to produce as many food crops as possible.
2. Manufactured Goods - Weapons, tools, clothing and utensils had to be imported from Europe and were
always scarce

26. 3. Export Crops – The colonists had to find an export crop that would earn the fortunes they desired. By a
process of elimination tobacco was selected at first but by the 1650s this was replaced by sugar
4. A Supply of Labour – needed to exploit the resources of the Indies. The English and the French used for
more indentured servants than Indian slaves but with the change to sugar production. These proved inadequate
and African slaves became the dominant labour force.
DIFFICULTIES OF EARLY SETTLERS
A. Spanish attacks – In 1629, Don Fadrique de Toledo invaded Nevis and St Kitts but the Spanish could
not press this offensive
B. Carib Attacks – The Caribs were being pushed out of their homeland; they fiercely resisted the
Europeans
C. Lack of supplies and food – Supply ships came to the Caribbean very irregularly and the settlers
planted too little food.
D. Lack of Discipline – The settlers constantly bickered among themselves and there was always
friction between the French and English settlements.
E. Natural Disasters – Hurricanes, insect pests, tropical diseases, STI, flooding and drought
increased the settler’s hardships.
F. Heat: The Caribbean had a continuous sunny climate, and the Spanish colonists were unfamiliar with
the constant heat in the region. Many died from heat strokes.
G. Lack of health care: No establish clinics or hospitals meant that the Spanish settlers did not have
access to health care and succumbed to most of their inflictions.
H. Unfamiliar landscape: In the initial stages of European exploration, many deaths occurred from being
lost and stranded. If ships crashed or ran aground in unfamiliar lands, then they would starve as it was
unlikely that they would be discovered. Many explorers were lost in exploring the Caribbean and South
America
THE INSTITUTIONS OF EXPLOITATION
Economic (Mercantile System) - This monopoly of French and English colonial aimed at excluding all
foreigners especially the enterprising Dutch, from sharing the benefits of trade. The system was created by the
English Navigation Acts of 1650, 1651, 1660 and 1663 and by the French Commercial regulations laid down by
the Colbert.
Labour: Indentured Servitude, the slave trade and African slavery originated from the need for a labour force to
exploit the colonies.
The Dutch West India Company – Founded by William Usselinx in 1621, it was an aggressive trading
company whose captains were instructed to plunder and conquer anything Spanish.

27. Political – The English from 1627 to 1660, the Proprietary Government gave the king an annual income and
freed him from the financial risks and administrative demands of colonization. The Lord Proprietor exploited the
islands with the assistance of the island governors. As colonization became less risky and more profitable,
metropolitan control was intensified when the Proprietary System was phased out and the Old Representative
System introduced. The Council of Trade appointed governors whose power rivaled by the elected assemblies of
the plantocracy. The French bankruptcy of Richelieu’s ruling company of the isles of America in 1648
resulted in the sale of their individual governors who retained their independence until 1644, when Colbert
entrusted the administration of the islands to the company of the West Indies. This company collapsed in 1674 and
the islands came under direct royal control. The king’s council of state appointed a Governor – General to
supervise the work of each island’s intendant, military governor and “Conseil Souverain”
Dutch Supremacy and Decline - The Dutch differed from the Spanish, English and French in that they were
mainly concerned with seaborne trade, by which they dominated the Caribbean briefly in the 17th century.
They effectively smashed Spanish power by:
a. Piracy and Privateering
b. Defeat of the Spaniards at the naval battle of Itamaraca, 1640
c. Treaty rejection of Spanish claims to a monopoly of the empire
d. Diverting Spanish attention from the French and English colonization of the Lesser Antilles
Acting as “foster father” of the English and French colonies by supplying them with manufactured goods,
slaves, credit, knowledge of sugar production and transportation for exports. However, the English and
French ‘exclusive’ mercantilist policies and resentment of the Dutch prosperity caused the passing of
several laws of trade and navigation that expelled the Dutch from the colonies and provoked the three [3]
Dutch wars which forced the Dutch to accept that they could no longer trade with the colonies. They left the
Caribbean to intensify exploitation of their East Indian Empire.
Buccaneers: Pirates of the 17th century; Spain refused to recognize the English and French colonies
and this drove England and France to use the buccaneers to gain de Jure recognition of the
colonies. The savage attacks of Morgan, De Grammont, L’ Ollonais, and others pulled Spain to the
conference table.
1670 – Treaty of Madrid; Spain officially acknowledged the presence of the English in the
Caribbean. England’s efforts to suppress buccaneering and the destruction of Port Royal by earthquake
crushed piracy.

28. 1697 – Treaty of Ryswyck: Spain recognized all French possessions in the Caribbean thus ending the
age of buccaneers
THE EFFECTS OF EUROPEAN RIVALRY
a. Illicit trade, armed assault and colonization combined to cripple Spain’s monopoly in the America’s
b. The scramble for colonies fragmented the Caribbean into subject projections of European states,
diminished the aboriginal population to almost nil and introduced Negro slavery
c. Expulsion of the Dutch paved the way for intense Anglo – French conflict of the 18th century
WEST AFRICAN SOCIETIES
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
SAVANNAH EMPIRES: 9th to 16th centuries – Ghana, Mali and Songhai
Ghana – Soninke/ Mandingo pagan empire established circa 850.
Mali – The Mali Emperor Sundiata conquered Ghana in 1240. Mali, an Islamic empire which
produced Mansa Musa (1307 – 32) builder of Timbuctu and made famous pilgrimage to Mecca
Songhai – Sonni Ali, King of Goa, conquered Timbuctu in 1464. Between 1501 and 1513
Askia the Great expanded the empire from Senegal to Benin. 1591: Moroccans destroyed
Songhai
FOREST EMPIRES
Oyo [1450 – 1750]: Yoruba Kingdom - Administrative / Commercial capital was Oyo, seat of Alafin
[kings]; they committed ritual suicide if they lost popular support. Cultural capital was Ife,
famous for pottery and brasswork produced by the lost wax process.
Benin [1500 – 1750]: Bini / Edo state founded by Oranmiyan, son of Oduduwa of Ife and independent of Oyo
c. 1500; grew wealthy from slave trade, trade with Europeans and firearms. The capital was the city of
Benin, the seat of the ruler, the Oba. Benin declined after 1700: internal wars, decline in farming and
industrial skills owing to concentration on slave trade.
Dahomey [1700 – 1850]: Fon State; capital of Abomey; subject to Oyo until c. 1700 when Agaja
[1708 –32] captured slave stations at Adra, Whydah and Jakin. State based on slave trade
Ashante [1700 – 1874]: Akan / Turi state; the capital was Kumasi. There was a union of states
around Denkyira. The ruler known as the Ashantehene was semi – divine; he sat on the Golden Stool
originally sent from above by the first ruler, Osei Tutu. Asante made treaties with the Dutch at
Elmina and the English at Cape Coast; made Asante the chief forest slave trading state c. 1730

29. ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION
800 – 1450: Trans – Saharan Trade – Savannah states; traded across Sahara with camel caravans.
Savannah pastoralists raided / traded with forest agriculturalists; obtained gold dust, kola and palm
nuts, ivory and salt. Mediums of exchange: gold, metal bars, salt and cowrie shells, North Africa
provided cattle, horses, trinkets and cloth.
1450 – 1874: Atlantic Trade; Arrival of Portuguese and other Europeans after 1450 led to shift
in trade direction. Decline of savannah states and rise of forest states selling states to
European and American plantations. Medium of exchange: firearms, hardware, cloth.
CARIBBEAN ECONOMY AND SLAVERY
Change from Logwood to Mahogany - Logwood was the first major timber export from the Caribbean
and was produced mainly in Belize. It was very valuable for its dye, which was used by wood
manufacturers. Spanish ships carrying logwood were often attacked by British pirates, who stole the
cargo and resold it. However, the buccaneers soon decided that cutting the logwood trees themselves
was an easier way and safer way to make a profit. These new producers caused a glut on the market.
This resulted in falling prices in the 1760s and so mahogany replaced logwood as Belize’s main wood
export. Since mahogany wood was harder than logwood, the economy of Belize (renamed British
Honduras after it was colonized by Britain) changed drastically. Logwood was a small tree which
required only a few men to cut it.
Slavery started in Belize in 1724 but there were relatively few Africans until the 1770s after which the
number of Africans expanded to more than three quarters of the population of about 5 000
people. Mahogany production created new jobs, e.g., as huntsmen, the axe men and cattle men
and these jobs were done by skilled slaves. The huntsmen went into the forest to find mahogany
trees, the axe men did the chopping and trimming of the trees, and the cattle men took care of the
animals used to transport the logs. These enslaved men, their masters and overseers had to cover long
distances to find the trees, which did not grow in clumps like the logwood but were located singly
and often far apart. This meant that sites were temporary and that enslaved men were away
from their families for long period of time so logging had to be seasonal. After the logging season
ended, families were reunited and celebrations took place at the community festivals where the
enslaved interacted with each other. This interaction among the enslaved created a new
Belizean creole culture. Tobago and British Guiana are other territories which experienced the
changeover from logwood to mahogany but the sugar remained the dominant crop in both territories.

30. COTTON PLANTATION - Cotton was grown in Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Vincent,
Jamaica, and British North America - chiefly Louisiana. The slaves would clear the land and then dig
holes for the cotton seeds to be planted. The seeds were planted one meter apart. The slaves continuously
weeded and fertilized the soil using animal manure. Other cash crops were planted between to prevent
soil erosion. When the cotton bolls burst this was an indication that they were ready for harvesting!
The slaves then picked the crop boll by boll using their bare hands. The bolls did not open all at the
same time so the slaves were to keep moving up and down the rows to ensure that they got all the
ripe cottons. Each slave was given a sack to put the fluffy white bolls in. Slave drivers checked the
amount in each sack and administered lashes to those slaves who did not meet the minimum required
amount. The slaves then emptied their sacks and hurried back to the fields to resume picking. The
bolls were then spread out on a platform to dry. Old and sick slaves, joined by the children,
picked out any trash or leaves that may have been gathered with the bolls. Another set of slaves
separated the fibers in the bowl. They were then packed and shipped off to St. Vincent, Dominica
and Grenada.
COFFEE PLANTATIONS - By the 1770s, coffee was grown among the British possessions only in
Jamaica, Dominica and Grenada, and formed only 11 per cent of the total value of exports from the British
West Indies. Some was also grown in the Dutch colonies of Essequibo and Demerara. The amount produced in
St Domingue, Guadeloupe and Martinique was considerably greater, and represented a quarter of the total
value of exports from the French West Indian possessions. The plantations that grew coffee were usually
smaller than most having less than 100 slaves. After planting, and then tending and weeding the bushes to
maturity, the slaves then harvested, husked and dried the beans and prepared them for shipment in a never-
ending cycle of labour. They worked in gangs, to a rule of thumb which required two slaves for every three
acres under cultivation.
As an acre of coffee gave the planter a return of less than half of that produced by an acre of sugar, its
cultivation gradually decreased throughout the Caribbean Region as the eighteenth century progressed. It
received a boost in Jamaica in the early years of the next century, as a result of the collapse of the coffee
industry in St Domingue brought about by the Haitian Revolution. The increased output from Jamaica then
combined with the increased production of growers in Asia to ruin the coffee planters of the Dutch colonies
in the Guianas. By the time slavery was abolished, coffee was a very marginal crop throughout the West Indies.

31. COCOA PLANTATION - The slaves would clear the land and plant the cuttings directly. It took about
five (5) years for the trees to grow to maturity but the best harvest was after eight years. The second
option is to plant the seedlings that are grown in a nursery. The seedlings were allowed to grow to a
certain height before they were transplanted. The slaves then planted cash crops around the cocoa
plants to increase the humidity while providing shade. The pods took about five and a half months to
mature so there were two harvesting seasons for this industry. Meanwhile, the slaves constantly weeded
the fields. When the pods were ready for harvesting, the first gang of slaves, armed with machetes,
moved into the fields to cut the pods swiftly from the tree. They dropped these in the baskets that they
had been provided with. Since they had to cover a wide area, these were usually the older or stronger
slaves. The second gang used their machetes to split the pods open to enable them to remove the pulpy
or flesh fruit inside. The fruit was then put to dry and ferment which took about five to seven days in
the sun. The pulp drained away leaving just the beans. In Grenada, slaves danced on the beans to give
them a polished look. This attracted the buyer faster than dull beans. The beans were then packed for
export.
The Sugar Revolution: A rapid change from tobacco to sugar as the basic cash crop that occurred in the
mid-to-late 17th century in the British and French West Indians islands. The sugar revolution
brought great social, economic and political changes to the islands it occurred in. It is most
drastically seen in the history of Barbados where it occurred roughly in one decade (1640 - 1650).
CAUSES OF THE SUGAR REVOLUTION:
1. For a long time, tobacco from the West Indies had been preferred. However, by the 17c., tobacco from
the West Indies was facing competition from tobacco from Virginia in North America, which
was superior in quality and quantity.
2. There was an increasing demand for sugar in Europe to be used as a sweetener for teas and other
beverage
3. The Caribbean islands had favorable climatic conditions on which sugar could be grown.
4. There was a glut on the market so the price of tobacco fell.
THE DUTCH CONTRIBUTION - The Dutch contribution was so great that we can say they made the change
possible. About 1640 the Dutch were easily the greatest traders in the Caribbean Region, almost having a monopoly
of the carrying trade. The Dutch traders and captains were looking for ways by which to increase their trade and
they saw that encouraging the planting of sugar was a great opportunity. Sugar needed capital which the small
planters of the eastern Caribbean did not have, but the Dutch came to the rescue by supplying credit. A Dutch
merchant would put up the capital on the security of the crop. In this way many planters started. The Dutch took
over the export and sale of the crop in return for providing the initial capital.

32. Not only highly specialized labour, but also the ordinary manual labour was provided by the Dutch as the slave
trade was in their hands. The Dutch brought slaves from West Africa to the West Indies at the rate of about 3000
per year. It has been said that the Dutch made the West Indies black. At least they started off the process which
led to a decline in the white population and a meteoric rise in the black. England could not have provided these
essentials for the development of the sugar industry. In any case the English system was not one of supporting the
West Indian colonies through a wealthy company or through the government. Colonies and their plantations were
individual enterprises which were expected to manage on their own.
IMPACT OF THE SUGAR REVOLUTION
Tobacco only needed a small labour force, usually Indentured. With the changeover to sugar, however, much
more labour was needed. Sugar production needed labour to plant, harvest, and store and transport the crop.
Indigenous and indentured labours were neither sufficient nor suitable. African labour was cheap and easily
available. As the sugar industry expanded so did the demand for enslaved Africans. This resulted in a horrific,
but lucrative, trade in people.
a. New Forms of Land Tenure – Tobacco was a small holders [2 – 12h] intensive crop. Sugar required 60 –
200 h. Barbados, 1645: 12000 small holdings [av. 4h.]; after 1660 sugar estates from 50 – 200 h.
b. Increase in Land Prices – Inflation in land prices, e. g. Barbados, 1620s: £6 p. h.; 1650: £ 80 p. h.
c. New agricultural practices – Tobacco had been grown with ground foods and provision crops. Sugar
needing plantation quality to produce a profit, created a monoculture. Barbados, 1660: 300 sugar factories but
little else produced. Reliance on imported North American foodstuff. Jamaica less dependent
d. Change in population size and structure – Increase in population as slaves imported. Increase in blacks and
decline in whites. Barbados, 1639: there were 30 whites to every 1 black; 1660: 1 white to every3 blacks. White
small holding class disappeared
e. Absenteeism: Whites returned to Europe or only visited estates. Causes: crudity of colonial society, dislike of
climate, fear of disease and rebellion.
Areas from which slaves were taken - Slaves were taken mainly from West Africa. Slaves were taken
from the forest states (Oyo, Benin, Dahomey, and Asante). They came from that section of West
Africa stretching from the Senegal River in the north to the Congo River in the south. The various areas
along the West African Coast have been given different names, e.g. Grain Coast, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast,
and Slave Coast.

33. THE REASONS USED TO JUSTIFY USING WEST AFRICAN SLAVES
1. Physical - West Africa was closer to the Caribbean than Europe, and the ocean crossing between the two
was made easy by the trade winds which blew from east to west.
2. Political - During the first two hundred years after the European discovery of the New World the early
modern states of Western Europe were engaged in a ruthless struggle for survival. Each needed to tap new
sources of economic strength, and so it was important for those with colonies in the New World to develop
them as quickly as possible. The massive amount of labour required was available in West Africa, where
slavery had existed for centuries before Europeans had arrived. West Africa suffered from political
fragmentation, and the constant warfare which took place between the different tribes and kingdoms
destroyed any hope of creating the regional solidarity which might have prevented slave exports.
3. Economic - The amount of what was considered to be unoccupied land in the New World was an
enormous attraction to Europeans, and called for the strictest possible control of labour. As a huge influx of
white workers would have led to them taking up land of their own, the importing of slaves who could
possess nothing made more economic sense. It was also cheaper. The money which would buy a servant’s
labour for eight or ten years would buy that of a slave for life. In addition, the people of West Africa were
used to agricultural work in a climate similar to that of the West Indies. Finally, it was cheaper to ship slaves
from West Africa than anywhere else.
4. Religious - The clash between Christendom and Islam had encouraged the Church to follow the Muslim
lead in ending the enslavement of fellow believers, while approving its retention for people who were, or
once had been, non-believers. Once Europeans became aware of the pagan beliefs of West Africans, they
took it that they had every right to make slaves of them. In an age when every part of the Bible was taken
literally, as being the revealed Word of God, the story of Noah’s curse (in Genesis, Chapter 9) also played its
part. Noah’s condemnation of his son Ham to servitude provided the white men who needed it with
justification for the enslavement of the black people who were believed to be Ham’s descendants.
5. Social - Regardless of the story of Noah’s curse, West Africans were not enslaved by Europeans because
they were black. Slavery had been a major institution for thousands of years, and the association between
blackness and slavery had developed in the Muslim and Arab world centuries before any European had access
to the slave trade. With the support of the Church and its views about non-believers, Europeans found it
easier to justify inhuman cruelty when it was used against people who were very different in appearance from
themselves. And it was even easier if, as was often alleged in the early days of the transatlantic slave trade, they
were a lower form of life, or not even human at all.

34. ORIGINS AND EXTENSION OF BLACK SLAVERY
Trans – Saharan trade started c. 800 AD – West African slaves to North Africa via Saharan caravans. The
Muslim rulers of Songhai, Ghana and Mali were allowed to enslave Non – Muslim by the Koran. Slavery was
punishment for debt or crime or results of inter – tribal war. But West African slavery prior to the arrival of
Europeans was relatively mild, disorganized and localized. Arrival of Portuguese c. 1450 led to re – direction
and extension of trade; c. 1515 start of Atlantic slave trade.
Portuguese [1515 – 80]: Portuguese held Spanish “asiento” – supplied slave to Spanish America. Slave forts on
Sao Tome, Coast of Senegambia, Gold Coast and Angola Construction of great fortress at Elmina in 1481.
Dutch [1580 – 1670]: Dutch seized Portuguese slave forts during the 30 years wars. 1612: Dutch fort at
mouri; 1621: Creation of Dutch West India Company. 1637: Dutch captured Elmina. Dutch supplied own
settlements in Brazil and BWI. Dutch supremacy ended with enforcement of English / French Navigation Acts
and loss of Dutch South American settlements.
French [1670 -1713]: France obtained the asiento 1670. Set up monopolistic trading companies. 1663 –72:
French West India Company. 1672: Company of Senegal and French Guinea Company. French dominance
ended by Treaty of Utrecht.
English [1713 – 1807]: Took control of slave trade after obtaining asiento at Utrecht 1713. Prior to obtaining
asiento English trading was in the hands of the company of Royal Adventurers [1663 – 71] and the Royal
African Company [1672 – 1750].company took over Cape Coast Castle and by 1690 had control of 8 forts.
However, company expenses were considerable and slave prices were consequently high. So there was
consistent challenges to their monopoly from other English and foreign interlopers. After 1750, a looser
association: the company of merchants trading to Africa.
Methods used to capture slaves
1. Surprise attacks- The slave raiders often used the element of surprise. Africans were ambushed and
kidnapped as they worked or travelled away from the community. Under such conditions they would have
been outnumbered with little chance of escaping or calling for help. As people ran from their burning homes,
many were grabbed and taken away.
2. The use of trickery- Sometimes slave hunters enticed people to go with them promising to take them
to exciting new places and to see many wonderful things. Some Africans went willingly only to be captured
and forced to make a trip away from their home.
3. Tribal differences- The animosity which often existed between the tribes was exploited by the slave
traders. Whereas Africans would’ve been reluctant to sell a member of their own tribe, they usually
would’ve been more willing to sell a member of the enemies’ tribe. Enemies captured during tribal warfare
were therefore sold to the Europeans.
4. Individuals inclusive of children were sold into slavery

35. 4. Items used as a medium of exchange for slaves - The items used as a medium of exchange for slaves
include knives, guns, alcohol, beads, cloth, and silk.
THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE
Europe – 50 to 500 tonne ships on 2 – 6 months voyage. Slaving ports: [England] Bristol, Liverpool and
London; [France] Nautes and Bordeaux. Carried European manufactures – cotton, woolens, hardware,
especially firearms. Special hardened crews were used on the ships
West Africa – Slaves were purchased by barter from West African kingdoms. Kept in “Barracoons” prior to
embarkation. Preference for certain groups such as Whydah ‘Papaws’ or Coromantees’ [Asante], Ibos and
Mandingos [Mandika] were thought to be too docile. The young and strong were preferred to old and women.
Prices: general inflation; £ 15 in 1720 to £ 50 in 1800. Slaves branded and provision [fruits, meat, and water]
obtained prior to Atlantic crossing. Time on the West African Coast varied depending on availability of slaves
and number of forts visited.
Middle Passage: 6 – 8 week Atlantic Crossing. Slaves were manacled into slavers in confined spaces below deck. 100
– 700 slaves according to ship’s tonnage. Minimum food ration, daily enforced exercise and occasional washing and
sluicing of slave quarters. Horror for slaves - fear of the sea and future, living conditions, brutal punishment,
humiliation and diseases. Slave responses includes non – cooperation, suicide and occasional revolts. Notable
brutalities: Albion [1698] – murder of rebellious slaves; Hannibal [1694] – loss of 300 slaves out of 700; Don Carlos
[1701] – slave revolt and brutal punishment; Prince of Orange [1737] – suicide of 33 slaves on arrival at St Kitts;
Zong [1781] – drowning of 133 diseased slaves to claim insurance. Slave deaths on Middle Passage estimated at 1 in 8.
Total 1 – 2 million lost.
West Indies – Slaves were often refreshed before sale, i. e. cleaned and properly fed. Sale on board ships [a
scramble] or by auction in Bridgetown or Kingstown. Humiliation at auction included physical inspection of
slaves’ bodies, made to dance, bare teeth, etc. slaves often paid for in sugar.
Methods used to acquire Slaves  Slaves were sold at auction to the highest bidder.  Slave scramble. In a
slave scramble, Africans were divided into groups for which set prices were fixed. At a signal, the planters
rushed on board to assess which groups offered the best quality for the least money.
White slaver’s experience – sources: Captain’s logs. Special crews on slavers. 12 men per hundred tones
instead of normal 7 per hundred tones. Extra crew needed for heavy sailing and danger of slave revolt.
Crew hardened to brutality and carried arms. Wages higher but greater risk of death from revolt, pirates or diseases

36. Slaves to the Americas [1601 – 1700] – In the 17th century, some 3 million slaves were transported across
the Atlantic – most of them to Brazil and the Spanish American Empire. Most of these were carried by the
Portuguese who held the Spanish asiento and who supplied their own colony of Brazil.
Slaves to the Americas [1701 – 1810] – The vast majority of slaves carried across the Atlantic on the Middle
Passage were transported in the 18th century at the time when sugar was ‘king’ in the British and French West
Indies and in the Portuguese colony of Brazil
Slaves to the Americas [1811 – 1870] – The 19th century, slave trade were virtually confined to Cuba and
Brazil where sugar was still produced with slave labour. Cuba had become the great sugar producer of the
Caribbean while the British and French islands had gone into serious decline. The Americans were now the
only slave traders.
The Slave Trade of the Royal African Company [1673 – 89] – For a short time, the Royal African
Company had a monopoly of the British West African Slave trade and by the end of the 17th century had 8
forts along the West African Coast
Black Slave Experience – sources are few. Not many slaves recorded [or could record] their experience. An
exception was Ouladiah Equiano [Gustavus Vasa]. Born in Benin c. 1745 and sold in American colonies, later
served an American Naval Officer and was re – sold in the West Indies. Spoke fluent English; became expert
barber and seaman; bought his freedom and settled in England, where he wrote a journal recording his slave life.
Figures are disputed. Period 1515 – 1865 [first asiento to end of US slavery] slaves exported from West
Africa to Americas estimated to be from 5 – 22 million. 2 authorities: Faye – 11 million; Curtin – 10
million.
IMPACT ON WEST AFRICA
1. Depopulation – figure of 30 million has been given as total loss due to slave trade, tribal
war and internal struggles. There was no absolute depopulation; but population grew only
very slowly
2. Decline in Farming / Industry – Insecurity created by trade led to decline in
farming. Traditional crafts [brassworking, cotton – weaving and ironworking] also lost due to
instability capture of craftsmen and ease of obtaining European substitutes.
3. Families were separated. Parents and / or were crudely snatched and separated. Homes were
literally destroyed by fire during the raids.

37. 4. The raiders took the young and strong people represented the labour force a n d p r o d u c t i o n
decline
5. There was increased distrust among neighbors and even friends
6. Local production and crafts such as pottery and brass work decreased.
7. The guns and ammunition that were trade items for slaves gave extra security to one group but provided the
means for them to raid another group.
THE PLANTATION: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE
1620s to 1650s: Non – Spanish settlers of New West Indies colonies grew subsistence crops and tobacco as
cash crops. After 1640 competition from Virginian tobacco [produced in greater quantity and of better
quality) led to search for a new cash crop. Demand for sugar in Europe – sweetener for tea and coffee –led to a
change to sugar in British and French West Indies with the aid of Dutch capital, credit, slaves and expertise.
THE EFFECTS OF SLAVERY ON THE CARIBBEAN
SOCIAL
1. An artificial increase in the size of the population as literally hundreds of thousands of African
slaves was imported annually into the New World.
2. A change in the racial composition of the society. Before the Sugar Revolution the majority of
the population was white and the minority black. By the mid-18th century, blacks far outnumbered
whites; in some cases the ratio was as much as 25:1.
3. A host of new laws were introduced to regulate and define the relationship between master and
slaves, for example, the Deficiency Act was passed to deal with the unequal ration. Then each
Colonial Power drafted their own set of laws: Spanish: Siete Partidas, French: Code Noir and the
English colonies enacted their individual Slave Codes.
4. A whole new culture was introduced- the African culture. There was a small amount of mixing of
the two cultures (hybridization/Creolization) as well.
5. A new ‘’breed’’ of person was introduced - the mulattoes. (off spring of the whites and blacks)
6. Society became highly stratified. A person was now judged firstly by colour and then wealth, so
that even a poor white was deemed to be of a higher status than a rich mulatto

38. ECONOMIC
1. The pattern of landownership changed. Sugar demanded large land while other crops demanded
small land space
2. The price of land increased dramatically towards the end of the 17th century and into the 18th
century as more and more sugar estates were being established.
3. Large amounts of capital were invested in the sugar industry. Most of this capital however came from
the Mother Country itself. Soon the West Indian planters became indebted to (European) British bankers,
investors and merchants.
4. The Triangular trade provided employment in a number of areas from shipbuilding to insurance, to
porters and warehouse landlords among others.
5. The plantation owners became very wealthy. Some of them went back to Europe to live in comfort and
style, showing off their wealth. The expression ‘’as rich as a West Indian planter’’ became the accepted
description of any wealthy person.
6. England collected a lot of taxes and duties and shared in the profits of the Sugar Industry. Later, she
would use much of this money to finance her Industrial Revolution.
The Sugar Estate - Typically, 50 – 2000 hectares with a third of the land under sugar, other two – thirds
down to provision crops, pasture and wood – land for fuel. The centre of the estate consisted of factory and
residences. Factory [ingenio] slave quarters, great house, homes of other whites, factory buildings – mill to
crush cane, boiling house, distilling house for rum, offices and buildings for specialized trades: - coopers,
blacksmiths, wheelwrights, carpenters, etc
Organization of a typical 18thcentury Sugar Plantation - Sugar estate lands were divided into:
1. . Sugarcane fields
2. Pasture lands
3. Woodlands
4. Vegetable gardens
5. Provision grounds
6. Work yards
7. Living quarters

39. Buildings on the Sugar Plantations and their use
1) The Mill- grinding/crushing of cane to make sugar.
2) Boiling House- cane was clarified by heating with white lime, cane juice evaporated, leaving a
mixture of sugar crystals and molasses.
3) Curing House- for weeks, excess molasses dripped through small holes at the bottom of the
hogsheads leaving muscovado sugar behind.
4) Distillery (Still House)- molasses skimmed of cane juice was converted into rum.
5) Trash House - crushed cane was stored here to be used as fuel.
6) Work Shops - this is where skilled craftsmen made barrels, carts, wagons, etc.
7) Great House - largest house on the estate, house of the planter and his family, easy access to the
road, usually stood on top of a hill where all could be seen.
8. Overseers and bookkeepers’ quarters - used for living by the overseers and bookkeepers and
also as offices
9. Slave Huts- no real architecture, small and just enough to sleep in.
10. Store House - supplies, tools, chemicals.
11. Hospital - ‘’Hot House’’, where sick slaves were taken care of.
12. G A O L - where slaves were punished.
SUGAR PRODUCTION PROCESS
1. Dead Season [August – November] – Cultivating/planting: The field slaves prepared the land for
cultivation at the end of August. The slaves dug the holes, put animal manure in them, then placed cane
cuttings called ratoons and lightly covered them with soil. The canes were planted just before the rainy
season, as they grew, the slaves weeded the fields, molded (refilled the holes with soil that was removed).
The canes removed the dry trash from the cane stock. The canes took 14- 18 months to mature.
2. Crop Season [November – July] – cane cutting. Necessity of getting cane to mull within 48 hours. Cane
crushed, juice extracted and trash to trash house. Boiling house – the juice was run from the mill to the cooper
clarifier in which it was heated with white line, and then passed through a series of copper boilers – slowly
concentrating juice. Last broiler “tache” contained sugar crystals and molasses. Sugar put in holed barrels,
molasses allowed to drip out resulting sugar “Muscavado”.

40. MANUFACTURING OF SUGAR - After the canes were unloaded they were fed by hand into the mill,
which consisted of three pairs of rotating iron rollers. Here the canes were crushed and the juice was
extracted. The extracted juice was conveyed by a gutter from the mill to the boiling house where it was
emptied into the copper clarifier called the siphon where it was heated with white lime. The impurities
raise as scum to the surface and were skimmed off and put aside to be used in the making of rum. The
head boiler ladled the purified juice into successive boilers where it was boiled. There were about three to
six boilers, each smaller and hotter than the previous one, hung over a fire. As the hot juice passed
through the boilers, it was constantly stirred by the slaves until it became thick and dark brown in colour.
After it boiled for some time, the head boiler tested its readiness by stretching the mixture between his
thumb and forefinger. This is the crystallization process. The sugar crystals mixed with molasses were
ladled into large troughs to cool. After the sugar had cooled, it was placed on sloping platforms for about
three weeks to allow the molasses to drain off. The molasses was collected and later used in the making of
rum. The sugar which remained in the barrels was called muscovado. The barrels were sealed and ready
for shipment. The sealed barrels of sugar crystals were loaded onto carts and taken to the coast. They were
loaded and rolled onto the canoes which took them to the waiting ships. On arrival in Europe, the sugar
was further refined at one of the chief ports. This process made the sugar crystals finer.
THE PLANTATION
Social Relations - Plantation society was rigidly stratified hierarchical pyramid The Whites
1. Planter [or his attorney] – master of the plantation, lived in great luxury and splendor
2. Overseer – estate manager about crop, sugar manufacture and labour
3. Clerks and Book – Keepers – stock clerks, slave supervisors
THE BLACKS
1. House / Domestic Slaves – worked in the great house. Slaves employed as cooks, seamstresses,
butlers, footmen, flunkies and coachmen. Access to “White Society” – light work, access to ‘white
society’ book.
2. Factory Slaves – semi – skilled jobs inside factory. Slaves in charge of mill, boilers, rum houses,
etc. Also controlled machinery, transport, etc. Sometimes called artisan slaves.
3. Field [Praedial] slaves – worked in fields under slave drivers. 3 gangs: - a. Main gang – The young
and strong; responsible for holing, cutting and carrying b. Secondary gang – Sick, pregnant
women and youths; lighter work – weeding and harrowing c. Children’s gang and the very old -
Weeded and cared for animal and limited education.

41. THE CULTURAL LEGACY: THE AFRICAN INPUT
a. Language – The multiplicity of West African languages forced the slaves to invert a common
tongue. Creole languages developed including many African words particularly relating to religion,
custom, food, and folk tales. Jamaican Creole: many African words – ackee, yam, gungu, akra
[food]; obeah, shango [religion], anancy, abeng, calembe [custom]
b. Food – Food plants from West Africa; yam, coco, cassava. Dishes included Trinidadian akra
from Yoruba “akara” – beans and palm oil
c. Social Relations – West African family based on kinship: blood ties, common ancestral spirits.
This had its legacy in the West Indies; extended family encompassing all relations and anyone bound
by blood or kinship. Respect for elders.
d. Medicine – Slaves brought traditional herbal medicines. Myal men. Use of plant drugs
and poisons. Obeah men.
e. Music – Dominance of the drum and other West African instruments – xylophone, claves,
clappers, rattlers and scrappers. Elements of West African music – spontaneity, complicated
rhythms, speech tunes.
f. Religion - West African religions were highly sophisticated and polytheistic. Importance of
ancestors, spirits, gods of the seasons, place and elements, feast of Odwira, Akan thanksgiving
for harvest. Dahomey – god Vodun. Yoruba – God of thunder and lightning; shango. Legacy –
Haiti, slaves from Dahomey: Worship of Vodun and other gods, ‘Ioa’. Trinidad: slaves from
Yorubaland. Worship of Shango. Jamaica: Maroon religion, kumina, based on spirit
worship. Pocomania – spirit possession with emphasis on drum and dance. Obeah – semi
religious beliefs based on sorcery and magic.
RESISTANCE AND REVOLT
Slave Control – Slaves outnumbered whites in every Caribbean colony, for example, Jamaica, 1755: 200
000 slaves to 12, 737 whites; so whites had to stop black takeover.
Economic – Slaves lacked property, education, skills and money. Economically, they were totally dependent
on their masters and plantation. Unless they escaped to a maroon community, life outside the estate was
impossible
Psychological and Ideological – Whites held that African societies were barbarous and blacks were inferior
beings. Slaves, themselves, came to believe White’s racism and accepted white cultural values. Black culture,
religion, music and art were denigrated. Blacks accepted white social divisions – buckra, red leg, coloured,
Quashie, Quaco and Coffee despised each other.

42. Social – Rigid social divisions in plantation society. House / domestic slaves despised those in Ingenio, who
despised field slaves. Creole slaves ‘Nayga’ or New Guinea Birds. Tribal Origins of slaves were emphasized:
scholarly gentle Mandinka; despondent Ibo; aggressive Asante.
Cultural – West African cultural heritage ignored or despised. Whites noticed slave culture when it appeared
dangerous, for example, obeah, drum and horn banned. Slaves forced to accept white’s culture as superior.
Physical – Last resort, when other controls failed was control through naked force. Disobedience and revolt
were savagely punished without much reference to the law
Legal – in all the Caribbean colonies a slave was regarded as a thing. However, because slavery was a peculiar
institution and the slave a person, laws were passed to regulate his life and conduct. These varied depending on
the colonizing power. The Spanish and French colonies a code of laws, drawn up in the metropolitan
legislature, applied to all colonies of that power
English/ British – English colonies had no all embracing code; laws were made by legislatures of individual
colonies. Metropolitan parliament had no control of such legislation when such colonies possessed sovereign
assemblies. Mainly punitive and harsh; some examples are:
1. A slave could not own property, could not grow or sell sugar, cotton or coffee
2. He could not give evidence against a free man in court.
3. He could not hire himself out without his owners’ permission.
4. He was forbidden to get married and forbidden to become a Christian
5. They were not to be taught to read or write
The Spanish Slave Laws (Las Siete Partidas) - The Spanish Code was different from other slave laws in
that the Spanish regarded the slave as a person as well as property. Therefore, the laws offered him protection
against unwarranted assault or punishment, or other forms of inhumane treatment by his master. In addition,
the Spanish acknowledged that slavery was contrary to natural justice and was evil, but a necessary evil for
the economic development of the colonies. The Spanish authorities recognized the right of slaves to seek their
freedom to remove the danger of revolt by other means than repressive legislation. Some laws were:-
1. A slave had the right to purchase his freedom with or without the consent of his owner by repaying
his purchase price and, if necessary, by periodic repayments.
2. A slave could appeal to the courts (Audiencia) if he was ill-treated.
3. A slave had the right to be baptized and instructed in the Catholic Faith.

43. 4. Plantation slaves held the right to be free from work on Sundays and Holy Days.
5. A slave had the right to marry with or without the consent of his owner.
6. Plantation slaves held the right to be free from work on Sundays and Holy Days.
7. A slave had the right to marry with or without the consent of his owner.
8. A slave had the right to be provided with food, clothing, shelter, and to be taken care of by his
master in his old age.
9. A slave had the right to his plot of land without the consent of his master.
10. The owner could not kill or ill-treat him to the point of suffering. He could not overwork or
underfeed his slaves.
The French Slave Laws (Code Noir) - The control and treatment of slaves in the French Caribbean was laid
down by the Code Noir (Black Code), which was drawn up in France in 1685. It remained in force until
1804, when it was replaced by the Code Napoleon, the basis for the legal system throughout the French
empire. The Code Noir was meant to be strictly applied, but in practice the milder measures were disregarded,
and many modifications were made to separate clauses in the following century. However, basically the code
survived in its original form.
1. All slaves were to be baptized. Slaves should not work on Sundays or Holy Days.
2. Slave marriage to be encouraged but the owner’s consent must be given.
3. Sexual intercourse between master and his slave to be punished by the confiscation of the slave. If
between another man and the slave, a fine to be imposed. Children of such unions would take the status of
the mother.
4. Rations and clothes to be provided. Old and sick slaves to be fed and maintained
5. Slaves were forbidden to own property and anything they acquired to belonged to their owner.
6. Promises, contracts and gifts made by slaves were null and void.
7. Slaves were forbidden to sell sugar, or any other produce, without their owner’s permission.
8. Death penalty to be inflicted for striking master or mistress, and in some cases, any freeperson.
9. Owner to be compensated if slave executed on owner’s own denunciation.
10. The plantation and slaves to be regarded as one.
11. Owners and drivers to treat slaves humanely.

44. 12. Owners to have right to free slave after twenty years’ service.
13. Manumitted slaves to have the same rights as free persons.
Thus, in general, the Code Noir was more humane than the British laws. For example, Christianity,
marriage and humane treatment were expressly ordered. However, punishment was equally harsh and in
many other ways French laws were similar to those in the British colonies.
The Dutch and Danish Codes - The legal provisions designed to control the slaves in the Dutch Caribbean
possessions were drawn up by the Dutch West India Company. They were intended to suppress the slaves, but
at the same time to show that the owners had social, religious and educational obligations towards them. As in
the French colonies, however, the laws concerning these obligations were soon largely unobserved, while the
policing laws were expanded and rigidly enforced. As a result, the Dutch acquired a reputation of being the
cruelest of all the European slave-owners. In the Danish islands, the sole purpose of the slave code was to
maintain order. The welfare of the slaves was left entirely to the discretion of individual owners until 1755,
when the Danish Crown passed an act laying down the responsibilities. As this was intended to form the basis
for local laws, a conflict then arose between the need to repress the slaves for security reasons, and the
requirement to protect them as human beings. The conflict was resolved by concentrating on repression, and
the local laws became even more severe as the ratio of blacks to white increased.
FORMS/TYPES OF RESISTANCE
1. Active/ Insurrectionary- those acts which immediately had an effect on slavery. The more
obvious the act, the more one could classify it as a means of active resistance.
2. Passive/ Non- Insurrectionary- could be contrasted to the acts of active resistance.
3. Acts of resistance included:
1. Running away
2. Obeah
3. Setting fire to cane fields
4. Destruction of estate machinery

45. 6. Playing drums, singing
7. Speaking their native language in private
8. Setting up Maroon communities
9. Lying
5. Pretending ignorance
10. Insubordination
11. Revolution
12. Revolts
13. Petty stealing of estate property
14. Slow work and (malingering) absence
15. Maiming and killing of livestock
16. Poisoning
’Gender specific’’ forms of resistance - Specific acts of resistance by enslaved women
1. Delaying pregnancies
2. Inducing abortions (probably most prevalent where the enslaved women had been a
victim of sexual abuse by whites)
3. Delaying weaning or breast-feeding babies
4. Pretending to be ill during menstrual cycles
5. Infanticide
6. Cultural resistance- mothers passed on cultural traits to their children
7. Concubinage
8. Women made up songs making fun of their master
MARRONAGE
Definition: Those slaves who ran away and established small settlements in the mountainous areas of
Jamaica, British Guiana, Hispaniola, and Suriname. These individuals were called ‘’maroons’ ‘and the word
was derived from the Spanish word “Cimarron’’, which means ‘’fugitive’’ or ‘’runaway’’. The two types of
marronage: Grand marronage refers to large groups of people who ran away from plantations, and petite
marronage describes the individuals or small groups who ran away. Grand Marronage led to the
establishment of ‘’maroon communities’’ while petit marronage was made up of people who sometimes
returned to the estates.
Factors which encouraged the development of Maroon Societies
By the 1730s, maroon settlements were established in Jamaica at Trelawney Town, Crawford Town,
Accompong, and Nanny Town because:

46. 1. Effective leadership by people like Cudjoe and Nanny.
2. The topography of Jamaica (dense forests, caves, trees, rocks, mountains, etc.)
3. They were expert trackers and skilled marksmen (learned from Africa).
4. They planted provisions which helped them to survive and they relied on wild cattle and pigs for meat.
5. Their members were replenished by other runaways.
6. They had an excellent signaling system using cow horns (abengs) to send coded messages and
were thus able to communicate between settlements.
7. They raided plantations, and then retreated back to their hideouts when food was scarce.
Effects on running away on planters and the efficiency of the plantation
The act of running away by enslaved persons would have affected the planter and the efficiency of the
plantation in a number of ways:
1. Loss of labour for the plantations- resulted in planters having to spend money to replace those
who would have escaped.
2. Served as an encouragement to those already on the plantations.
3. Theft– many of the enslaved would have ran away with some of the planter’s animals, crops
and equipment.
4. Attack on plantations- maroon societies represented a real danger to the estates
THE BUSH NEGROES OF SURINAM
1680 – 1720 - Escaped slaves maintained African culture and religion. They were never defeated or
assimilated with European culture. 5 groups: - Djuka, Saramaka, Aluka, Matawai, Paramaka; lived inland
along Saramaca, Surinam, Cottica and Marowjine rivers. Raided Dutch coastal plantations
1730 – Abortive Dutch attempted to crush Djuka
1749 – Djuka – Dutch Treaty, exchange of presents between Captain Adoe and Dutch government
1761 – Djuka – Dutch Treaty. Dutch provided arms and recognition. Djuka agreed to give up runaways and
not to carry arms in Paramaribo
1772 – Revolt of Saramaka
1825 – Saramaka – Dutch treaty. Saramaka recognized

47. THE JAMAICAN MAROONS
The First Maroon War - The First Maroon War was a conflict between the Jamaican Maroons and the
British in Jamaica that reached a climax in 1732.
Background - In 1655, the British defeated the Spanish colonists and took control of most of Jamaica.
Following the flight of the Spanish, the Africans whom they had enslaved joined the Amerindian population
(and some others who had previously escaped slavery) in the centre of Jamaica to form the Windward Maroon
communities. The area is known as the Blue Mountains. The British forces were unable to establish control
over the whole island, a large portion remaining in the hands of the Maroons. For 76 years, there were
periodic skirmishes between the British and the Maroons, alongside occasional slave revolts.
In 1673, one such revolt in St. Ann's Parish - 200 slaves created a separate group called The Leeward
Maroons. These Maroons united with a group of Madagascar’s who had survived the shipwreck of a slave
ship and formed their own maroon community in St. George's parish. Several more rebellions strengthened
the numbers of this Leeward group. Notably, in 1690 a revolt at Sutton's plantation, Clarendon - 400 slaves
joined the Leeward Maroons. In September 1728, the British sent more troops to Jamaica, changing the
balance of power with the Windward Maroons. The Leeward Maroons inhabited "cockpits," caves, or deep
ravines that were easily defended. Their warning of approaching British soldiers allowed the Maroons to
evade, thwart, frustrate, and defeat the forces of an Empire.
The treaty - In 1739–40, the British government in Jamaica recognized that it could not defeat the Maroons, so
they came to an agreement with them instead. The Maroons were to remain in their five main towns
(Accompong, Trelawney Town, Moore Town, Scott's Pass, and Nanny Town), living under their own rulers
and a British supervisor. In exchange, they were asked to agree not to harbor new runaway slaves, but rather
to help catch them. This last clause in the treaty naturally caused a split between the Maroons and the rest of the
black population, although from time to time runaways from the plantations still found their way into Maroon
settlements.
Another provision of the agreement was that the Maroons would serve to protect the island from invaders. The
latter was because the Maroons were revered by the British as skilled warriors. The person responsible for the
compromise with the British was the Leeward Maroon leader, Cudjoe, a short, almost dwarf-like man who for
years fought skillfully and bravely to maintain his people's independence. As he grew older, however, Cudjoe
became increasingly disillusioned and he ran into quarrels with his lieutenants and with other Maroon groups.
He felt that the only hope for the future was honorable peace with the enemy, which was just what the British
were thinking. The 1739 treaty should be seen in this light. A year later, the even more rebellious Windward
Maroons of Trelawney Town also agreed to sign a treaty under pressure from both white Jamaicans and the
Leeward Maroons, though they were never happy about it. This discontentment with the treaty later led to the
Second Maroon War.

48. The Second Maroon War - The Second Maroon War of 1795-1796 was an eight-month conflict between the
Maroons of Trelawney Parish, Jamaica, and the British. The other Jamaican Maroon communities did not take
part in this rebellion.
The outbreak of the war - The Maroons felt that they were being mistreated under the terms of Cudjoe's
Treaty of 1739, which ended the First Maroon War. The spark of the war was when two Maroons were
flogged by a black slave for stealing two pigs. Fighting began in mid-August.
The war - lasted for five months as a bloody stalemate. The British 5,000 troops and militia outnumbered the
Maroons ten to one, but the mountainous and forested topography of Jamaica proved ideal for guerilla
warfare. The Maroons surrendered the war in December 1795. The British also had some one hundred blood
hounds and their handlers imported from Cuba.
Aftermath - The treaty signed in December between Major General George Walpole and the Maroon leaders
established that the Maroons would beg on their knees for the King's forgiveness, return all runaway slaves,
and be relocated elsewhere in Jamaica. The governor of Jamaica ratified the treaty, but gave the Maroons only
three days to present themselves to beg forgiveness on 1 January, 1796. Suspicious of British intentions, most
of the Maroons did not surrender until mid-March. The British used the contrived breach of treaty as a pretext
to deport the entire Trelawney town Maroons to Nova Scotia. After a few years, the Maroons were again
deported to the new British settlement of Sierra Leone in West Africa.
HAITIAN REVOLUTION
The 1695 Treaty of Ryswick between France and Spain gave the French a legal right to the Western part of
Hispaniola called Saint Domingue. The French, like every other government existing in those days, saw the
colonies as existing exclusively for the profit of the Metropolis. Therefore, any goods which the colonists
required had to be bought exclusively from France and transported only by French ships. The society was
made up of a number of classes. The ‘’grand blancs’’ (planters, civil & military officers) were the highest
group. The second comprised merchants and professionals. Then, there were the ‘’petite blancs’’ (artisans,
shopkeepers and bookkeepers), followed by the mulattoes/free coloured and finally, the salves. French St
Domingue, ‘Pearl of the Antilles’; had approximately 500 000 slaves; 30, 000 whites; 230 000 Coloureds
[affranchis] – who had no votes or voting rights and faced many legal disadvantages
August, 1789 – French National Assembly issued “Declaration of the Rights of Man”. Ideas of revolution –
“Liberty, Equality and Fraternity” spread to French colonies.

49. May 1791 – Assembly gave colonial Coloureds vote. ‘Grand Blancs’ in St Domingue resist. Unsuccessful
coloured revolt by Oge and Chavannes
August 1791 – Northern slave revolt by Boukman. Cape Francais threatened
revolt September 1792 – Arrival of Sonthonax with revolutionary force and sided
with slaves.
August 1793 – Sonthonax declared conditional emancipation of slaves.
September 1793 – The British, exercising their naval superiority in the Caribbean, keen to take advantage of
the trouble in France and her colonies and worried should this revolutionary spirit spread to Jamaica, landed a
force under General Maitland in Southern St Domingue
1794 – 1798: Toussaint deserted Spain; joined revolutionary forces. Waged successful against British;
Maitland agreed to withdraw
1798 – 99: Toussaint defeated and massacred Coloureds under Rigaud. Sacked Les Cayes
1800 [September – November] – Collapse, through neglect, of Artibonite and Cul de Sac dams
1800 – 02: Partial restoration of agriculture; Toussaint encouraged return to estates.
1801 – Toussaint promulgated self – governing construction with himself as Governor – General for life.
Toussaint invaded and took over Santo Domingo. Napoleon dispatched Le Clerc and 20, 000 troops to St
Domingue
1802 – Dessalines, Christophe and Maurepas join Haiti/St. Dominque. Christophe negotiated peace for
Toussaint. Toussaint captured and sent to France
November 1802 – Death of Le Clerc from yellow fever. French forces lacking exposure to the climate and
conditions were decimated by this disease. Dessalines and Christophe break with French. At Arcahaye united
blacks and Coloureds against Le Clerc’s successor, Rochambeau
April 1803 – Death of Toussaint in French alpine prison
December 1803 – Rochambeau surrendered to Britain in Jamaica. Dessalines declared Haitian independence
1804 – Dessalines proclaimed himself Emperor of Haiti
Impact of the French Revolution in St Domingue
Ideas of French Revolution – “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”; seen by Coloureds and slaves as equally
applicable to them as to whites. Revolts of Coloureds and slaves given early support by French Revolutionary
armies after the capture of the National Assembly by the Jacobins

50. August 1789 – Declaration of the “Rights of Man” by the National Assembly
1790 – St Domingue “Grand Blancs” sent representatives to the National Assembly. They desired “liberty”
and autonomy in order to persecute the Coloureds and slaves. They lobbied the members of the National
Assembly through the club massiac while the Coloureds used the “Amis des Noirs” the National Assembly
wavered and then decided to let the colonial legislatures decide the issue
May 1791 – The National Assembly gave the vote to Coloureds of free parents of which there were only 400
in St Domingue
April 1792 – The new Jacobin Assembly gave the vote to free blacks and all Coloureds
September 1792 – A Jacobin army of 6000 under Sonthonax arrived in St Domingue and sided with the
slaves
Course of the Revolution: Roles of Toussaint, Dessalines, Christophe and Petion
Francis Dominique Toussaint [1746 – 1803] – Born in 1746, eldest of 8 children, on the Northern Breda
Plantation; Father, an African Chief taught him the African culture / heritage. Another slave, Pierre Baptiste,
made him literate. Small [as a boy he was called “little sticks”] he was naturally intelligent and quickly
progressed from cattle herder to coachman to livestock steward. A superb horseman [the centaur of the
savannah], he was 45 in 1791 [old Toussaint] when the revolution started.
1792 – 94: Fought for the Spanish in Santo Domingo. Trained an army of 400 mercenaries and captured
Northern St. Domingue for Spain
1794 – Defeated Spanish, murdering his Spanish officers. Joined French forces of Leveaux and recaptured
Northern St Domingue for the revolutionary army.
1795 – 98: Defeated the alliance of the English army and French planters. Threatened English Headquarters
in St Marc and forced Maitland to withdraw English army.
1798 – Concluded commercial treaty with Maitland
1799 – 1800: Defeated Rigaud and massacred Coloureds and sacked Les Cayes.
1799 – Appointed Governor – General of St Domingue by French directory.
1800 – 1802: Ordered halt to the killing, returned blacks to the estates. Revised agriculture and brought back
White planters.
1801 – Promulgated self – governing constitution; created Central Assembly to make laws. Banned slavery
and discrimination based on colour. Proclaimed himself governor for life. Overran Santo Domingo which
angered Napoleon, who sent an army under Le Clerc to put an end to this “Gilded African”. Toussaint
undertook “scorched earth” policy against Le Clerc’s army.

51. 1802 – Locked in drawn – out struggle with Le Clerc. Peace negotiated by Christophe but Toussaint captured
by trickery and transported to France.
1803 – Died 27 April of Cold and hunger in Jura Mountains prison
TOUSSAINT AS:
MILITARY LEADER
a. Superb Strategist and Tactician – Innate military ability. From 1791 to 1800 continuously
defeated enemies [French, British, Spaniards, and Coloureds] although outnumbered and out – gunned
b. Unifying Force – Succeeded in creating a disciplined and efficient army out of a mob of slaves.
Blacks bound to Toussaint by loyalty, discipline and respect.
c. Judge of Ability – Competent in his choice of lieutenants. Toussaint recognized the abilities of
Dessalines and Christophe and could delegate responsibility
d. Opportunist – Toussaint changed sides when necessary, e. g. desertion of Spaniards in 1794 when the
English looked dangerous with France in 1801 when Napoleon’s imperial ambitious were putting an end
to the gains made under the revolutionary Jacobins
e. Personal Experience – A brave, able and ruthless soldier who led from the front.
STATESMEN
a. Links with other revolutionaries – Toussaint corresponded with and obtained military and
naval support from the USA – he was a friend of John Adams
b. Negotiated with the British – After ravaging Maitland’s army, Toussaint negotiated its withdrawal
and scrupulously kept to the terms of the subsequent commercial treaty
c. Restored Agriculture – After defeating the revolution’s enemies, he attempted revive the estates
and bring back white expertise
a. Negotiated with Napoleon – Toussaint attempted to come to terms with Napoleon over the
government of St Domingue. He failed to appreciate [until it was too late] that Napoleon was
treacherous and intended to restore the “Ancient Regime”
Idealist - Toussaint inspired loyalty from his followers because he burned with the ideals and justice of his cause.
His hatred was not for whites or Coloureds but for the humiliation, discrimination, savagery and abuses their
system of slavery against blacks. He forced his two sons, Isaac and Placide to choose between a comfortable life in
their adopted France and a dangerous one in revolutionary St Domingue. After his capture he is reputed to have
said “In overthrowing me you have cut down in St Domingue only the truck of the tree of liberty. It will sprung up
again by the roots for they are numerous and deep.”

52. HIS SIGNIFICANCE
1. The Achievements - Toussaint smashed the myth of white invincibility. He led the only permanently
successful slave revolution in the Caribbean and laid the foundation for the creation of the second
independent state in the Americas.
2. Inspiration and Legacy – Toussaint restored black pride and has provided Haitians, Caribbean and
American blacks with their first indigenous hero.
Jean [Francois] Jacques Dessalines – African born slave who belonged to a free black until 1791 when he
murdered his master and joined Toussaint. Savage and able, Dessalines was responsible for the massacre of
the Coloureds in 1800 and for the anti – purge of whites 1803. He took over the leadership of the revolution
after the capture of Toussaint but failed to maintain Toussaint’s agricultural policy to revive sugar or to
militarize labour and was assassinated in 1804 after proclaiming himself Emperor of an independent Haiti.
Henri Christophe – English speaking, illiterate black who had fought alongside Washington in the American
Revolution and who in 1791 was working in a hotel in Cape Francais. Christophe ranked 2nd only to
Dessalines and was responsible in 1802 for the unfortunate negotiations with Le Clerc which led to
Toussaint’s capture. After the death of Dessalines he became the ruler of Northern Haiti [King Henry 1] and
built the San Souci palace and the Citadel Fortress. He ruled until 1820 when paralyzed by a stroke, he
committed suicide.
Alexandre Petion – Educated, literate coloured leader who broke with the French in 1802 and allied himself
with Dessalines at Arcahaye. He ruled Southern Haiti from 1807 to his death in 1818 but during this time he
made no attempt to create a viable export economy, relying instead on returning the peasantry to subsistence
agriculture.
Pétion died in 1818 and Christophe committed suicide in 1820. On Christophe’s death North and South were united
once more under Jean Pierre Boyer. In 1822, Boyer also took control of Santo Domingo thus ruling over the whole
of Hispaniola. At first, Boyer continued Petion’s policies. However, faced with exacerbating economic decline, in
1825, he instituted the Code Rural. This was an attempt to resuscitate the plantation system with the compulsory
labour force, which it was now felt was necessary. The code failed primarily because the society lacked the
mechanisms to put it into effect. The average Haitian was not prepared to give up the independence gained and the
state did not have the power to enforce the strict discipline and compulsion that the system required. The downward
economic spiral continued.

53. Boyer’s area of success lay in the diplomatic field. In 1825, France finally recognized Haitian independence.
It was not, however, without a cost. Haiti committed herself to paying 150 million francs as compensation to
French property owners and granted France trade concessions. Thus, in a very real sense the success of the
revolution was only made permanent and irreversible in 1825. Between 1804 and 1825, the new nation of Haiti
had maintained its two basic principles of nation building: the freedom of its people and its independence from
colonial and imperial powers, in the face of numerous obstacles. The nation was getting poorer, land values had
decreased, land holdings were getting unproductively smaller, devaluation continued and Haiti entered recognized
independence saddled with an enormous foreign debt. In a purely economic sense, Haiti was no longer the ‘Pearl
of the Antilles’.
REACTIONS TO THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION IN EUROPE AND WEST INDIES IN EUROPEFRANCE
1792 – 1800: Revolution welcomed by Jacobin National Assembly which dispatched a revolutionary army
under Sonthonax to St Domingue to secure the revolution for the Jacobins. Sonthonax and Hugues sent to
Lesser Antilles
1800 – 1804: Napoleon disliked the revolution as he wanted to recover the wealth of St Domingue for
France by restoring slavery. Le Clerc and 20, 000 men sent to St Domingue
BRITAIN - The British Troy government feared revolutionary ideas would spread to the British laboring class
and to the slaves in the British colonies. The success of the French revolutionary armies in Europe and the
dispatch of Sonthonax and Hugues to the Caribbean resulted in a British declaration of war against
France in 1793. Britain sought to fish in France’s troubled waters. Attempted to take St Domingue [1793 – 98]
but defeated by Toussaint. Greater success in Guadeloupe, Martinique, St Lucia and the capture of
Trinidad [from Spain] in 1797
SPAIN – Like Britain, Spain feared slave revolution would break out in its Caribbean and Latin
American colonies. The Spanish therefore attacked the French revolutionary forces in St Domingue in
1793 but came to terms in 1795 in the Treaty of Basle
THE WEST INDIES
a. French colonies – French ‘Grand Blancs’ feared ideas of revolution, Jacobin commissioners,
slave insurrections and loss of estates. St Domingue planters invited the British to take over [1791] and
those of Martinique, Guadeloupe and St Lucia welcomed their capture by the British in 1794. Guadeloupe
and St Lucia were quickly retaken by Hugues [ 1794] but the planters of Martinique prospered under
British rule [1794 – 1801]

54. b. British Colonies – The legislatures of the British colonies feared slave revolt and the activities of
the Jacobin commissioners. Their fears were justified in 1795 when insurrections broke out in
Jamaica [2nd Maroon War], St Vincent [black Caribs] and Grenada [Fedon]. Governor Balcarres of
Jamaica failed to reinforce Maitland in St Domingue because of the maroon uprising
c. Spanish Colonies – Unaffected by slave revolts except in Santo Domingo which was held for Spain
by Toussaint until 1794 and ceded to France by the Treaty of Basle in 1795. France failed to occupy
Santo Domingue and it was overrun by Toussaint in 1801
EFFECTS OF THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION ON HAITI AND THE CARIBBEAN
EFFECTS ON HAITI
Immediate Emancipation of the Populace – Haiti became the first black / coloured state in the
Caribbean. It became a magnet and refuge for the other emancipators and revolutionaries, for example,
Petion’s aid to Bolivar, 1816.
ECONOMIC DEVASTATION
a. Despoliation of the land – conflict and neglect had impoverished the “Pearl of the Antilles”. French
dams and irrigation systems ruined, agricultural land eroded.
b. Division of the land – Great sugar estates divided up into coffee and ground food small – holdings.
Socially advantageous but economically disastrous. Sugar production fell from 163 million pounds in 1791
to 1 800 000 lb in 1818.
LONG TERM
A. Political instability - The revolution made every Haitian a politician and legitimized usurpation
and force. After 1818 instability and dictatorship marked Haiti’s history
B. Caste replaced Class – Subtle colour – based caste divisions replaced the old colonial class
divisions after 1818
C. Economy ruined – The products of small holdings on ravaged land never again returned to the
pre – 1791 prosperity
EFFECTS ON THE CARIBBEAN
1. Sympathetic Revolts – In Jamaica [Maroons], St Vincent [Black Caribs], Grenada [Fedon] in 1795
2. Rise in sugar prices – Following the loss of St Domingue sugar production, the British West Indies
prospered temporarily
3. Émigrés Expertise – The planters of St Domingue fled to Jamaica, Cuba and Puerto Rico. Émigrés in
Jamaica created coffee estates

55. 4. Santo Domingo / Dominican Republic – After suffering various military invasions during the Haitian
revolution, Santo Domingo declared itself independent of Spain in 1821 only to be immediately annexed by
Petion’s successor Boyer, in 1822. The period of Haitian rule [1822 –1844] was marked by a harsh anti –
Spanish, anti – white policy did nothing to rejuvenate a failing economy based on cattle ranching and some
sugar and which led to a white exodus, further reducing Santo Domingo’s meagre population [half that of
Haiti] and the creation of a largely mulatto populace. When in 1844 Haitian rule came to an end and Santo
Domingo became independent again as the Dominican Republic, it immediately sought protection from
further invasion from the West by requesting unsuccessfully American protection and after a further [but
abortive] invasion by the Haitian dictator, Soulouque in 1849, the mulatto caudillo of the republic, Santana,
persuaded the Spanish to re – occupy the country in 1861. The second period of Spanish rule [1861 – 1865]
proved satisfactory to neither side and in 1868, Santana’s successor, Baez, again asked the USA’s President
Grant to annex the country.
1763 REVOLT IN BERBICE
CAUSES:
1. Some slaves wished for permanent freedom from the Dutch and felt that a revolt was the only way to
achieve this.
2. Some slaves received little or no provisions because the planters did not grow enough on the estate
and the Berbice Association cut down food imports. With the demeaning status of the slaves their
health was not a concern past their ability to work. This made the planters starve the slaves with
little food production for them. Even food imported for the slaves was lessened so as to benefit the
metropolitan and Dutch Berbice side.
3. The slaves knew that the whites were weakened as a group (both in size and physically) due to a
prevailing disease around numerous plantations. A deadly disease described as a fever, speculated to
be yellow fever or malaria, affected many Europeans in the region and had a significant impact on
the rebellion. The outbreak allowed enslaved Africans to gain more control over the plantations as
many of the European plantation owners and their families were sick or dying.
4. The slaves were inspired to start a revolt by Maroon revolt in Suriname in the year 1762. Rebellions
were already taking place in the slave world. This, like any modest success or even the presence of a
rebellion, would act as inspiration. With Suriname's maroon revolt a year previously, this would
provide a lot of hope for the Berbician slaves’ right next to Suriname. Slaves, who could read, such
as Cuffy, a house slave, would spread the word whenever they could.

56. 5. Some slaves were taking revenge because of the ill treatment they received from managers and
overseers.
6. Enslaved Africans in Berbice were treated brutally and suffered physical abuse, harsh working
conditions and dehumanization.
THE MAIN REBELLION LEADERS
➔ Akara - He was chosen by “Governor” Cuffy to be the second in command of Berbice. Akara was a
leader that was very strict with his soldiers and he would put gangs of Africans to work in the the
field. He launched three attacks on Plantation Dageraad without Cuffy’s permission. Akara later
deserted his fellow Africans and joined forced with the Dutch rather than being a slave to Atta. He
helped the Dutch to capture, Accrabe.
➔ Atta - He was the leader of the ‘lazy slaves’ who were spending most of their time roving from one
plantation to the next sleeping in hammocks, dressing up in the europeans clothes and drinking
rum. Atta became leader after Cuffy’s death.
➔ Accrabe - He was appointed captain by Atta after Cuffy died. He was captured by Akara and handed
over to the Dutch.
➔ Cosala - He was the leader of the 600 slaves that would have successfully attacked Plantation
Peerboom on March 3rd, 1763
COURSE OF REVOLT
1762, a short slave rebellion occurred in Berbice. After the slaves defeated a group of militiamen dispatched by
Governor Van Hoogenheim, the uprising was eventually put down by a larger force of Dutch militia.
23rd February 1763 – Revolt on Plantation Magdalenburg on the Canjie River
March 1763 – Revolt spread to the Berbice River. Plantations along the river captured. Cuffy [house –
slave from plantation Lilienburg] set up HQ at Plantations Hollandia and Zeelandia. Whites under Van
Hoogenheim [Governor of Berbice] retreated to Fort Nassau and Peerboom
March 3rd, 1763 – 600 blacks under Casala attacked Peerboom
08th March 1763 – Van Hoogenheim abandoned Fort Nassau. Received soldiers from Surinam and
moved up the Berbice River to Dageraad. Dageraad unsuccessfully attacked by Akara [Cuffy’s General]
April 1763 – Cuffy and Van Hoogenheim corresponded as to division of Berbice. Van Hoogenheim
obtained reinforcements from Gravesande

57. 13th March 1763 – Cuffy attacked Dageraad unsuccessfully. Eight whites and 58 blacks killed,
Divisions among blacks – trial, status and leadership. Akara deserted Cuffy committed suicide
December 1763 – Blacks attacked up Berbice and from Demerara. Atta and Accabre captured by
turncoat Akara
March/ April 1764: 40 hanged, 24 broken, 24 burned.
Significance: Blacks controlled Berbice for 10 months and the Beginning of independence struggle
Reasons for Initial Success of the revolt:
1. The quality of the leadership was good. Initially, the rebellion was well organized under the leadership of
Coffy, Akara and Atta, and there was cooperation between the Akan slave rebels and the Congolese and Angolans.
2. The discipline and the military organization of the rebels were at first fairly strong, so they were able to take
control of almost the entire colony, leaving the whites in control of the swampy and malaria infested area at
the mouth of the Canjie River. 23rd February: Guyanese National Day
3. The slave rebels outnumbered the whites and the revolt took the whites by surprise
4. many of the slaves in the colony were newly imported Africans who had not been socialized into the
slave systems, and so were anxious to get out of it.
5. The rebels were able to seize some arms and ammunition from some estates
Results/consequences of the revolt:
1. Between March and April of 1764, 40 slaves were hanged, 24 broken at the wheel and 24
were burned.
2. The Dutch colonists were merciless in their torture towards the slaves who were responsible
for the uprising as well as those who played a major leadership role in the uprising
3. The revolt marked the first serious attempt by a large group of enslaved people to win their freedom in
Guyana.
Reasons for failure of the revolt:
1. Coffy’s hesitation on attacking Fort Nassau.
2. The leaders of the revolt were divided in their struggle for power which deterred their aim
3. The Dutch soldiers were far superior in weaponry and skill compared to the rebels (slaves).
4. Betrayal among leaders also led to the failure of this revolt

58. 1816REVOLT IN BARBADOS
Prior to 1816, Barbados had not had a major revolt for over 100 years, and the enslavers boasted of
having succeeded in creating a stable slave society. That notion of stability and contentedness was
shattered on Sunday April 14th, 1816, when enslaved blacks launched an island wide assault on the
enslavers. This revolt was carefully planned and organized by the senior enslaved men and women who
worked on several estates. The leader of the revolt was Bussa, who was born a free man in Africa in the
18c. And captured and brought to Barbados as a slave. Bussa’s Revolution, also known as the
Easter Rebellion, was the largest slave rebellion in the history of Barbados. On each sugar estates,
commanders were selected. E.g., John Grigg, Nanny Grigg and Jackie (Simmons Plantation), King
Wiltshire, Dick Bailey, Johnny, and Bussa (Bailey Plantation)
CAUSES OF THE REVOLT
1. In 1815, William Wilberforce, the British abolitionist introduced a Registry bill in parliament. The
details of his bill were wildly misunderstood to mean that the slaves were being emancipated on
January 1, 1816; they revolted when they realized they were to be disappointed
2. The planters openly and vehemently opposed the bill. This led to the belief that freedom had been
granted but the planters were still denying it.
3. Harsh treatment inflicted by white society created a desire for permanent freedom and revenge.
4. Some slaves held the strong belief that Barbados belonged to them and not the whites
5. Some slaves were literate and upon reading in the newspaper about the situations in England, Haiti
and elsewhere, they were inspired to lead their own rebellions
6. Slave conditions had not improved much since the 1790’s, yet the planters were overconfident
7. An African born slave, Bussa, emerged as a capable and worthy leader
Reasons for the Initial Success of the revolt:
1. The planters were complacent and they were misguided in their belief that the slaves were content and
happy. This caused them to be caught off guard.
2. The leaders of the revolt were elite slave drivers and other privileged slaves from various estates
including Bussa, Nanny Grigg, and some free coloureds such as Joseph Washington Franklin. They
provided effective leadership for the slaves.
3. The revolt had spread to over seventy of the largest estates in the island.
4. Some slaves were threatened and were forced to join the rebellion.
5. Some slaves used guerrilla tactics against the troops.

59. Results/consequences of the revolt:
1. The whites now lived in constant fear of another slave uprising.
2. Bussa was killed in the revolt.
3. The whites turned against the missionaries in the island, chapels were damaged and missionaries like
the Methodist, William Shrewsbury, were threatened. Some poor whites pulled down Shrewsbury Chapel
and forced him to leave the island and take refuge in St. Vincent.
4. Many slaves were killed during the revolt.
5. Many slaves were executed including Washington Franklin and others were sent to other islands.
6. 25% of the sugarcane crop in Barbados was destroyed. This slowed down the sugar production process.
7. There was a reduction in the size of the labour force.
8. Plantation machinery was damaged and destroyed along with planters’ homes or great houses. This
caused the planters great expense. Property damage was estimated at 175 000 pounds.
Reasons for the failure of the revolt:
1. The whites had superior weapons compared to the slaves.
2. The number of slaves who participated in the revolt was relatively small. A large force would have
been needed in order to overpower the whites
3. Limited ammunitions for the slaves to use.
4. Martial law was imposed to help suppress the revolt.
5. The free coloureds supported the whites.
6. The slaves lacked proper, effective means of communication and proper military training.
7. The unfavorable nature of the terrain did not allow the slaves to use their guerrilla tactics
effectively which could have led to victory.
8. The plan for an island-wide mobilization of the slaves was not realized.
THE DEMERARA 1823 REBELLION
The Quamina Rebellion, also known as the Demerara Rebellion of 1823, was a revolt against the slave masters
in the then Dutch colony of Demerara. This rebellion, which was led by the slaves primarily Quamina's son Jack
Gladstone. It began on August 18, 1823, lasted two days and turned out to be one of the largest Maafa Revolts in
Caribbean history. It started at Plantation Success and spread to other estates along the East Coast of Demerara.
The Demerara Revolt was a slave uprising involving more than 10 000 slaves that took place in the Crown
colony of Demerara-Essequibo (now part of Guyana). The rebellion took place on August 18th, 1823 and
lasted for two days and was held by slaves of the highest status. British Guiana became a British territory in the
year 1803/1804

60. Causes of the revolt:
1. In 1823, Amelioration proposals (improvement in slave conditions) were sent from the British Colonial
Secretary to the Governor of Demerara so that the amelioration proposals could be adopted. The Court of
Policy in Demerara examined the proposals on July 21st, 1823, and postponed making a decision. The
slaves believed that their masters were concealing news of the slaves’ emancipation decided to seek their
own freedom by revolting.
2. The slaves also wanted freedom from their enslavement.
3. They also wanted revenge on the whites because of the harsh treatment they were subjected to and
poor living conditions they were forced to live under.
RESULTS/CONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLT:
The numerous petitions, including some by Parliamentarians, and newspaper comments condemning the
military trial and the death sentence on Rev. Smith finally resulted in a formal motion being raised in the
British House of Commons. It called for the members to ‘’declare that they contemplate with serious alarm
and deep sorrow the violation of law and justice’’ in the trial of Rev. Smith and urged King George to adopt
measures to enable the just and humane administration of law in Demerara to ‘’protect the voluntary
instructors of the Negroes, as well as the Negroes themselves and the rest of His Majesty's subjects from
oppression.’’
1. Many slaves lost their lives
2. The motion was presented by a Member of Parliament from the Opposition and it was debated on 1
June and 11 June, 1824.
3. Speeches opposing the motion and supporting the trial by court martial were made by parliamentarians on
the government side as well as ministers of the government, including the Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs, George Canning. Speaking in support of the motion were leading members of the
Opposition, including the famous leader of the anti-slavery movement, William Wilberforce, but
despite their strong arguments, the government majority voted against it
4. The forceful speeches on both sides examined the trial of Rev. Smith through the perspective of
various laws- British common law, Dutch law, British military law, and Dutch military law and
Demerara colonial law.
5. The debate also threw light on the political feelings of British lawmakers of the early 19th century
regarding their opinions on slavery and British amelioration policies in Guyana and the British
Caribbean possessions. In addition, it exposed some of their views on the East Coast Demerara slave
uprising of August 1823 which was a major blow to colonial rule and most likely helped to hasten the end
of African slavery in the British colonial territories.
6. In Guyana, the slaves regarded Rev. Smith's death as a sacrifice which was made on their behalf, and
soon after, they began referring to him as the ‘’Demerara Martyr’’. The missionary was blamed for
inciting the rebellion

61. Reasons for the failure of the revolt:
1. There was a lack of unity among the rebels. Some slaves wanted to use passive forms of resistance
while others wanted to use insurrectionary forms of resistance.
2. The whites had superior weapons compared to the slaves.
3. The slaves had limited ammunitions while the whites had plenty of ammunitions which they readily
used.
4. The troops were better trained and organized.
5. The slaves lacked proper training and they were not well-organized
1831 REVOLT IN JAMAICA
Jamaica slave revolt is also known as Samuel sharp rebellion, the Baptist war and Christmas rebellion
CAUSES
1. Leadership - As a Baptist preacher, Samuel Sharpe was an influential leader who rallied the slaves to make
them take action and demand better treatment and better working conditions.
2. Harsh working conditions and wages - They were forced to work for long periods of time in harsh
conditions on the coffee and sugar plantations with little or no pay for their hard labour hours. Which meant
that they had to rely on their owners for food, water and shelter and they hardly ever provided them.
3. Religious and cultural oppression - The slaves were predominantly Christians and they were not allowed
to practice their religion freely as their cultural practices and traditions were suppressed.
4. Conflicts over Christmas allowances - Slaves were normally allowed three (3) days off of work around
Christmas time but in 1831 it was reduced to two (2) days as Christmas day fell on a Sunday. Sharpe argued
to have Tuesday off for the slaves but it was turned down, so then the slaves refused to work and the strike
began on December 27th, 1831
5. Abolition Movement - Sharpe was aware of the debate in London and told other slaves about it, as the
abolitionist movement in Britain and other parts of the world had been gaining momentum. The slaves were
inspired by this because of the idea of them being freed and a possibility to the end of slavery. Newspaper
published articles that if slavery was abolished Jamaica would be like Haiti.
6. Rumors - Rumors circulated the: “brown people were already free, black soon will be freed.’ Freedom was
being withheld and that the King sent their "free papers”
7. Restrictions to education - Slaves were not allowed to have an education which limited their literate
abilities.
8. Frustration with the slow pace of change -The slaves were frustrated despite the efforts of some plantation
owners to improve their working conditions. The change was slow and it led to a sense of hopelessness and
frustration among the slaves.

62. THE COURSE OF THE REBELLION
▶ The rebellion began on the 27th of December, 1831 and it lasted for ten (10) days ending on the 7th of January, 1832.
The rebellion started in the western part of Jamaica when word of it was spread throughout St James, Trelawny town,
Westmoreland, St Elizabeth and Manchester.
▶ December 23 - this was the day in which Sharpe planned the sit down rebellion that wouldn't cause harm and
it would be a non violent protest on Christmas day. This meant that the slaves would refuse to work on Christmas day.
▶ December 27- the slaves refused to work across all the parishes in western Jamaica. They demanded better
working conditions and so on as the rebellion was relatively peaceful as it was just a strike/ protest to demand their
rights. However the rebellion gained momentum as it quickly became violent and the Kensington Estate Great House
was set on fire, as a signal that the Slave Rebellion had begun. They set fire to plantations, the houses of their masters
after they attacked them and looted them, this was when Sharpe realized that the rebellion that he planned to be “a sit
down” and for it to be “non violent" was merely impossible and impractical.
▶ December 28 - The British responded to them by sending troops and war then broke out between the British
troops and the slaves. Despites the violence and destruction, Sharpe emerged a leader and encouraged his followers to
remain committed to their cause. (FREEDOM) The rebellion was spread across Jamaica to the towns mentioned above
but was suppressed when the British army was sent with superior fire power and military training and later defeated the
slaves as they were poorly organized and Samuel Sharpe was captured by the maroons. On January 7th, 1832 the
rebellion was officially over and the slaves returned to work
Reasons for Initial Success of the revolt:
1. Samuel Sharpe had spent several months from April 1831 secretly, patiently and carefully planning. He
moved from estate to estate, secretly organizing, lecturing, arguing and persuading the slaves. He worked
tirelessly and was totally committed. He also used the bible to support his theme that all men had a right
to freedom. This won him the support of many slaves in the western section of the island, who had come
under his influence directly or indirectly.
2. Even though the planters had heard slight rumors about the work stoppage, they did not employ
sufficient extra precautionary measures and were taken by surprise. This gave the slaves and an advantage
at the start.
3. The small garrison of some several hundred soldiers seemed no match for the thousands of slaves who
began to wander about.

63. CONSEQUENCES OF THE REBELLION
▶ Poor Organization - The rebels lacked military expertise and training in addition to being poorly
organized. They were unable to continue their operations against the crops because they lacked a clear
offensive plan.
▶ Assistance of the Maroons - The Maroons captured Samuel Sharpe and other runaway slaves and
returned them to the British troops / plantation masters.
▶ Advanced weapons and training -The rebels were armed with simple tools like sticks, axes, and
machetes. They had limited access to weapons and ammo, which gave the British, forces an enormous
edge over them.
▶ The execution of Samuel Sharpe - Due to losing their leader(Samuel Sharpe) the slave had lost all
hope of winning the rebellion because Sharpe was the beacon of hope and freedom
▶ The betrayal of rebellion leaders - The rebellion was betrayed by one of its leaders, who informed the
authorities of the rebels' plans. This allowed the British to prepare for the rebellion and launch a swift
and effective response.
▶ After the rebellion 626 rebels were tried but only 321 were executed and 14 “whites” were killed. The
wider slave population was retaliated against which they suffered under increase repression and
violence. The revolt had an impact in the mother country’s decision to abolish slavery in its colonies, by
which the bill was passed in 1834 and slavery fully ended in 1838.The rebellion left an imprint on
Jamaica and had become an important symbol of resistance and struggle against slavery and oppression.
The total of one MILLION pounds was lost in property destruction. Samuel Sharpe was captured and
tried for his role in his uprising; he was convicted and executed on May 23 1832. He was hanged in
Montego Bay on a square now called Sam Sharp Square. He was posthumously named a National Hero
of Jamaica in 1975 and his image can be found on the $50 Bank note.
MOVEMENTS TOWARDS EMANCIPATION
The Impact of 19th Century Slave Revolt on the Slave System
A. The slaves were keenly observant of the Emancipation Movement. They misconstrued each new
legislature enactment; were convinced that their freedom was withheld only by their masters and
rebelled – Barbados 1816, Guiana 1823, Jamaica 1831
B. The savagery with which white authority suppressed the rebellions and persecuted Non – Conformist
Missionaries who were accused of inciting them, convinced the abolitionists and the British Government
that total Emancipation was the only alternative to the unsuccessful attempts at improving slave conditions
C. Capitalists grew very reluctant to invest in the explosive West Indies and this further weakened the
West Indian economy

64. Attitudes towards Slavery
A. Before the 18th Century most Churches believed that slavery was necessary for the conversion of the
pagan African to Christianity
B. Prevalent in England and France was the conviction that Africans were an uncivilized barbaric race
and therefore deserved to be enslaved; that blacks were inferior to whites and destined to serve them
C. The bible’s ambiguity on the morality of slavery heightened the controversy as it was used to support
the arguments of supporters and opponents of slavery
D. By the 18th Century there was increasing opposition to the slave trade and slavery, at first sparked
mainly by humanitarian motives. In France, the great philosophers, notably Rousseau, condemn
slavery as being contrary to Natural Law; the French anti – slavery movement was based on this
rationale. In England, the Emancipation Movement originated from the Evangelicals and Non –
Conformists
E. In the late 18th Century Economists argued that slavery was wasteful, crude and inefficient
The Arguments of Slavery’s Protagonists
A. The slave trade and slavery were essential for the production of tropical raw materials
B. Amerindians and Indentured Labour were inadequate
C. The slave trade was a training ground for sailors of European navies
D. A cruder form of slavery existed in Africa
E. Working conditions in Europe and on the slave plantations were very similar
F. Slavery was justified by the bible
Arguments of Slavery’s Antagonists
A. Paid labour was more efficient than slave labour
B. Merchants and Industrialists favored free trade instead of Mercantilism on which sugar and slavery
were based and wanted a change in the economic order.
C. Profits from the slave trade were no longer great, there were new areas of more profitable
overseas trade to be exploited
D. The high mortality of slaves on the middle passage and on the estates resulted from inhumane
treatment
E. Prosecution of the missionaries betrayed the barbarity of the planters
F. Slavery violated the basic message of the gospel: the brotherhood of man.

65. ABOLITION AND EMANCIPATION IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE [1772 – 1838]
THE INTEREST GROUPS
1. Nonconformist Missionaries – Baptists, Methodists, Moravians and Congregationalists who
instructed the slaves in Christianity and attempted to improve their condition. They were prosecuted by
the planters and the slaves did not trust them. Prosecution by the planters and their reports of slave
conditions stirred sympathy for the abolitionist cause
2. The Quakers or Society of Friends – First and most outspoken critics of slavery; a prominent
member was Granville Sharp; later joined the Society for effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade
3. The Clapham Sect. or “The Saints” – The well – spring of the Evangelical humanitarian; Ramsay,
Wilberforce, Macaulay and others met and worshipped in Clapham, South London, between 1792 and
1813 and charted the course of the Parliamentary Campaign against the Slave Trade.
4. Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade – Created in 1787, it drew together the diverse
elements of the opposition to the Slave Trade and eventually gained its abolition. Its chief parliamentary
orator was Wilberforce, and other prominent members were Clarkson, Sharp, Ramsay, Stephen and
Macaulay
4. Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery – Formed in 1823, it spearheaded
the “greatest propaganda movement of all times”. Its humanitarian crusade, aided by favorable
economic conditions, resulted in the passing of the Emancipation Act.
5. The New Tories – Industrialists who believed that slavery was a crude, wasteful, inefficient
system of labour which did not fit in with the new Laissez – Faire [free trade] economies and the
new world of cheap mechanical production brought about by the industrial revolution. These
men, such as, George Canning, William Huskisson and James Stephen, were not moralists.
7. The West India Lobby – A powerful pressure group made up of retired planters, absentee planters, slave
trading interests, agents and friends of the West Indian plantocracy. Well represented in parliament, the lobby
was able to block the passage of abolitionist legislation for a long time. Stung by the plantocracy’s rejection
of the Amelioration Proposals as a means of stopping Emancipation, they still secured 20 million pounds
compensation and the Apprenticeship Scheme for the planters in the Emancipation Act.

66. The Outstanding Personalities
1. Supremely intelligent, indomitable champion of destitute slaves in England, Granville Sharp [1735 –
1813] was the founding father of the abolitionist crusade. From 1767 to 1772 he waged a one – man battle
to get a ruling on the legality of slavery in England. By the Somerset case of 1772 he forced Chief Justice
Mansfield into ruling that slavery was illegal in England a judgment upheld in Ireland and Scotland thus
slavery was ended in the British Isles and the morality of slavery in the rest of the British Empire
questioned. His other notably work was in the establishment of Sierre Leone as a repatriation colony for
destitute ex – slaves.
2. Parliamentarian – William Wilberforce [1758 – 1833] was the most famous of the abolitionists. He
devoted his entire life to the anti – slavery crusade. Convinced of the immorality of the slave trade, he set
out to destroy it and preserved through severe opposition in the House of Commons, after the outbreak of
the French Revolution to witness enactment of the Abolition Bill moved by Charles James Fox. Because
of ill – health, he surrendered leadership of the Anti – Slavery Society to T. F. Buxton and barely lived
long enough to see the passing of the Emancipation Act in 1833.
3. His massive figure, forceful speeches and dominating personalities made Thomas Fowell Buxton [1786
– 1845] a most effective leader of the anti – slavery movement from 1822 to 1833
4. By collecting evidence against the slave trade, Thomas Clarkson [1760 – 1846] supplied Wilberforce
with the raw ammunition he needed to condemn the trade. He was a member of the society for the
abolition of the slave trade and continued the fight for Emancipation
THE COURSE OF THE EMANCIPATION MOVEMENT
1763 – The Demerara Revolt
1772 – Somerset Case; Slavery declared illegal in England – Lord Mansfield Judgement
1787 – Formation of the Abolition Society. Its weapons included anti – slavery leaflets, pottery and
illustrations, official protest in the House of Commons and public meetings. It collected and spread information
about the slavers and trade and was opposed by the West India Lobby and the Slave –Trading interests of
London, Liverpool and Bristol
1789 – Outbreak of the French Revolution; Prime Minister William Pitt stopped supporting abolition.
Wilberforce abolition legislation was repeatedly defeated
1791 – Denmark set to abolish slave trade in 1802

67. 1806 – Charles James Fox, long committed to abolition became the new Prime Minister after Pitt died. The
West India Lobby feared the acquisition of French and Dutch sugar – producing territories. One way of
preventing them from competing with the older producers was by suspending or abolishing the slave trade
1807 – The Act of Abolition was passed and later enforced by British Naval patrols off the African Coast,
though other nations continued the trade for a few years. The abolitionist then turned their attention to slavery
itself.
1815 – 1826: The Amelioration Policy. Many abolitionists, the West India Lobby and the British government
favored the Amelioration or improvement of slave conditions as an alternative to Emancipation. In 1823, the
Emancipation Society was formed; its first aim was to force the adaptation of Amelioration as official policy.
To counter this aim, the West India Lobby submitted its own Amelioration proposals and they were accepted
by the Secretary of State, Lord Bathurst, by the Emancipation Society and were embodied in a bill passed by
the House of Commons. The Proposals included:
1. Abolition of flogging of women
2. Prohibition of the separation of slave families
3. Provision of religious instructions for slaves
4. Establishment of slave savings bank
5. Slaves should not be sold in payment of debts
These measures were rejected by the plantocracy of Jamaica, Barbados, St Vincent and Dominica; instead,
repression of the slaves and prosecution of the missionaries were increased. In Demerara, the slaves rebelled
when they misinterpreted the unpublished proposals as the withholding of their freedom. By 1826, it was clear
that Amelioration was a failure and the Emancipation Society pressed for an end to slavery.
1831 – Jamaica / Samuel Sharpe / Christmas Rebellion
1832 – The Great Parliamentary Reform Act was passed by the Whig Government which gave the franchise
to Nonconformists who favored Emancipation and destroyed the power base of the landed interests
1833 – West Indian planters’ isolation; new free trade economics had no place for slavery and expensive,
uncompetitive West Indian sugar which was of declining importance in the British economy; slave rebellions
made their position in the Caribbean extremely dangerous. When free compensation and apprenticeship were
incorporated into the Emancipation Act, the planters accepted it. The act was passed in August 1833.

68. 1834 – The Emancipation law took effect in all British colonies. Antigua opted to give their enslaved Africans
immediate freedom or emancipation from slavery.
1834 – 1838 – Apprenticeship System employed with all enslaved Africans in all British territories became
apprentices with the exception of Antigua.
1838 – All enslaved Africans became free or gain full emancipation from slavery.
AMELIORATION (1823)
Between 1823 and 1833, the British Government introduced a system aimed at making slave conditions better
in the sugar colonies. This system was called by the British Government ‘’Amelioration” which loosely
translated it means making the slave system better. Amelioration was regarded by the Imperial Government as
a logical step to take in an era when the whole system of slavery was under attack from missionaries and
humanitarians in England and the Caribbean.
Amelioration was first proposed by abolitionist groups who sought to vehemently to bring about emancipation
in the British West Indies. In 1823, a new abolition society called the ‘’London Society for the Mitigation and
Gradual Abolition of Slavery’’ was formed. Led by Thomas Fowell-Buxton, the society sought to garner wide-
spread support for the abolition of slavery through petitions and the creation of a newspaper called the ‘’Anti-
Slavery Monthly Report’’. The Society sought to have their own amelioration proposals enforced by Law and
thus asked the Imperial Government to make such proposals as a part of their policy and eventually asked that
the abolition of slavery be gradual process eventually leading to its end. In an attempt to forestall or undermine
the Society’s attempt and prevent the abolition of slavery, the 15 members of the West India Interest quickly
formed a committee and formulated their own amelioration proposals which were submitted to Lord Bathurst,
the Secretary of State for the colonies.
Reasons for the West India Interest’s Amelioration proposals - By formulating their own amelioration
proposals, the pro-slavery group felt that they would be able to:
1. Appease the humanitarians thus,
2. Undermine the efforts of the abolitionists
3. Forestall their movement
4. Prolong slavery

69. The major amelioration law gave the following:
1. Slaves could now legally join the right to be part of the Christian community especially the Anglican
Church. Adequate religious instruction should be provided for slaves at the expense of the Imperial
Government. In addition, they could be baptized, have legal marriages, give surnames and Christian name
and then buried according to Christian rights in consecrated ground in church cemeteries rather than being
interred in family plots as was the custom.
2. Females were not to be flogged.
3. A record should be kept of flogging of over three lashes, which should then be submitted to the
magistrate at the quarterly sessions.
4. Slave families should not be separated and slaves were not to be sold for payment of debt.
5. Saving banks were to be established for slaves as a means of encouraging thriftiness and enable them
to buy personal items
6. All children born after 1823 should be emancipated and those who remained in bondage should be
protected from flagrant abuses.
7. Slaves could now pass on property to their children.
8. Overseers and drivers should not carry whips in the fields.
9. Slaves should be given Saturdays to go to the market and Sundays to go to church.
10.Slaves should be allowed to give evidence in court provided that a minister would give the slave a
character reference.
Reasons for the Failure of Amelioration
1. Planters were strongly opposed to it and were also against the acceptance of slave evidence against a
white person in court.
2. The planter-dominated assemblies resented what they perceived as the unnecessary and illegitimate
interference in the internal affairs of their colonies by the British Parliament and the humanitarians in
Britain.
3. They were not enough officials in the Crown Colonies to supervise the enforcement of Amelioration
laws, and those who had the responsibility were either slave owners themselves or sympathetic to slave
owners.
4. In territories like Barbados and the Leeward Islands, the planters claimed that the slave conditions were
good and did not need improvement, that their slaves were treated as well as seamen and manual workers in
Britain. They viewed amelioration as the work of their enemies, the humanitarians, and thus objected to the
policy.

70. 5. Many planters feared that amelioration would somehow erode their authority and control over their
slaves, that slave insubordination would be encouraged and that ultimately, amelioration would lead to
emancipation. They claimed that amelioration was a violation of their right to their property in slaves.
THE EMANCIPATION ACT, 1833
The Emancipation Bill was introduced by Thomas Fowell-Buxton. It was he who replaced William
Wilberforce in Parliament in 1822 as the chief Parliamentary spokesman for abolition. The Bill stated that
‘’Slavery shall be and is hereby utterly and forever abolished and declared unlawful throughout the British
colonies and possessions abroad.’’ However, in 1833 emancipation was not complete because there were
clauses in the Act about an apprenticeship System which delayed complete emancipation until 1838.
The Emancipation Act stated that slavery was to be abolished from August 1st, 1834. Some of the provisions of
the Act were designed to gain the cooperation of the planters. These stated that:
1. Slaves, six years and over were to serve a period of apprenticeship. In the case of domestic slaves
were to serve four years whereas field slaves were to serve six years.
2. Apprentices were to work for their masters for three-quarters of the working week (40 ½
hours) without wages.
3. 20 million pounds were provided to compensate the planters for the loss of their unpaid labour.
4. Apprentices were to remain on the estate during the Apprenticeship period.
There were also provisions designed to benefit the apprentices. These stated that:
1. Children under six years old on August 1st, 1834 were to be freed immediately.
2. Planters were to continue to provide food, clothing, shelter and medical care for apprentices, and in
the absence of food, provision grounds should be provided and time to cultivate them.
3. Apprentices were to be paid for work done in excess of the compulsory 40 ½ hours per week.
4. Apprentices could not be sold unless the estate to which they belonged was sold.
5. Stipendiary Magistrates were to be provided to supervise the Apprenticeship System.
6. Apprentices could purchase their freedom with or without the consent of their masters.
7. The Apprenticeship period could be shortened but no alternative to Apprenticeship would be allowed.
Result - On the 29th August, 1833, the Emancipation Act received royal assent and so Emancipation was to
come into effect on August, 1st, 1834. Order-in-Council enforced it on the Crown Colonies. In other colonies,
the local legislatures were expected to follow. However, the legislature of Antigua and Barbuda decided not to
implement Apprenticeship so their slaves received complete freedom on August 1st, 1834

71. EMANCIPATION IN THE FRENCH EMPIRE
1788 – Foundation of Les Amis Noir
1790 – Slavery was abolished by the Revolutionary Government. In fact, only Haiti kept its independence
1803 – Napoleon restored slavery
1818 – The French government agreed to abolish the slave trade but this was not affected until 1830. At the
same time, an Amelioration policy was adopted and was strongly resisted by the French plantocracy 1834 –
French public opinion turned against Amelioration and “The Society for the Abolition of Slavery “was formed
under the leadership of Victor Schoelcher, the main French humanitarian. The French West India Interest
opposed the society and Schoelcher
1838 – The first Emancipation Bill was defeated by the West India Interest
1847 – The society petitioned the government of the Second Republic, in which Schoelcher was Under –Secretary
for the colonies, for immediate Emancipation
1848 – All slaves liberated by Schoelcher’s Emancipation Proposals. Slave owners were compensated with
126 million francs. There was no Apprenticeship System
CUBA
Pre – 1761: Prior to the French Revolutionary wars; the Cuban economy was dominated by thousands of
Vegueros each cultivating tobacco on a small holding. Spain’s involvement in these wars cut Cuba off from
its tobacco markets and forced a change to sugar production using slave labour. Spain allowed an open trade
in slaves in 1791, expertise was provided by French refugee planters from Haiti and the flat plains of Cuba
allowed for the creation of the first centrals. Slave imports rose steadily to a peak of 12, 000 in 1837 despite
the treaties of 1817 and 1835 with Britain by which Spain agreed to curtail this trade.
1814 – Congress of Vienna; Spain undertook to stop the slave trade but this was not enforced until 1865. By
that time several factors which favoured Emancipation had emerged including: a strong abolition movement in
Spain; Britain’s agitation for emancipation of the slaves; the danger of slave revolts, a series of which ravaged
Matanzas province in 1843; the Cuban independence movement produced liberals who demanded
Emancipation of American slaves as a result of the American Civil War [1861 – 5].
1868 – 78: 10 year’s war terminated by the Treaty of Zanjon, Spain agreed to gradually emancipate Cuban
slaves; there would be no compensation for slave owners. White immigrants from Spain helped to increase the
white population
1886 – Liberation of all slaves completed

72. THE APPRENTICESHIP SYSTEM (1834-1838)
Apprenticeship was proposed by James Stephen, a member of the Society for the Abolition of Slavery and
adviser to the Colonial office on West Indian affairs in 1833. This was to give slaves time to adjust to freedom,
to care for them, to handle money and support their families. Apprenticeship was neither full freedom nor full
slavery.
The Aims of Apprenticeship
1. To provide a peaceful transition from slavery to freedom.
2. To train the apprentices for the responsibilities of full freedom especially in working regularly
for wages.
3. To teach them to be thrifty, thus enabling them to earn a living and to provide them with
sustenance during the period.
4. To delay immediate emancipation.
5. To facilitate the continuation of a plantation economy and also a change over to a wage economy
Difficulties faced by the British Government in implementing the Emancipation Act
1. The planters felt that they were unfairly robbed of their property in slaves, and so they were determined
to take revenge on the slaves. They tried to exploit the apprentices over wages, provision ground and
other benefits which they should have enjoyed.
2. It was difficult to turn the master/slave relationship into the employer/employee relationship.
3. There were difficulties concerning the number of hours of work each day and the minimum wages
to be paid to slaves.
4. Apprentices were dissatisfied with the Act; they could not understand why free people should work
without wages.
5. It was difficult to get enough suitable candidates to serve as Stipendiary Magistrates and so local
Personnel were appointed to fill some of the positions.
Problems which apprentices experienced due to the implementation of the Emancipation Act
1. Planters classified artisans as praedials (field slaves) in order to maintain the labour for six years.
They argued that the artisans contributed indirectly to production.
2. Apprentices were sometimes threatened with demotion to the field for offences like acts of
insubordination.

73. 3. The planters, in their attempt to keep the apprentices attached to the estates for as long as possible,
demanded that they work 8 hours each day for five each week. On the other hand, the apprentices
wanted to work nine hours each day for four and a half days each week.
4. The planters counted the number of hours from the time when the apprentices arrived at work,
whereas the apprentices wanted the hours to be counted from the time they left home.
5. If planters did not feed the apprentices, the Act stated that they were to be provided with provision
grounds and time to cultivate their grounds. However, where provision grounds were provided, they
were usually far away from the estate, the land was infertile and sometimes the planters charged the
apprentices rent for the use of the land
How the Ex- slaves responded to the Emancipation Act
After August 1st, 1834, the more docile ex-slaves continued to work on the estates eagerly anticipating the
day when they would be truly free. However, the more militant slaves did otherwise.
1. In Jamaica, some apprentices refused to work until several were flogged or locked in jail.
2. Some apprentices saved their money during the apprenticeship period and bought their freedom in
order to escape the planter’s exploitation. In Jamaica, nearly 1, 500 apprentices purchased their freedom
before the system was abolished.
3. Many Africans when they were fully free, refused to allow their children to work on the estates.
Instead, they wanted to take advantage of the educational opportunities available with the hope that
this would provide a better way of life.
4. Some apprentices demanded higher wages for their labour during crop time when it was needed most.
5. Whenever possible, the apprentices complained to the Stipendiary Magistrates about the abuse imposed
by the planters. However, it was usually difficult to contact the magistrates since apprentices needed a
pass to leave the estates, and obtaining a pass could be difficult.
The Stipendiary or Special Magistrates - The Stipendiary Magistrates were appointed from Britain and from
among retired army and naval officers living on half- pay. These men were qualified because they were
accustomed to rough conditions in various parts of the world and they were accustomed to enforcing discipline.
They were supposed to be ‘’Men uninfluenced by the local assemblies, free from local passions.’’
The Duties/ Roles of the Stipendiary Magistrates
1. To administer justice and assist in preventing social and economic disturbances.
2. To help preserve public peace and order and to alleviate this fear.

74. 3. To supervise the operation of the Act of Emancipation.
4. They were given exclusive jurisdiction over offences committed by the apprentices or their employers in relation to
each other. In some colonies, this jurisdiction extended to minor offences such as petty thefts.
5. They had to visit various estates at regular intervals to settle any differences. They dealt with a multitude of
cases such as insolence, laziness and insubordination against the apprentices as well as countercharges against
owners such as severity, assault, inadequate medical treatment and cheating in the matter of working hours.
6. To ensure that no one was imprisoned without their orders and that medical attention was given to apprentices in
hospitals.
7. To inspect jails and workhouses.
8. To assist in fixing the value of Negroes who wanted to buy their freedom
Problems Experienced by the Stipendiary Magistrates
Stipendiary Magistrates faced many problems as they tried to supervise the Apprenticeship System. For example:
1. Apprenticeship was neither full slavery nor full freedom, so the magistrates’ administration of
it was difficult or confusing for all parties.
2. The Stipendiary Magistrates were too few and as a result, were overworked.
3. The system was grossly under financed and so the magistrates were underpaid.
4. There was no provision for sick leave or return passages to England if they were dismissed
from service, or if they were forced to return home because of ill-health.
5. There was no pension for their family if they died in service.
6. There were no provisions made for the stabling of horses used by the magistrates or for
lodging if they were caught far from home at nightfall
Reasons the Apprenticeship System came to a premature end in 1838
Apprenticeship according to the Emancipation Act was supposed to end in 1838 for non-praedials and in
1840 for praedials but in 1838 it ended for everyone. Several factors were responsible for this premature end.
1. The planters felt that slavery was uneconomical and that they would benefit from freedom because they
would not have to provide apprentices with food, clothes, medical care and housing. They could also
pay the lowest wages which would attract the number of workers they needed. The planter therefore
felt that he would be better off financially since his expenses would be reduced.

75. 2. The British Government was beginning to have doubts about the benefits of the apprenticeship system
and it was not providing the apprentices with the kind of training for freedom which was envisaged. In
1838, a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate the working of apprenticeship in the British
West Indies. From Jamaica, it produced very critical reports.
3. The planters realized that it would be impractical to free the domestic slaves in 1838 and retain the
services of the field slaves since they were both needed for the effective operation of the estate. They
believed that those who were retained would create trouble for the planters who failed to give them their
freedom
4. In some colonies, it was difficult to differentiate between the domestic saves and field slaves.
Sometimes, domestics were recruited to the fields because of shortage of labour. Therefore, if the
domestic slaves working in the fields obtained their freedom, then regular field slaves would also claim
their freedom.
5. The apprentices who were anticipating their complete freedom were becoming restless, hence they
began to exert to pressure on the authorities to act on their behalf
ADJUSTMENTS TO THE PROBLEMS OF EMANCIPATION [1838 – 76]
THE DOWNFALL OF “KING SUGAR”
The West Indian sugar economy was decaying long before the overthrow of slavery and several
factors contributed to its post – emancipation collapse
a. Labour Cost – Abolition of the slave trade caused an increase in the price of slaves and hence
an uncompetitive increase in the price of sugar. After 1838, estate labour became very scarce and
expensive
b. Estate Finance – Emancipation caused a radical change in the financing of the sugar
plantations. Wages accounted for as much as two – thirds of the total cost of production. Supplies could
be obtained only from Europe with cash, but cash was scarce as the planters very slowly adjusted to the
new cash economy and sugar prices fell in the 1840s.
c. Falling sugar prices; which were caused by:
1. Increased supplies of sugar from territories acquired during the Napoleonic wars
2. World Expansion of sugar production
3. The Sugar Duties Equalization Act

76. d. World expansion of sugar production – using slave labour and modern methods of production,
Cuba, Louisiana and Brazil produced increased quantities of cheap, high – grade sugar. The British
West Indies could not compete with this and with sugar from India and Mauritius. Subsidized
European beet sugar further added to the glut of sugar on the world market.
e. Mercantilism vs. Laissez – Faire: The free trade ideas of Adam Smith and David Ricardo replaced the
old mercantilist theories which had nurtured sugar and slavery, particularly when British workers
demanded cheaper foodstuffs, including sugar. The Sugar Duties Equalization Act [1846] and the
repeal of the Navigational Acts 3 years later abolished mercantilism and removed duties on foreign
sugar. In 1847, a commercial crisis in England sent 13 West Indian Companies into bankruptcy. The
West Indies Bank based in Barbados failed, and so did the Planters’ Bank in Jamaica where 474 sugar
and coffee plantations were abandoned
f. Unprogressive, inefficient British West Indian Sugar:-
1. Planters clung to labour intensive methods and for a long time resisted mechanization – ploughs,
steam engines, vacuum pans and the ‘central’ factory or Usine
2. The smaller territories could not economically utilize machinery
3. Investors considered the sugar trade too risky and this created an acute shortage of capital for
the changeover to mechanization
4. Declining soil fertility in the old sugar islands, for example, Jamaica, Barbados and St Kitts
ATTITUDES TO ESTATE LABOUR
The Planters – By 1838, some planters had abandoned their estates. The others feared the exodus of freemen
from the estates and having to pay high wages. A few tried to provide good working and living conditions and
paid high wages to attract estate labour. Where land was available for the freemen, this was considered as
being the main threat to the planters’ labour supply. Thus they hindered but could not stop the freemen’s
acquisition of land.
The Freemen
1. Their greatest desire was to leave the estates permanently
2. They were fully aware that the key to economic independence was land ownership
3. There was also a strong desire for education as a means of escape from agricultural or manual labour
4. A number of skilled workers – masons, carpenters, coopers and wheel – wrights were able to seek estates
which offered the best wages. Still others became higglers and hucksters, shopkeepers, fishermen and jobbers
in town

77. IMMIGRATION
British immigration schemes:
1. The Maderians from 1835 to 1852
2. The Chinese from 1852 to 1893
3. The Africans- after 1841, attempts to bring free Africans from Sierra Leone and the Kru Coast in Africa
failed because the Africans soon became aware of working conditions in the Caribbean. By 1869, 36,160
free Africans came mainly to British Guiana, Jamaica and Trinidad
4. The East Indians from 1845 to 1917
5. The West Indians from 1837
The Maderians – Maderians were paid only 3d per day in Madeira and were attracted by higher wages in the
Caribbean, especially in British Guiana. Many went to Trinidad and a few to the Windward Islands. They were
brought in by government bounty. Most came during periods of famine in Madeira (1846 - 1847). Their
numbers decreased after 1847 until the scheme ended in 1882.
Problems with Maderians immigration - The Maderians died in large numbers. They suffered severely from
yellow fever, malaria, overwork and inadequate food. The scheme was very irregular and most of them went
into trading as soon as their contracts ended. In addition, because so many of its citizens were leaving, the
Madeiran Government objected to the scheme and implemented measures to make it difficult for them to be
recruited
The Chinese – came mainly to Cuba, Trinidad and British Guiana from the Portuguese Colony of Macao and
from Canton during the period of 1852 and 1893. Conditions in overcrowded Chinese coastal cities and the
havoc created by the Teiping Rebellion [1851 – 64] against the Manchus provided the incentive for the more
adventurous to seek labour and / or new life abroad. Like the Maderians they preferred trade and businesses to
field labour. It was the most expensive scheme, the Chinese government opposed it and enmity developed
between blacks and Chinese.
Problems with Chinese immigration - Planters complained that the Chinese did not make good estate workers.
A few re-indentured themselves. They preferred to return to China or open retail shops. In addition, they were
more expensive than the Indians. The Chinese government insisted that a full return passage be granted after a
five-year indenture contract, but the planters were willing to pay this only after two five-year contracts. The
Chinese Government also opposed immigration because the Chinese were ill-treated in Cuba. Most Chinese
avoided the West Indies, preferring to go to the United States or to find work nearer to home in Java or the
Philippines. Finally, race relations between blacks and Chinese were quite poor.

78. Africans – After 1841 attempts to bring free Africans from Sierre Leone and the Kru Coast failed because the
Africans soon became aware of the working conditions in the Caribbean. The Africans who did arrive were
mainly those rescued from captured slavers sailing to countries which still carried on the slave trade. By 1869,
36 160 free Africans came mainly to British Guiana, Jamaica and Trinidad.
Problems with African immigration
1. Very few Africans were willing to come to the Caribbean. There were no catastrophes in Africa
which would make them leave.
2. Many that came to the Caribbean did not remain on the plantation; rather they followed the ex-
slaves and settled on lands and became peasant farmers
The East Indians – In 1837, John Gladstone gained permission to take East Indian labourers to Guiana on 5 – year
contracts but ill – treatment of the Indians and disease caused many deaths and in 1840 Indian immigration was
discontinued by the Indian and British Governments. Pressure from the planters resulted in a second attempt being
made in 1845 and it lasted until 1917. Approximately 500 000 Indian Indentured labourers came to the Caribbean.
They normally contracted to work on the estates for 5 years and were entitled to free passage to the Caribbean; if
they arrived before 1898 males were granted a half of the return passage while females got two – thirds; a fixed
wage of 1 shilling and sixpence per day for a specified number of days in each year; free medical attention and
housing. The governments of Jamaica, Trinidad and Guiana appointed agents to recruit workers in India who were
shipped from Calcutta, Madras or Bombay. Men greatly outnumbered women and there were substantial losses on
the overcrowded, unhygienic transported ships [20% in 1860; 1% by 1890]. On the estates the living conditions of
the workers were slave – like. They could not leave the estates without a permit; were subject to fines and
imprisonment for disobedience or absence from work; were herded into insanitary barracks; were despised by those
who needed their labour; were stricken with disease and death. Those who survived claimed their return passage or
acquired their own land.
These conditions of the immigrants provided ample support for the protests of the Indian Nationalist
Movement against immigrant. In 1916, the Indian Legislative Council passed the abolition of Indenture Act and
in 1918 the British Secretary of State of India refused to reopen immigration. The Indian immigrants arrived in
Guyana on ships Whitby and Hesperus. In 1845, the Fatel Razack arrived in Trinidad from Calcutta and the
ship Blundell Hunter arrived in Old Harbour Bay, Jamaica.
Methods of recruitment:
1. Promise of land and work in the Caribbean.
2. Kidnapping.

79. 3. Recruitment of Indians involved a degree of deception where information related to their jobs were
either withheld or misinterpreted. In particular, the amounts that they were likely to be able to earn and
save were often exaggerated.
Reasons why some Immigrants did not return home at the end of their contract
1. They could not afford the money to subsidize their passage back to India.
2. They accepted the offer of free land, or a cash grant instead of a return passage
3. Many Immigrants were unwilling to return to the poor social and economic conditions and the crushing
poverty from which they had come from.
4. Opportunities for self-fulfillment and material gain that were available in the West Indies were not
available at home.
FRENCH IMMIGRATION SCHEME
1848 – 61: An unsuccessful attempt was made to recruit immigrants from the French trading bases of
Chanderragore and Pondicherry in India. They could not supply enough labourers for Martinique and
Guadeloupe
1861 – 86: About 88000 Indians came to Martinique, Guadeloupe and French Guiana after the French
arranged to recruit them from British India. This scheme was stopped because of French ill – treatment of
Indians
SURINAM’S LABOUR IMPORTATION
1870 – Britain allowed Surinam to import workers from India following essentially the same procedure and
contact used by the British. This scheme was preceded by attempts to import Indonesians in the 1850s. Indian
immigration was terminated in 1917, Indonesians stopped coming in 1938.
THE EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION
ECONOMIC
1. Rising production of sugar and cocoa, particularly in British Guiana, Trinidad and St Kitts but
they could not prevent Grenada’s loss of its sugar industry and the industry in some areas declined
anyways
2. This improvement in sugar production hindered the diversification of the West Indian economy
3. A minority of Indians became fairly wealthy through business and the professions; others joined
peasantry and widened the range of export crops, for example, rice, cocoa and coffee.
4. Some immigrants brought special skills such as knowledge of irrigation

80. 5. Increasing population generated improvements in public facilities, law enforcements, trading facilities
and larger markets for local produce
SOCIAL
1. For some time the different groups of immigrants worked together with the local population but by
1917 they were openly hostile to each other and this problem of the multi – racial Caribbean society
lingers on
2. The various ethnic groups have enriched Caribbean culture. For instance, the East Indians kept their
Hindu or Muslim religion; in Guyana they still practice the Hindu festivals of Phagwah and Diwali
3. By the early years of immigration the Indians were difficult to assimilate into the West Indian society.
Very few of them were educated, they were leaderless and they tended to stick together in separate
communities
4. Indians were felt to be inferior and they could only find work in poorly paid jobs. They could not
settle in the towns, but lived in the countryside and formed an active peasant class. The
employment of Indians mainly as field workers led to the employment of blacks in better jobs, for
example, the police force.
5. Immigration led to the expansion of social services, for example, medical facilities and a large police
force
6. The ex-slaves despised the Indians and refused to work alongside them in the fields. They were
described as ‘’heathens’’ because of their speech and clothing. Indians also despised the blacks because
of their alleged low moral standards.
THE FREE VILLAGE MOVEMENT
Factors which determined the establishment of free villages
1. Availability of land – British Guiana, Trinidad and Jamaica had much unused land, while Antigua,
Barbados, St Kitts and Grenada had practically none
2. Attitude of the Freemen to plantation labour – In Jamaica, where anti – plantation
sentiments were strongest, the free village movement was strongest
3. Attitude of the planters – They opposed the freemen’s acquisition of land by attempting to stop the
sale of Crown Lands

81. 6. Attitude of the Colonial Government – Some governors encouraged the movement, for example,
Colebrooke in Antigua, 1837. On the other hand, the Guianese planters and Governor legislated against
the growth of cooperative estates from 1852 to 1856.
7. Missionaries tried to protect their congregation from abuses such as increased rents on estate houses
and expulsion from the estates by assisting in the establishment of free villages.
8. In Guiana from 1839 to 1856 freemen created their own cooperative villages by pooling resources to
buy and operate abandoned plantation
The Role of Nonconformist Missionaries –the largest number of free villages were established in Jamaica
with the help of such missionaries as William Knibb and Elder Phillippo [Baptists]; Joseph Sturge [Quaker].
The Missionaries normally obtained funds from individuals and missionary societies in England to purchase
large tracks of land, and then resold these cheaply after dividing them into small plots of an acre or less per
family. Under the supervision of the missionaries the peasants cultivated and sold their own produce, built
houses, schools and churches and in general maintained fairly independent communities, for example, Sturge
Town, Buxton and Bethany in Jamaica.
Effects of the Free Villages on the Labour Supply
1. The small plots owned by the villagers could not support totally independent peasants; hence they still
had to work for wages on the estate a few days each week, but they could negotiate for higher wages
and improved working conditions
2. Jamaican dislike of estate work, coupled with the movement, resulted in an inadequate and unreliable
labour supply that reduced sugar production. likewise, there was a scarcity of estate labour in Guiana
and Trinidad, remedied by immigration
3. Antigua’s successful example of encouraging the growth of semi – independent settlements linked to
the estates, thereby assuring a reliable labour supply was followed in Montserrat, Nevis and St Kitts
Growth of the Peasantry: Effects of the Freemen
1. Apart from the missionary supported villages, many free men bought their own land with money
earned from overtime work during Apprenticeship. They became subsistence farmers but sold some
surplus crops on local markets and in some cases grew sugar cane. They eventually developed training
system [haggling in Jamaica] and export crops; coffee, ginger and pimento in Jamaica; arrowroot in St
Vincent, cocoa and copra in Grenada
2. The cooperative venture in Guiana was short-lived but after its collapse cooperative members
still sought land by squatting in the interior
3. Squatting – illegal occupation of Crown Lands in remote areas; common in large territories

82. 4. Metayage or Share – cropping – labourers produced the sugar and profits were shared between
themselves and the plantation owner. This was done mainly in the French islands, St Lucia and Tobago.
In Barbados and other areas the freemen grew sugar cane on plantation grounds or small plots nearby; the
cane was milled on the estate; estate – owner and growers shared profits
5. The peasants encountered such difficulties as:-
a. Their lands were not officially surveyed
b. Colonial governments imposed restrictions on the sale of Crown Lands
c. The land itself was very often marginal, infertile and remote
d. Licenses for the sale of export crops were required
e. Opposition from the farmers
f. Exploitation to pay excessively high prices for inferior land
Contribution of the Peasantry to the Economic and Social Life of the Caribbean
Economic:
1. The peasants helped the Caribbean people to reduce their dependence on imported food as they grew
crops for the local market and their families. Their goods consisted mainly of fruits, vegetables and
ground provisions which they sold at the local Saturday or Sunday market for cash.
2. A complex system of direct trading and middlemen developed in places like Jamaica where not all the
peasants who produced crops came to the market. For example, farmers in the mountainous eastern
parishes sold their produce to coastal traders who carried them to the southwest where main wage earners
still worked on sugar plantations. Other peasants sold goods to those who were going to market in
Kingston and Spanish Town.
3. Some peasants in the Eastern Caribbean traded with other islands for provisions, e.g. Montserrat small
farmers sold food to people in St. Kitts, Nevis and Antigua.
4. The peasants contributed to the money earned by the region by exporting spices, ginger, logwood,
cotton, sugar, rum, coffee, arrowroot, citrus, pimento, lime juice, and coconuts.
5. The development of the peasantry helped to make sure that a variety of different crops were grown in
the region. In the Eastern Caribbean, the peasantry changed the pure plantation economies which were
based on growing just one crop.

83. Social:
1. Peasants promoted cultural events, some of which helped to keep African and Indian culture alive in
the Caribbean.
2. Peasants laid the foundation of modern Caribbean society by building schools and churches in their
villages, by campaigning for roads and streets, and for improved medical and educational facilities.
3. Peasants helped to develop Friendly and Benefit Societies, and to develop agricultural societies
and cooperative banks.
The Colonial Governments’ approach to the Problems of Emancipation
Representative Government to 1865
1. The planter – dominated “representative” government did very little to improve social welfare; poor
social conditions were one of the prime causes of the Morant Bay uprising [1865] which terminated
Old Representative System
2. Efforts which were made to improve education, health care, poor and old relief were carried out with
church assistance and were concentrated mainly in towns
3. Before 1834 there was little education in the Caribbean and the extent institutions catered mainly to
white children, for example, Codrington College in Barbados. In 1835, the British Government’s
Negro Education Grant provided the sum of £ 30, 000 for elementary education which ultimately
filtered down to the missionary societies to provide an unrealistic religious and classical education for
Negro children. The Mico bequest was another source of educational funds; it was used to build
teachers’ college in Jamaica and Antigua and primary schools in St Lucia and Trinidad
4. Before 1834 there was little education in the Caribbean and the extent institutions catered mainly to
white children, for example, Codrington College in Barbados. In 1835, the British Government’s
Negro Education Grant provided the sum of £ 30, 000 for elementary education which ultimately
filtered down to the missionary societies to provide an unrealistic religious and classical education for
Negro children. The Mico bequest was another source of educational funds; it was used to build
teachers’ college in Jamaica and Antigua and primary schools in St Lucia and Trinidad
Crown Colony Government: Post – 1865
1. Education remained the most pressing problem to be tackled by this system of government and
some progress was made in expanding educational facilities, especially in Jamaica. But finances
were inadequate, educational opportunities still very limited and discriminatory and it was
impossible to implement compulsory elementary education. A few secondary schools in
Trinidad, Jamaica and Barbados were pupilled almost entirely by white students; their
curriculum was sadly irrelevant to the needs of West Indians

84. 2. From the 1870s onwards public works were undertaken, notably in Jamaica where Governor Sir
John Peter Grant relocated the capital of Kingston, instilled gasworks, piped water and a new market.
In Guiana, drainage, irrigation and Coastal Defenses presented the most serious problems.
3. By the 1870s public roads, hansom cabs, street cars and railways all helped to improve
transportation in Jamaica. Tarmac roads were built in Trinidad, while Guiana was provided with a
railway. From the 1840s onward steamships from England called at the islands
4. The problems of epidemic diseases and high infant mortality demanded adequate health facilities
and after 1848 the island legislatures created Boards of Health. Hospitals were confined to large
towns. A medical department and Government Medical Services dispensed free medical treatment in
Jamaica
CARIBBEAN ECONOMY (1875 – 1985)
Problems of the sugar industry, 1875-1985
The decline of sugar in the British Caribbean began before 1850. The causes of this crisis in the sugar
industry at this time were:
1. Britain’s loss of North American colonies in 1783 which resulted in an increase in the cost of estate
supplies thereafter purchased from Britain.
2. Abolition of the Slave Trade and Emancipation produced increased labour costs and labour
shortages. The decline of the sugar industry accelerated after 1850.
3. The following are the causes of this decline:
1. Sugar Duties Equalization Act of 1846 - Free trade means trading or buying and selling without the
additional cost of paying duties or taxes on items to be sold. The Sugar Duties Act of 1846 was the worst
news for the British West Indies sugar industry because it meant not only that all sugar prices had to be
equalized (entered at the same price on the sugar market) but also at a lower price. Before this, the West
Indies had been a protected market (meaning that duties would protect them from competition because the
duties would make the competitors’ sugar more expensive). However, with the Act, this no longer
happened and the price of BWI sugar and the cost of sugar production had to be reduced if any profit was
to be made.
2. Competition from Cuba and Brazil – Both low cost producers. Advantages: -
a. Large areas of flat, fertile cane – land
b. Mechanization – had introduced steam engines, vacuum pans, centrifuges in large centralized factories
c. Sugar labour – Cuban slaves [330 000] worked day and night shifts in the crop season

85. 3. Competition from beet sugar - – grown since 1815 in France and Germany. ‘Bounty – fed’ – i. e.
subsided by producer governments. After 1870 France and Germany reverted to protection but Britain
free, cheap, subsided European beet sugar undercut British West Indian cane sugar on the British market.
1850 to 1900: saw a rapid expansion of European beet sugar production
4. Inefficiency of various aspects of the industry such as Small working units, Absenteeism, Lack of
Mechanization, Poor sugar soils [in the mountainous Windwards] and the lack of large areas of flat lands
MEASURES (SOLUTIONS) TAKEN TO IMPROVE THE SUGAR INDUSTRY FROM 1875
ONWARDS
(1) Loans- From 1848 onwards the British Parliament provided West Indian planters with loans to
mechanize plantations, assist immigration and improve communications. These were taken up by
Barbados, Trinidad and British Guiana but generally refused by Jamaica.
(2) Amalgamation of Estates- Smaller estates amalgamated into bigger working units. Estates
were turned into Limited Companies. In 1833, there were 600 estates in British Guiana and in 1890,
there were only 140.
(3) Scientific agriculture- Government botanists were appointed (a botanist is a person who
studies plants. The botanists were placed in Jamaica, Barbados and British Guiana. These botanists
used new varieties of cane, fertilizers and more efficient planting methods. In 1898, the Imperial
Department of Agriculture was established in Barbados. In 1922, The Imperial College of Tropical
Agriculture was opened in Trinidad.
(4). Centralization- Introduction of a Central factory system allowed for greater efficiency and
lower production costs. In 1871, the Colonial Company established the Usine St Madeline factory in
Trinidad.
5. New Markets- The loss of European markets to European beet sugar forced the British Caribbean
planters to seek new markets. From 1875 to 1899, the new market was the U.S. and from 1898 to 1912,
the new market for West Indian sugar was Canada.
6. Degree of Success – limited. Loans were disliked as repayment became a burden on a colony’s
revenues. Amalgamation was successful in British Guiana and Trinidad but the Barbadian plantocracy
was reluctant to surrender family homes and estates. Centralization was effective in British Guiana and
Trinidad but resisted in Barbados, St Kitts and Antigua until 1904
8. Situation c. 1900 – the low cost producers [British Guiana, Trinidad, Barbados, St Kitts and Antigua]
were facing severe competition from beet sugar. The high – cost producers [Jamaica and the Windwards]
had abandoned or were abandoning sugar. Severe reduction in the number of British West Indian sugar
estates: in 1835 – 2200; in 1900 – 800

86. The Development and Expansion of Agriculture Enterprises - After 1834, plantation agriculture gave
way to smallholding, particularly in the Windwards where sugar became uneconomic. The development of
alternative crops between 1834 and 1900 was periodically checked by Storms and Hurricanes; Plant pests
and diseases and Depressions and low world price
Measures taken to take to improve the sugar industry - The measures taken to improve the sugar crisis
succeeded for the most part. There were improved yields of cane and fewer diseased crops. This was mainly
due to the efforts of the agricultural departments and the planters' willingness to learn. There were lower
production costs to produce sugar on the estates, especially those which had amalgamated. Many
uneconomical estates were abandoned or became part of amalgamated units. More capital was invested in the
sugar industry and this was really helpful in saving the industry from crisis. The British Government's efforts
as well as that of the planters ensured that the economy survived. There were enough funds to purchase
equipment such as vacuum pans and steam mills. Successes in the area of loans were limited because loans
were disliked because repayment became a burden on colony revenues.
AGRICULTURAL/ECONOMIC DIVERSIFICATION
Economic/agricultural diversification began even during the slavery and sugar period because slaves grew
other crops on their plots on the plantations either for their families to consume or to sell in the Sunday
markets. When slaves were emancipated in 1838, the now free men wanted to get as far away from the
plantations for the most part so many of them decided to become independent peasant farmers and cultivate
crops to make a living. The diversification process was further pushed by the abandonment of sugar
cultivation on some estates. On such estates, some planters began to focus on new crops which required less
labour. Some planters would also sell or rent land to peasant farmers who wanted to cultivate other crops
The peasants were very instrumental in making crops such as banana important exports. In colonies such as
Jamaica, bananas were able to become chief revenue earners, putting sugar into the second place. The peasant
activities in Trinidad and Guyana also saw crops such as rice becoming vital to the economies.
1. The majority of planters continue to cultivate sugarcane.
2. Some planters in some colonies decided to grow alternative crops. The planters recognized the profitability of
the alternative crops. Planters had long looked at the banana industry with distaste. However, when the United
Fruit Company started its own banana estates, planters recognized the value of the crop. Some planters even
stopped planting sugarcane in order to plant banana and coconuts. The sugar estates that had been unprofitable
found that this was a very good alternative
Coffee, pimento, ginger, and logwood - These crops were cultivated in small amounts by the peasants for
exports in Jamaica. Coffee was also cultivated in Grenada.

87. Cotton - Owing to the high cotton prices during the American Civil War (1861-65), cotton was grown
again with success in Tobago, Grenada, St Lucia, Antigua, and Nevis but with the end of the war and the
return of low priced American cotton, production soon fell away again. The cotton of St Vincent was of
particularly good quality.
Banana - The crop was planted by peasants but became important as an export commodity in Jamaica after
1869 when the first load of bananas was carried to the U.S. Many planters who had abandoned sugarcane
in the 1880s started to cultivate bananas for export. In 1893, 113 estates cultivated bananas. By 1912,
bananas, oranges and grapefruits made up about 56% of export earnings for that year while sugar made up
only 6% of export earnings. The banana industry was greatly helped by the fact that the United Fruit
Company also had banana estates and also bought the fruit from peasant producers.
Cocoa - Cocoa was grown extensively in Trinidad and Grenada and produced in smaller quantities
in Jamaica, St Lucia and Dominica. In Grenada, it completely replaced sugarcane.
Citrus - Citrus such as limes, grapefruits and oranges replaced sugarcane in Dominica and was encouraged
in St. Lucia and Montserrat for making lime juice. In Jamaica, oranges and grapefruits were cultivated
by peasants for exports and up to 1912, made up over 50% of export earnings including banana.
Spices such as nutmeg - Nutmeg was planted extensively in Grenada. The island became known as the
‘’Spice Island.’’ Nutmeg production was however not to reach the important levels of production as
elsewhere in the world
Rice - Rice was produced in large quantities in Guyana and to a lesser extent in Trinidad and Jamaica by
East Indian peasants. It was first grown for domestic consumption locally in Guyana but later it was
produced in sufficient quantities to support an export market. In 1889, Guyana had imported 24,000 lbs
of rice and exported none; but in 1913, only 13,000 lbs was imported and a huge 17,000,000 lbs was
exported. In time, rice production became the second largest agricultural industry in Guyana.
Arrowroot - In St Vincent, arrowroot replaces sugarcane as the primary crop.
Coconut - Grown in most colonies for copra and oil making. In Trinidad, the high prices obtained for
coconuts between 1918 and 1921 encouraged coconut cultivation to increase.
Forestry - In the mainland colonies of Guyana and Belize, huge forests existed and though a wide variety of
timbers is found in each country, the green heart trees of Guyana and mahogany of Belize are world famous.
For some time, mainly to satisfy war time demands, Trinidad and Guyana experimented with rubber
production but this stopped due to competition from Asian countries.

88. FACTORS WHICH AFFECTED THE SURVIVAL OF ALTERNATIVE CROPS
Positive factors
1. The crops did not require expensive machinery to grow and harvest unlike sugarcane. These crops were
ideal for peasants to develop since little capital was required.
2. A large labour force for cultivation and processing was also not required. Again this factor encouraged
the survival of these crops since peasants and his family and an extra hand or two could cultivate and
process the entire crop.
3. Unlike sugarcane production, large amounts of land were not necessary. An acre or two cultivated any
of these crops.
4. A major disadvantage of these crops over sugar was that they did not last long. However, this was
overcome because of nearness to the market, mainly the U.S. and fast efficient transport. Refrigeration
helped to keep the crop in marketable condition especially bananas.
5. The topography of the land was also a factor that determined the survival of crops other than sugarcane.
In some places sugarcane could not be cultivated because of the terrain. However, other crops could
successfully be cultivated in mountainous islands such as Dominica.
Negative factors
(1) The main negative factor affecting the popularity and success in sale in alternative crops was a push
to promote sugarcane in the early 1900s. At the Brussels Convention in 1902, European countries
decided to abolish subsidies on beet sugar which meant that it would not be able to compete with
sugarcane. This restored confidence in cane sugar which led to an expansion of sugarcane on idle
land. Other factors which pushed sugar production in the early 1900s were the adoption of the central
sugar factory system, departments of agriculture began to focus on finding new varieties of
sugarcane and the outbreak of World War I caused a reduction in beet sugar exports from Europe.
(2) Natural disasters also discouraged the survival of alternative crops. This also affected sugarcane but
the alternative crops had a less solid foundation and less capital so the alternative crops would
therefore be more negatively affected by natural disasters.
(3) Diseases affected some crops
Social effects of the development of alternative crops
(1) Growing importance of the peasantry. The peasant/small holding class grew in number and
importance because peasant farming became important to many British Caribbean countries. The
peasant class wanted to improve its living standards for its children and peasant farming of
alternative crops was the way to do so.

89. (2) Demand for social services. Social services for the majority of the population were poor and
nonexistent. Because of greater profits brought in by alternative crops more money could be spent by the
local governments on social services.
INDUSTRIALIZATION
By the early 20th century, agriculture was not providing enough money or jobs for the growing population in
the Caribbean. Land was limited and it could only produce so many crops which could only be sold for so
much money. As a result, people started thinking about developing the manufacturing, oil and mining
industries in the region. It was considered more productive at the time to use land to build factories than to
plant more crops.
However, there were several barriers to industrialization including; limited capital, lack of fuel, limited
knowledge of industry, few workers with technical skills, few entrepreneurs. This meant that countries in the
region had to depend on foreign investors to provide money to start these industries. Before investors would
decide to spend their money on building these industries Caribbean countries had to promise the investors
certain incentives such as tax breaks, protection from foreign competition and the promise that they would not
have to pay taxes on raw materials and equipment. Countries such as Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago tripled
their manufacturing output between the 1950s and early 1960s. This was partly because these countries along
with Guyana had natural resources.
1. Oil in Trinidad and Tobago
2. Bauxite in Jamaica and Guyana
3. Petroleum – Trinidad; first found at Aripero in 1966. Creation of the Trinidad Oilfields Company in
1910; and first oil shipment to USA in 1912. By 1920 a valuable export; worth £ 4 Million p. a. by 1936
4. Asphalt – La Brea, Trinidad; Industry established in the 1850s. In 1886, A. L. Baker [an American]
secured a 21 – year concession for a royalty of £ 10, 000 p. a. In 1925, the concession passed to the
Trinidad Lake Asphalt Company for a royalty of £ 24, 000. The industry suffered badly in the 1929
depression
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OIL INDUSTRY IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
There were many factors which encouraged the growth of the oil industry in Trinidad and Tobago. They are
as follows:
1. The capital pumped into the industry- Interested people both in Trinidad and abroad saw
the vast potential of the oil industry. The government was also very interested and involved in
the industry. There was also American interest in the industry.

90. 2. The growth in world demand for oil - This helped grow the oil industry due to major developments in
motor vehicle, aircraft and ship technology by World War II (1939- 1945) which caused an increase in
the need for oil products. Trinidad and Tobago’s oil production and export levels raised higher year
after year, in fact, Trinidad supplied the British and Allied Forces with much of the fuel needed for
WWII. By the 1960s, the island was supplying over 20 million barrels of oil each year. This pushed
oil exports to the position of number 1 revenue earner for Trinidad and Tobago.
3. American interest in the oil industry- There were several American companies that became involved
in the production of oil. These companies put huge sums of money in developing the industry by
laying pipelines and setting up oil rigs and pumping the oil for production as well as providing experts
in oil production.
Social changes brought about by the growth of the Oil Industry
1. Increased incomes for those working in the industry - Trinidadians worked at all levels in the
industry but most were found in the lower job categories. Yet even in these groups the income earned was
higher than in other industries such as the sugar industry. The influx (coming in) of the American dollar
helped raise the standard of living.
2. Standards of living rose - The country's oil exports became very large by the 1960s and as a result the
income earned helped to push economic development on the island. Trinidad was one the richest islands
in the Caribbean by the 1960s and this was due mainly to the successful oil industry.
3. Infrastructure improved - The social infrastructure improved in the island. There were better houses
for the population. Several houses and roads were built across the island. The improvement in roadways
and shipping was essential for the use
4. Trinidad became somewhat Americanized - The island had a level of Americanization and this
was the direct result of the presence of Americans in the oil industry. These American interests to some
extent infused the island with their culture of the industry but the whole country benefited
Development of the Bauxite Industry
Guyana - Bauxite was first found in Guyana in 1910. In 1916, the first bauxite company was set up
called the Demerara Bauxite Company. In 1917, bauxite was exported from Guyana for the first time and
soon after another company called the Suriname Bauxite Company was set up. The depression of 1929
in the U.S. however caused a slump in the Bauxite Industry in Guyana.
Jamaica - Bauxite was first found in Jamaica in 1869 and first mined in 1890. There was a huge
demand after 1939 because of World War II because bauxite was used to make weapons and vehicles. It
was mined by 3 companies but the largest one was the U.S. Company ALCOA.

91. TOURISM
Tourism became a factor in the economic development of the West Indies mainly after World War II with
the growing wealth of North America and Europe. Before this, the tourism industry was not seen as a money
earner for the Caribbean. Visitors came to Jamaica and several other islands on the ships that also carried
bananas to North America and England, as tourists as early as 1890s.These early tourists often came to
recover from illnesses as the tropical climate was seen as suitable for such recovery.
The increased amount of transportation to the islands helped the tourism industry to grow. The steamships
that took produce such as bananas abroad were also built to accommodate passengers who wished to
travel to the islands as tourists. The growth and development of transportation saw larger ships that could
carry more passengers. The development of passenger airplanes also helped as people began to come to the
British West Indies on charter flights. By the late 1960s, national airlines were developing in the region and
helped increase the flow of visitors to the islands
The building of accommodation and later places of entertainment was another important development in the
tourism industry. In the 1890s, the first tourists had to be satisfied with the few inns available in the islands.
However, by the 1920s, a few hotels had been built. The colonial government also gave tax incentives to hotel
builders. In Jamaica, for example, the Myrtle Bank Hotel in downtown Kingston was one of the best places to
stay.
Between the 1940s and the 1970s, other infrastructure was put in place which helped boost their industry.
These included better local transportation such as the tramcar. There were several places of entertainment
built. The Caribbean governments after the 1960s began to advertise their countries as tourist destinations.
However, there were some problems in the beginning of the development of the tourist industry in the
Caribbean as the tourists were seen as the new colonial masters and blacks working in the tourist industry
sometimes experienced prejudice as tourists were mostly white.
Therefore, when the governments had to advertise tourism they had to be aware of these
problems. Many governments provided funds from their budgets to pay for advertisements in foreign
newspapers and magazines. Hotels also placed ads in newspapers and magazines. The sun, sea and sand
concept began to be a major attraction for tourists by the early 1970s. The Caribbean was advertised as an
area where there was never ending paradise with the sun, sea and sand readily available to tourists. The
focus was on the climate of the islands and this was often a good selling point as many visitors came
from much colder climates. The tourism industry provided significant revenue for the islands by the
1980s. It was among the top earners of revenue for islands such as Jamaica, Barbados and Antigua for
many years. The industry continued to provide thousands of jobs and there are many spin off areas that
benefited tremendously from the industry

92. METHODS BY WHICH INDUSTRY WAS ESTABLISHED IN THE BRITISH CARIBBEAN [1945 – 62]
After 1945, the British Caribbean governments sought to establish new industries based on local
resources. Objects: -
1. To decrease dependence on expensive imports and increase foreign earnings by the sale of
manufacture goods abroad
2. Attraction of Private Enterprise and the Multi – nationals – by tax ‘holidays’, land grants and
special concession. Oil / Asphalt industries in Trinidad and bauxite industry in Jamaica and British
Guiana were only exploitable initially with foreign capital and expertise, for example, Kaiser and Alcan
in Jamaica and Alcan in British Guiana
3. Government – Financed Projects – establishment of Industrial Development Corporations which
provided finance and expertise for new industries. Mainly light industries based on local natural
resources. Jamaica
– gypsum, cement, textiles, pharmaceuticals and milk canning. Trinidad – cigarettes, cement, oil –
based chemicals, footwear and records.
CONNECTION BETWEEN THE STATE OF THE ECONOMY AND
MIGRATION UPTO1962
General – after 1850 migration within and outside the Caribbean became a feature of the
society.
Causes
1. Unemployment created by the decline of sugar
2. Sharp population increase aftern1860
3. Attraction of job opportunities elsewhere
Emigration was useful because
1. It reduced the pool of the unemployed
2. It provided useful foreign currency and wages from overseas sustained many Caribbean islands
3. It reduced the strain on the meagre social services
But it was also created problems because
1. It was no substitute for economic development
2. It removed the most skilled and enterprising young men from society
3. It created expectations of better living standards and job opportunities
4. It broke down the traditional family unit by removing the men

93. 5. It exposed the migrants to white racism
The number of people who emigrated varied with the state of the Caribbean economies. After 1850 migration
began as sugar declined in Jamaica and the Windwards; it continued until 1930 when the Great Depression
forced many expatriate West Indians to return home. Migration resumed during WW2 when West Indian
labour went to the USA and Panama. After 1945, the expectation of the ‘good life’ in the US attracted both
legal and illegal immigrants while many British West Indians found a new home in the UK
1850s – 1880s: Jamaicans / Windward Islanders migrated to the sugar estates of Trinidad and British Guiana
1850s – 1860s: Jamaicans / Windward Islanders migrated to Panama as labourers in De Lesseps; Abortive
attempt to construct a canal. Many died of yellow fever; others stayed on
1880s: Jamaicans / Windward Islanders – migrated to Cuba to work on the sugar estates after the Emancipation
of Slave [1886] and with the great expansion of the Cuban Sugar Industry. The collapse of the sugar price in
1921 forced many of these men to return home
1900 – 1920: Central America – Jamaicans / Barbadians migrated to Honduras, Costa Rica, Guatemala and
Panama to work on coffee, sugar and the United Fruit Company’s Banana plantations. Between 1912 and
1920 the ‘colon man’ became a feature of Jamaican society. Central American emigration was stepped by the
Republics in 1930.
Panama – between 1904 and 1914 West Indians Labour constructed the Panama Canal
USA – Prior to 1924 there was no restrictions on entry to the USA and many West Indians were attracted by
US wages and living standards. Jamaicans went the East Coast Cities and the Puerto Ricans went to the North
East Cities.
1929 – Wall Street crash / Great Depression forced West Indians in the US to return home
1940s: USA attracted Puerto Ricans and Virgin Islanders who had right of entry, 1945 – 52: 283 000 Puerto
Ricans
Trinidad / Curacao/ Aruba/ Venezuela – West Indian emigrants to the oilfields of Trinidad and Venezuela
and to the refineries of Aruba and Curacao. Also US military bases in Trinidad [acquired from Britain during
WW2] attracted Windward Islanders
1950s – UK: US restrictions on immigration forced British West Indians to look elsewhere. In 1952, British
West Indians began to immigrate to the UK where the transport and public services. Immigration into the UK
began on a large scale in 1954 and was maintained at a rate of 30, 000 p.a. until 1962 when the UK

94. THE UNITED STATES IN THE CARIBBEAN (1776 – 1985)
The United States entered the Caribbean in three stages:
1. 1745: The United States signed Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain and therefore obtained permission to
use the Mississippi and the port of New Orleans. This made trade with the West Indies easier.
2. 1805: President Jefferson purchased Louisiana from France for $15 million. This gave the U.S an
outlet into the Gulf of Mexico and easy access to the Caribbean.
3. President Jackson forced Spain to give Florida to the U.S. in exchange for the U.S. taking over
the payment of $5 million compensation which Spain owed to the U.S. merchants
MANIFEST DESTINY - The Manifest Destiny was a proclamation which acknowledged that by divine
ordain, the United States had the right to expand territorially from the eastern coast to the Pacific Ocean on the
North American continent. The United States would be a superior country in wealth, politics, technology and
culture. The concept was first used in the writings of a New York editor, John O’ Sullivan, in 1945 when he
wrote, “our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of our continent which providence has
given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty”.
IDEAS OF THE MANIFEST DESTINY
1. Americans were descendants of Anglo-Saxon blood and were therefore superior people
2. The United States was chosen by God to bring civility to North America
3. The United States was the mother of democracy and was beacon of hope for weaker countries in the
Americas including the Caribbean and Latin America. The countries around the United States were
“weak, dependent and lesser”
4. The Americans had the means to bring about development in education, agriculture, commerce and
science and must spread its knowledge.
5. The United States would become the “policeman of the Americas” which was asserted in the Monroe
Doctrine
Evidence of US Expansion up to the 1860s in North America
1. The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 – US brought Louisiana from France for $15M
2. The establishment of the US-Canadian Border in 1818
3. The purchase of Florida in 1819 from Spain
4. The Oregon Trial began in 1841 when people started moving towards the west in wagons

95. 5. The Mexican American War of 1846 which saw the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in which Mexico
ceded Texas, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and California to the United States for
US$15M. This effectively allowed the United States to reach the Pacific Ocean
6. The division of Oregon between Britain and the United States along the 49th parallel in 1859
7. The purchasing of Alaska from Russia in 1867
8. The Spanish American War (1898). Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Cuba to the United States
9. The United States purchased the Danish Virgin Islands from the Kingdom of Denmark for $ 25
million and was renamed the US Virgin Islands.
Methods of Expansion under the Manifest Destiny
1. Purchase: The US purchase lands from the French, British, Mexicans, Spanish and Russians
2. Annexation: Simply moving into a territory and taking the land as in the case of Texas which
led to the Mexican American War
3. Settlement: moving towards the Rocky Mountains and simply settle along the way
4. Compromises: Making various deals with Britain (as in the case of the Canadian Border and
Oregon) and the Native American
5. Warfare especially with the Native Americans and the Mexicans
Consequences of the Manifest Destiny
1. Led to conflict with the Native Americans whose lands were stripped from them – President Andrew
Jackson passed The Removal Act of 1830 which forced the Native Americans to relocate. The
infamous Trail of Tears in 1838 saw thousands of Cherokee Indians dying as they were forced to
march each to Oklahoma.
2. Expanded slavery in the Southern states and eventually led to the outbreak of the American Civil
War of 1861. The Southern States were willing to fight to keep their slaves. The US was divided
between Free states and slave states. When the US gained another state or a piece of land the issue
was always whether that new state would be a free state or a slave state. War erupted in 1861 when
President Abraham Lincoln proposed emancipation of slaves. The Free states were pitted against
the slave states.
3. Pushed the imperialistic ambitions of the United States which led to conflict with countries in
Latin America and the Caribbean. It paved the way for the US sphere of influence in the Americas.
4. Led to the industrialization of the United States because the US got land and raw materials during
her expansion.

96. Us Imperialism Up To 1917 - By the 1890s, the United States adopted an imperialistic outlook. This was first
demonstrated by the Spanish-American War of 1898. This was a conflict between Spain and the United States
which led to the intervention of the United States into the independence of Cuba. US imperialism is linked to
the manifest destiny because American imperialism is partly rooted in American exceptionalism, the idea that
the United States is different from other countries due to its specific world mission to spread liberty and
democracy
US Policies in the Caribbean and Latin America up to 1917
1898: The Spanish American War
1902: The Platt Amendment in Cuba
1902: Intervention into Venezuela and Colombia
1903: US assistance to Panama to gain independence from Columbia
1904: Economic intervention of the Dominican Republic
1904: The passage of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine – starting the Bigstick policy.
1906-1909: Intervention into Cuban affairs
1907: Intervention into Honduras affairs
1910: Intervention into Nicaraguan affairs
1914: Passage of the Dollar Diplomacy which led to the US economic intervention into Haiti and Mexico
1914: Introduction of the Gunboat Diplomacy
1915 – Intervention into Haiti which lasted until 1934
1916 – Intervention into Dominican Republic
1917: Intervention into Cuban affairs which last until 1933
Monroe Doctrine 1823 - In 1823, President Monroe in his inaugural speech which became known as the
Monroe Doctrine and aimed at Cuba, warned European colonial powers that the U.S. would consider any
further colonization in the Americas, suppression of independence or reclaiming of colonies which had won
independence as unfriendly acts towards the U.S.
Louisiana Purchase 1803 - Although the U.S. remained neutral in the French Revolutionary wars, it
concluded Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain which opened New Orleans to U.S. shipping and access to the
Caribbean. Then the U.S. obtained coastline on the Gulf of Mexico west of the Mississippi River through the
Louisiana Purchase by which the U.S. paid France $15 million for Louisiana.

97. Spanish-American War 1898 - In February 1898, two incidents occurred which severed peaceful relations
between Spain and the U.S. and led to war. Firstly, there was the de Lome letter written by Enrique Duppy de
Lome to a friend in Havana in which he denounced the President of the U.S. and implied that the offer of
autonomy was a ruse. The letter fell into the hands of Cuban insurgents and was published in American
newspapers. Secondly, the explosion of the American ship, the USS Maine, in Havana Harbour on February
14th, 1898 which resulted in the loss of 266 lives. On April 20th, 1898, President William McKinley signed a
joint resolution which authorized him to use force to end the insurrection in Cuba. Two days later he ordered a
naval blockade of Cuba. The Spanish- American war had begun. It ended in August 1898. In December 1898, the
U.S. and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris which reflected in the U.S. assuming sovereignty over the
Spanish colonies. Cuba was forced to accept an American Army of occupation while Puerto Rico and the
Philippines and Guam (in the Pacific) were annexed outright by the U.S.
Ostend Manifesto 1854 - After the U.S. had reached the Gulf of Mexico, their nearest Caribbean neighbour
was Cuba. They tried therefore to obtain Cuba from Spain because it was strategically located and was the key
port to Spanish trade in the Caribbean. European colonial powers France and Britain were alarmed at the
determination of the U.S. to acquire Cuba. President Franklin Pierce (1853 - 57) was very eager to acquire
Cuba and offered Spain $100 million but was rejected. The U.S. arranged a meeting in Ostend in Belgium
where they offered $120 million for the purchase of Cuba. Pierce’s opponents issued the Ostend Manifesto
which showed how strongly France and Spain and Britain rejected the U.S. designs on Cuba
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty 1850 - The annexation of California in 1848 and the discovery of gold there shortly
afterwards resulted in the need for an inter - oceanic canal to facilitate the movement of people and goods
between the eastern and western seaboards of the U.S. The site selected for the canal brought the U.S. into
direct conflict with Britain who had been expanding its influence in the area. However, neither the U.S. nor
the British government wanted exclusive privileges in the area. Thus, Britain showed its willingness to
compromise by renouncing exclusive claim to the mouth of the San Juan River. In 1850, Britain and the U.S.
reached a peaceful settlement on the issue by agreeing to the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty which provided a
neutralized canal under the exclusive control of neither country and for the non -colonization of Central
America. This involved American Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, and British Minister, Henry Lytton
Bulwer.
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty 1901 - This was signed on November 18th, 1901 by Britain and the U.S. the right to
build, operate and defend a canal which would be ‘’free and open to the vessels of commerce and war and of all
nations’’ on the basis of equal treatment. The treaty removed the British from their dominant position in the
Caribbean while enhancing that of the U.S.

98. Platt Amendment 1901 - This was the compromise between annexation and complete Cuban independence. It
called for:
1. A commitment by Cuba not to sign any treaty which would impair Cuban independence or to
grant foreign special commissions without U.S. permission.
2. A pledge to keep the Cuban debt at a low level.
3. An extension of authority to the U.S. to intervene to protect Cuban independence and maintain
stability
4. Ratification of the acts of the military government.
5. Granting of sites for naval bases on the island.
The Platt Amendment was presented as an ultimatum to the Cuban people either to accept it or face continued
military occupation. It was adopted on the 12th June, 1901 by the Cuban Constitutional Convention by a vote of
16:11. The adoption of the Platt Amendment paved the way for the withdrawal of the U.S. military forces and
the end of the occupation. On 24th February, 1902, with the U.S. backing, Tomas Estrada Palma was
declared the first President of the Republic of Cuba.
Hay-Herrán Treaty 1903 - The treaty laid down the conditions for the construction and operation of the
canal. It called for the payment of $10 million and an annual annuity of $25, 000, it specified a zone of 10kms
(6mls) and granted the U.S. rights in the canal zone for 100 years, renewable at the option of the U.S. These
conditions were unacceptable to the Colombian senate as they posed a threat to the independence of their
country. The U.S. Government was not to be thwarted and since Colombia refused to comply, other tactics
had to be employed
Big Stick Policy of the U.S. - In the early years of the 20th century, American policy was described as ‘’Big
Stick Policy’’ because of the aggressive nature of its attitudes towards the developing Caribbean republics.
The construction of the Panama Canal during this period and the determination of the American government to
make the Caribbean an American lake were largely responsible for this attitude. This policy was associated with
Theodore Roosevelt.
The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine 1904 - The Roosevelt Corollary operated under three
administrations - Theodore Roosevelt (international policeman); William Taft (who pursued the Corollary
under the guise of Dollar Diplomacy) and Woodrow Wilson (idealist). Theodore Roosevelt decided to
intervene in order to bring about a general settlement of the Dominican Republic’s debt issue. He expressed his
policy in his annual message to Congress on the 6th December, 1904. This statement was called the
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. It meant that the intervention of the U.S. in the internal affairs of the
Caribbean and Latin American States was necessary to maintain stability in order to prevent interference from
European nations

99. Dollar Diplomacy 1904-1930 - This was associated with William H. Taft who succeeded Theodore Roosevelt in
1909. In order to promote government and economic prosperity to prevent European interference in the
Caribbean, the Taft administration resorted to a combination of loans and customs receivership in the
delinquent states, e.g. Dominican Republic. Financial reform involved the refunding of old European held
bonded debts by loans floated in the U.S. or the participation of American bankers in international financial
operations. Dollar Diplomacy was applied in Central American republics especially Guatemala and Honduras,
also Dominican Republic. The policy was best implemented in Haiti
Organic Acts (Foraker Act) - was passed in Puerto Rico in 1900 by the U.S. Congress. This gave Puerto
Rico a civilian government (which replaced the military government) and a law-making body elected by
Puerto Ricans. However, the true power stayed with the U.S. though the Puerto Rican Senate made up of an
American government and five official members appointed by the Puerto Rican Government. This Act also
stated that Puerto Ricans w e r e not A m e r i c a n citizens and could not travel freely to
the U.S.
The Second Organic Act (Jones Act) was passed by the U.S Congress. This Act gave a greater measure of
self - government to Puerto Rico by separating the executive and legislative branches of government. It stated
that:
1. Puerto Ricans were citizens of the United States.
2. There would be two elected houses of Parliament. U.S. civil servants were limited (only three heads of
department).
3. U.S. President and Congress could veto (reject) laws passed in Puerto Rico.
4. Puerto Ricans could not vote in U.S. congressional elections.
5. Puerto Ricans did not have to pay taxes to the U.S. As in Cuba, there were many improvements to the
economic and social life of Puerto Rico after U.S. intervention. In 1952, Puerto Rico was declared a
Commonwealth in the U.S.
Good Neighbor Policy 1933 - Before World War 1 (1914-1918), the U.S. had adopted and pursued a policy of
active intervention in the affairs of Caribbean states because of their unsettled political condition. The object was
to promote peace and orderly government in order to prevent the establishment of new productive enterprises by
American capital and prevent foreign intervention considered detrimental to American investment and national
security. Consequently, due to its policies of interference, the U.S. government became increasingly unpopular in
the other countries of the Americas and Caribbean. The U.S. tried to counter this unpopularity by acting with
great restraint, demonstrating the evolution of a new attitude towards the region. This changing attitude was
transformed into policy during the administration of Franklin Roosevelt. In his inaugural address in 1913, he

100. pledged the U.S. to pursue a policy of a ‘’good neighbor’’ and that pledge became known as the ‘’Good
Neighbor Policy’’. By new treaties, the U.S. government pledge began to withdraw its claims to rights of
interference in the government of other countries.
Cold War - After the Second World War (1939-1945), the policy of the U.S. in the Caribbean underwent a
significant change. This restraint which characterized the era of the Good Neighbour Policy was discarded. Thus,
during the years after the war persistent hostility or cold war between the two major powers (Russia and USA)
spread to Asia, Africa and Latin America. The Soviet Union adopted the communist ideology after the resolution
of 1917 and by 1945 had been recognized as the most outstanding member of the anti-communist country. The
USA with its so-called ‘’democratic system of government’’ and as the most outstanding member of the anti-
communist group, assumed the task of protecting the western hemisphere from the threat of communism
Operation Bootstrap - In 1940, the Popular Democratic Party led by Munoz Marin won the election in Puerto
Rico. President F. Roosevelt sent a new governor: Rexford Guy Tugwell who was sympathetic to Munoz Marin
to Puerto Rico. Together the two men set about remaking Puerto Rico. They adopted a massive industrial
programme which was later nicknamed: ‘’Operation Bootstrap’’, a title which made it clear that Puerto Ricans
would pull their country together by their own efforts. The government established industries and then sold them
to private individuals and gave tax exemptions to new industries for ten years in order to encourage industrial
development.
Bay of Pigs 1961 - In 1959, Fidel Castro staged a revolution in Cuba and took over from the dictator: Batista.
He felt that the U.S. owned too much property in Cuba and began a programme of nationalization. He took over
land, mines, factories, businesses, etc., into which U.S. businessmen had invested. Thus, diplomatic relations
between the USA and Cuba were broken off when President Eisenhower gave way to demands that all the staff in
the American Embassy in Havana should be withdrawn. Both Eisenhower and the succeeding President John F.
Kennedy were under pressure to take action to destroy the new revolutionary Cuban Government before it
became a communist armed base. However, Kennedy did not agree to outright military invasion in Cuba for fear
it might lead to a nuclear war with the USSR. Both Eisenhower and Kennedy continued to plot secretly, and
Cubans who had fled from Castro’s rule were recruited, armed and trained by the CIA (Central Intelligence
Agency).
On the 17th April, 1991, over 2000 men were made ready to land at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba. The invasion
failed due to lack of proper support from the majority of Cubans, the fact that it was poorly planned and has no
American back-up force because the U.S. Government did not want to reveal its part in the invasion. Also,
Castro had learnt of the exact time, date and place of Castro’s best troops, guns and tanks. The Bay of Pigs
fiasco was a blow to the prestige of the U.S. Government at home and abroad.

101. The Missile Crisis 1962 - On 29th August, 1962, high-altitude flights over Cuba by American spy
planes showed what might be surface-to-air nuclear missiles being installed in the western provinces
by Soviet technicians. This was denied by Khrushchev, but October 14th photographs delivered to the
White House proved that Khrushchev had lied. President Kennedy informed the OAS (Organization of
American States) of the danger from missiles to both the USA and the Latin republics. He demanded and got
OAS support the stop and searches all Soviet ships heading to Cuba. He then contacted Khrushchev and
demanded the removal of the missiles. Without waiting for a reply, he ordered 145, 000 American troops
to stand by in Florida and Nicaragua. Khrushchev backed down and on 29th October, he ordered ships
heading to Cuba to turn back and to start dismantling missiles on the island
Little New Deal - In 1932, Franklin Roosevelt was elected President of the U.S. He began the New Deal
programme to get people back to work which was extended to the USA’s overseas protectorates. In Puerto Rico
it became known as the ‘’Little New Deal’’. It was Puerto Rico through the worse depression years but too
much money was spent purely on relief and too little on schemes that would provide longterm employment.
1819 – 1821: Collapse of the Spanish American Empire. Creation of a string of independent republics from
Argentina to Mexico
1823 – Monroe Doctrine: President Monroe, fearful of European re – colonization, declared that “the
American Continents are henceforth not to be considered subjects for future colonization by any European
powers”
1825 – 95: USA isolation. The USA withdrew from regional affairs. American energies concentrated on
taming the West, populating the new states, fighting the Civil War [1860 – 65] and making the US a great
industrial power. Residual interest remained in the USA’s “backyard”, the Caribbean and Central America. In
1844 and 1864, the US showed an interest in annexing the Dominican Republic with Spanish colonization,
“Manifest Destiny”, the desire to make the Caribbean an American “lake”, the pro – annexationist New
Orleans slaving owning lobby desirous of obtaining slave territory and suspicion of British designs on Cuba,
all at one time during the period urged the island’s incorporation into the union. The discovery of gold in
California in the 1840s kindled hopes of creation of a ‘short’ route to Panama or Nicaragua from the United
States East – Coast cities to the Western gold fields while the Walker episode in Nicaragua [1865 – 70]
became a cause Célèbre in US foreign policy
After 1870 – US private enterprise began to invest in the Caribbean. The Boston fruit company carried
bananas from Central America and Jamaica to New York and minor Keith built railways in Costa Rica. In
1899 Baker and Keith amalgamated their businesses to form the United Fruit Company. By 1900 US
investment in the Caribbean totaled some $100 000 000

102. 1895 – 1934: US policy of “intervention” elsewhere in the Americas in order to protect US investment and
restore order and ‘good government’. Claimed to be ‘international philanthropy’ by President Taft and
unselfish service by another US politician it appeared to non – American to be ‘Dollar Diplomacy’ –
intervention abroad in places where US commercial profits were at risk
BRITISH GUIANA & VENEZUELA
1895 – Friction developed between Britain and Venezuela over the South – Western boundary of British
Guiana. US revived Monroe Doctrine and supported Venezuela
July 1895 – US President Grover Cleveland sent Britain a “20 inch gun note” demanding that the US be allowed
to arbitrate the dispute and declaring that ‘today the US is practically sovereign on this continent’
PANAMA
1880s – French attempts at construction of canal Panamanian Isthmus defeated by yellow fever
1898 –US doctors discover cause of yellow fever in Cuba
September, 1901 – Theodore [teddy] Roosevelt became US president. Foreign policy based on “walk
softly and carry a big stick” determined to use ‘big stick’ to obtain land across which canal was to be built.
November 1901 – Hay – Pauncefoote Treaty provided for US construction of Panama Canal with
‘neutral’ Canal Zone to be under US supervision
June 1902 – US congress authorized Roosevelt to buy rights of French Panama Company and to
acquire from Columbia perpetual control of the Canal Zone
January 1903 - Hay-Herrán Pact formalized US acquisition of Panama Canal Zone but Columbia
delayed ratification
November 1903 – US agents invited Panama to declare its independence of Columbia. Roosevelt sent
USS Nashville and troops to Colon to ensure that Columbia could not retake Panama
December 1903 – Panama granted US control of Canal Zone in perpetuity for annual rent
1904 – Roosevelt Corollary - Extension of Monroe Doctrine. Roosevelt declared that the USA had the right
to interfere in the Americas whenever there was ‘chronic wrongdoing’ or an importance which results
in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society
1904 – 14: USA, with much West Indian Labour, constructed Panama Canal
1914 – Panama Canal opened. President Wilson, reflecting US shame at Roosevelt’s boast that he
“took” Panama, paid Columbia compensation for the loss of Panama sustained by Roosevelt’s high – handed
action.
CUBA
1895 – Start of Cuban revolution against Spanish colonial matters

103. 1895 – 8: US public opinion was shocked by Spanish excesses in attempts to crush revolt.
US government concerned about fate of some $50 000 000 of US investment in Cuba
February 1898 – Casus belli for US military intervention provided by sinking of USS Maine in Havana Harbour
May – July 1898: Spanish – American war; US invaded Cuba and Puerto Rico. Spanish easily
defeated despite heavy American losses due to yellow fever.
December 1898 – Treaty of Paris; Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Philippines to USA. Cuba was allowed her
independence
1898 – 1902: Cuba governed by US military administration
June 1901 – Platt Amendment making the island virtually a US protectorate incorporated into Cuban
constitution
1906 – 08: US military intervention at request of Cuban President Estrada Palma following disputed elections
1912 – US military intervention ‘to protect life and property’ after a black rising in Orient
1917 – US threatened intervention if law and order was not restored
1921 – 22: US Consul, Governor Crowder, influenced direction of Cuban Government
PUERTO RICO
December 1898 – Treaty of Paris, Puerto Rico ceded to the USA
1898 – 1900: Puerto Rico governed by US military
1900 – Foraker (First Organic) Act established House of Representatives but in practice Puerto Rico was
governor by a US Governor. US sugar producing corporations were allowed to evade provisions of the Act
and control large estates. Puerto Ricans resented US political and economic control
1917 – Jones [Second Organic] Act created bi – cameral legislature, reduced influence of US civil servants in
government and conferred US citizenship on Puerto Ricans. Constitutional reform not matched by socio –
economic advances – few public works; illiteracy and disease widespread
HAITI
1905 – US government sought arrangement to collect customs on behalf of US creditors
1915 – Chaos erupted after murder of president. US military intervention
1915 – 34: US occupation. Order and economic stability restored but financial arrangements favored US interests
1916 – Forced labour [corvee] on roads reintroduced to aid construction of public works and reduced
unemployment
1918 – 20: Insurrection led by Charlemagne Peralte. Death of 2000 Haitians and 7 US marines

104. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
1916 – President Jiminex, refusing to accept US dictation of policy resigned. US military intervention
VIRGIN ISLANDS
1917 – USA purchased Danish Virgin Islands from Denmark for $ 25 Million. Islands bought to give US
strategic control of Anegada Passage and protection for approaches to Panama Canal
1934 – 65: In 1934, the USA’s policy towards her Caribbean neighbors changed from the ‘big stick’, ‘dollar
diplomacy’ to that of the “good neighbor” with the election of F. D. Roosevelt to the US presidency in 1933.
At home Roosevelt overcame unemployment and poverty created by the great depression of 1929 – 32 with a
new deal in which vast amounts of federal money were used to construct enormous public works. In the
American colonies – the ‘territories or island possessions’ – a similar new deal was inaugurated while military
intervention in other countries was brought to an end.
CUBA
1934 –US abrogated the Platt Amendment. Cuba’s internal affairs no longer US business
1934 – 58: US refrained from interfering in the misgovernment of Gran St Martin and dictatorship of
Fulgenico Baptista. US private enterprise flourished under Baptista and US obtained the monopoly of Cuban
sugar harvest
January 1959 – Batista overthrown by Fidel Castro
June 1959 – Castro expropriated US sugar
companies
May 1960 – US stopped aid to Cuba
October 1960 – US placed an embargo on shipments to Cuba
April 1961 – US backed abortive “bay of pigs” invasion of Cuba by disgruntled exiles in USA
January 1962 – Cuban trade agreement with the USSR
October 1962 – Cuban missile crisis; Russia dismantled missile sites in Cuba after US threatened war
PUERTO RICO
1933 – 40: ‘Little New Deal’. Puerto Rico reconstruction administration funded public works for
unemployment relief
1940 – 50: Operation Bootstrap. Popular Democratic Party led by Luis Munoz Marin and assisted by US
Governor Tugwell embraced policy of socio – economic reform, i. e. land reform, improvement in social
services and utilities, agricultural diversification and industrialization. General economic development
1947 – Governor made an elected official
1948 – Munoz elected Governor

105. 1950 - Munoz persuaded Puerto Rican congress to accept the relationship between Puerto Rico and the USA as
one of “Commonwealth – Estado Libre Asociado” – internal self government but federal government
responsible for defense and foreign affairs
1954 – Puerto Rican nationalist shot 5 US Congressmen in Washington
1967 – Commonwealth status confirmed by Plebiscite but significant support for those desirous of statehood
within the USA
HAITI
1934 – 56: Haiti ruled by a series of dictators
1956 – Dr Francois Duvalier succeeded President Maglorie. Duvalier’s infamous dictatorship supported by US
aid
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
1930 – 61: Dictatorship of Rapael Trujillo. Trujillo’s repressive buttressed by US and US private
enterprise
1961 – Trujillo assassinated
February 1963 – Election of Juan Bosch to President
September 1963 – Bosch overthrown by army
1964 – 65: Internal Chaos
1965 – President Johnson demanded OAS intervene militarily with multi – national force which included 20,
000 US troops
June 1966 – Joaquin Balaquer defeated Bosch in presidential election. US peace keeping force withdraw
CARIBBEAN POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT UP TO 1985
Social Conditions in the British Caribbean [1900 – 1938]
Working Conditions
1. Low Wages – Labourers worked long hours on the sugar estates, oilfields and in the bauxite mines for
miserable wages. Average daily wages: 50 ¢ Jamaica, 35 ¢ Trinidad, 30 ¢ Barbados, 28 ¢ St Vincent. In
1935 – 36 the profit of the Trinidad Oil Companies was 4 times the wages bill.
2. Employer’s Control – In every colony except British Guiana Trade Unions had no legal recognition
and every worker was bound by the harsh terms of the employers and Workers Acts

106. Unemployment - Plantation work seasonal: July – December [Dead Season]; 50% of the labour force
w e r e laid off. In 1935 only 50% work force was permanently employed. After 1920 unemployment
increased. Reasons: -
1. Disease and Competition affected rice, cotton, bananas, citrus production in various colonies
2. Fall in sugar prices – 22 ¢ lb in 1920 to 1¢ lb in 1930 as European beet sugar recovered after WW1
3. Return of migrant workers from Panama [canal completed in 1914] and US [strict immigration
law, 1924]
4. In 1929, situation worsens “Great Depression” reduced demand for West Indian raw materials and
labour.
5. The collapse of sugar price and return of labourers from Central America, Cuba, Venezuela and USA.
6. 1929 – 38: 20% of the labour force unemployed
HEALTH – General health of the bulk of the population was very poor. Disease and malnutrition were
common, unsatisfactory diet, high infant mortality, poor housing and inadequate medical services.
1. Disease and Malnutrition – 1922 Wood Report. Yellow fever eradicated but malaria,
dysentery, typhoid, yaws, TB, Veneral diseases and internal parasites endemic. Hookworm
infestation – Trinidad 90%, Barbados 70%, Malnutrition responsible for 13% deaths in Trinidad,
33% child deaths in Jamaica, 1935. Anemia deficiency and skin diseases endemic
2. Diet – Insufficient and deficient maintenance diet of carbohydrates [rice, bread, red kidney beans.
Meat and milk in diet inadequate. In Jamaica in 1935, only 45% of the population adequately
nourished
3. Mortality Rate – particularly infant mortality rate. 1937 – 120/1000 Trinidad; 137/1000 Jamaica;
217/1000 Barbados; 171/1000 Antigua; 187/1000 St Kitts. [England 58/1000]
4. Housing – Inadequate, insanitary and overworked, e.g.: - Barracks in Trinidad, 48 rooms, 226 people,
3 WCs, Jamaica – 3 persons per room. Sewage, running water possessed only by the rich.
5. Medical Services – Private Doctors catered only for the rich. Government medical/ dental services
inadequate and centralized in the towns. Orde – Brown Report [1936] stressed need for cheap and
comprehensive health services
EDUCATION – General inadequate in quantity; deficient in quality. Artificial curricula based on
metropolitan materials which ignored or bore no relation to West Indian Society.
a. Schools – Apart from schools for children of the rich [in Jamaica - Woolmer’s and Jamaica College;
in Barbados – Harrison College] the schools were overcrowded, insanitary and concentrated in the
towns
b. Teachers – ill trained, badly paid, absenteeism common.

107. c. Books and Curriculum – Emphasized metropolitan valves and ideas. Ignored West Indian history,
culture and society
d. Higher / Vocational Education – Virtually non – existent. Fewer teachers – training colleges. No
agricultural, medical, engineering colleges nor a university
e. Illiteracy – Widespread. 1917, Trinidad – 43%, British Guiana – 60%. Planters discouraged
education of the workforce. ‘Backra Quashie’ attitude reflected in the amount of government
spending on education
SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN PUERTO RICO AND HAITI
PUERTO RICO
a. Working Conditions – wages were better in Puerto Rico than in the British Caribbean but still low.
Average daily rate 60¢ Sugar Estates 80¢. 60% of the working population earned less than $100 p. a.
b. Unemployment – sugar work seasonal, 34 weeks out of 52. Workers supplemented income by fishing
and small holding but the land of the peasant was inferior to that held by the US sugar corporations. Only
20% of small holders owned the land they worked.
HEALTH
1. Disease and Malnutrition – Not as chronic as in the British Caribbean but there was a hookworm
infestation of 83%, while TB was responsible of 15% of deaths in 1934. Between 1932 to 1936 there
were 30, 000 reported cases of malnutrition
2. Diet Deficiency – Families existed on 20 – 40 ¢ a day for food which provided only a maintenance
diet of rice, beans, salt fish and coffee. Poor diet affected growth. Average Puerto Ricans are shorter
and lighter than the average American
3. Mortality Rate – Infant mortality rate high. 23% of all deaths under 1 year old; 43% under 5 years [in
USA 11% and 15% respectively] Causes: Inadequate diet, lack of hygiene and child care
4. Housing: Insanitary and overcrowded. On the sugar estates 3.5 persons shared 1 room; elsewhere it
was 5.1 persons. 90% of all houses had no bathing facilities and 40% had no sanitation
5. Medical Services – Inadequate for the growing population but better than in the British Government.
Dental facilities very poor
6. Education – only 44% of children were on the school rolls. Schools were concentrated in urban areas
and there was too much emphasis on teaching English, Science, Agricultural Science, local History
and Spanish were neglected
HAITI
Social conditions in Haiti, after 100 years of dictatorship, factionalism and misgovernment, were the
worst in the Caribbean.
Average wage 20¢ a day

108. Unemployment – Most Haitians were rural peasants but for those in the towns unemployment or
seasonal employment was the normal state of affairs.
Health – Most diseases were endemic; government medical facilities were non – existent and in the urban
areas housing was overcrowded and unsanitary
Education – 80% of the population was illiterate
Attitudes and Restrictions of individuals and social groups to social conditions - In every territory the
middle class and black/coloured “intelligentsia” sought to obtain some share in their own government
while the working class reacted violently when conditions became unbearable
BRITISH CARIBBEAN
After 1918 – Exposure of West Indians to conditions elsewhere especially during war service [1914 – 18]
e.g. Cipriani, Wickham, Garvey led to discontent with Crown Colony Government and with social
conditions in the British West Indies
Middle Class / Black Coloured intelligentsia – founded newspapers [e. g. Herald in Barbados and Socialist
in Trinidad] and established associations demanding representative government, inclusion of elected members
in Legislative Councils and Lowering of Voting qualifications e. g. Cipriani and the Working Men’s
Association in Trinidad and O’ Neale and Wickham and the Democratic League in Barbados
1922 Wood Report – After demands for constitutional change and riots in Trinidad, British Honduras and
Dominica, Major Wood [Under – Secretary of State in the Colonial Office] toured British Caribbean to
ascertain need for constitutional reform
1924 elected members added to the legislative councils of Trinidad [7], St Lucia [3], Dominica [3] and St
Vincent [3].
Working Class – suffered in silence until
a. Represented by middle class spokesmen
b. Attracted by black populist movements
c. Joined infant trade unions
Middle – Class Representation
Trinidad – Cipriani [tattoo], white Creole of French / Corsican descent; elected member of Legislative
council and Port of Spain City council; set up Trinidad Working Men’s Association [1919]; demanded
social security, minimum wage law, racial harmony.
Barbados – Charles Duncan O’ Neal and Clennel Wickham; founded Herald [1919] and Democratic
League [1924]; called for introduction of Socialist policies

109. Black Populist Movements – sought to instill racial pride by emphasis on black history, religion, culture
and achievement
Trinidad – Negro Welfare and Cultural Association; appealed to black racial pride and demanded better
living conditions
JAMAICA
1. Robert Rumble led a peasant political movement in the 1920s
2. Alexander Bustamante sought relief for the peasantry in religious mysticism
Marcus Garvey [1887 – 1940]; after journalistic experience on the Gleaner. Garvey toured Central America
and Europe before returning to Jamaica in 1919 and founding the United Negro Improvement Association
[UNIA]. Garvey took the UNIA to the USA where its programme of ‘Back to Africa’ and the creation of black
organizations [the Black Star line, the Black Cross Nurses, etc] became very popular. Branches of the UNIA
and Liberty Halls flourished in Jamaica and Trinidad, Central America and West Africa and Garveyism became
a worldwide movement with international influence until Garvey was imprisoned in the USA in 1924 on the
charge that he was “using the mails for fraud” and dissension broke out among his lieutenants. Garvey returned
to Jamaica in 1929, revived the UNIA and as a member of the legislative council, demanded “a dollar a day”
INFANT TRADE UNIONS
The establishment of unions was difficult, lack of legal protection, existence of the Masters and Servants
Ordinances and the opposition of governments and employers
1906 – Hubert Critchlow led a strike of port workers in Georgetown, British Guiana
1907 – Establishment of the Jamaica Trades and Labour Union
1918 – Jamaica Longshoreman’s Union founded by Bain Alves
1919 – Critchlow established the British Guiana Labour Union
1931 – Alfred Thorne founded the British Guiana Workers
Union
1935 – Bustamante and Coombs formed the Jamaica Workers and Tradesmen Union
VIOLENT REACTION
Discontent with social conditions and Crown Colony Government culminated in a series of
“Disturbances” or “Troubles” from 1934 to 1938
1934
Trinidad – Strikes on sugar estates
British Honduras – Soberanis led riots in Belize City, Belize

110. 1935
St Kitts – Riots on the sugar estates
British Guiana – Riots on the sugar estates
St Vincent – The Working Men’s Association led a general strike
Trinidad – Uriah “Buzz” Butler led a march of the unemployed
St Lucia – Coal carriers went on strike and rioted
1937
Trinidad – Oratory of Butler led to strikes in the oilfields. Clumsy attempt to arrest Butler led to the
death of 2 policemen. Butler founded his “Home Rule Party”
Barbados – Oratory of Clement Payne [Butler’s ‘Minister of Propaganda”] demanding the formation of
unions. Payne arrested and deported despite successful defence of Payne by Grantley Adams. Payne’s
deportation led to rioting in Bridgetown – 14 killed, 59 wounded.
Jamaica – Riots on the Kingston waterfront
1938
Jamaica – Riots in Kingston and on the sugar estates. Police killed 4 workers on the Tate and Lyle estates
at Frome and 8 were killed in Kingston
HAITI - US control brought stability and good government but the US presence was occasionally resented, e.
g. in 1919 – Charlemagne Peralte led a rising after the US marines had re – established the corvee – forced
labour on the roads
PUERTO RICO - While most Puerto Ricans accepted that U. S. control and brought improved living and
working conditions, there was dissatisfaction at the monopoly of the best land exercise by 4 US sugar
corporations – a direct flouting of the First Organic Act of 1900 which restricted land holding to 500 acres.
Puerto Rico nationalists objected to the U. S. presence from the start and in 1936 they gunned down the US
police chief E. Francis Riggs On 21st March 1937, Albizu Campos led a nationalist demonstration in Ponce on
which the police fired killing 20 demonstrators; “The Massacre of Ponce”
MAJOR ATTEMPTS TO CHANGE SOCIAL CONDITIONS
British Caribbean – Colonial Governments were expected to “live off their own” and there was little money
allocated for social improvement.

111. In 1929: Colonial Development Fund - Grants and loans from the Imperial Government for agricultural and
industrial projects which aided UK – Colonial Commerce. However, it remained a dead letter as in 1931 all
colonial governments were forced into drastic economies. Both Jamaica and Trinidad shelved major social
improvement schemes
PUERTO RICO – Social conditions while deplorable were better than elsewhere in the Caribbean and
improved markedly under US control. There was a rapid growth of the sugar industry and improved transport,
communications and banking led to an increase in the standard of living
1933 – 41: US relief grants. Establishment of Puerto Rican Reconstruction Administration
1938 – Foundation of the popular Democratic Party
1942 – Establishment of the Industrial Development Corporation
HAITI – US marines built highways, docks, wharves, schools, bridges. General improvement in public health,
water supplies, agriculture and sanitation. A sound currency and an efficient police force were also created in
the years of US control, 1919 – 34.
THE MOYNE COMMISSION AND ITS RECOMMENDATIONS
August 1938 – A Royal Commission created ‘to investigate social and economic conditions in all the West
Indian territories and to make recommendations’ as a response to the ‘Disturbances’ of 1934 to 1938.
Composed of British liberals, academics and trade unionists – Baron Guiness [Moyne], Professor Simey and
Walter Citrine. In 15 months, the commission saw 370 groups and individuals in 26 centres. It received 789
memoranda and interviewed not only government officials but also unofficials, trade unionists and
representatives of the employers and various political groups.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Social Stressed – need for rapid improvement in social services. At this was not possible on the
limited colonial revenues it proposed the creation of a West Indian Welfare Fund of £ 1 000 000 p. a. for
20 years to fund hospitals, schools, land settlement schemes, agriculture and social services
2. Labour – It emphasized the need for worker’s organization. Proposed compulsory registration of trade
unions and government audit of their funds. Abolition of Masters and Servants Ordinances and
legislations to protect unions against claims for damages. Interim wages board to be established until
unions could set up their own wage negotiating machinery
3. Economic – Agriculture to be diversified further and government to handle marketing by
creating marketing boards. New crops and investment in coconuts. No new industry proposed
except cement in Jamaica

112. 4. Political – Gradual progress to self government through gradual participation of people in decision
making process. Executive Councils to be more representative of sectional interests. Legislature Councils
to be stripped of all official members except the Colonial Secretary, Attorney General and Financial
Secretary. It did not envisage immediate Universal Adult Suffrage
IMPLEMENTATION
1940 – Frank Stockdale [first comptroller] for development and welfare set up headquarters in Barbados. No
special West Indian organization but projects funded from First Colonial Development and Welfare Act [1940].
Colonial governments ordered to implement commission’s labour and political recommendations
CRITICISMS
Political - West Indians viewed the political recommendations as too conservative. They had hoped for
Universal Adult Suffrage and self – government
Social /Economic – Report emphasized social relations to the exclusion of economic ones which it was held,
would have provided the wealth to fund social improvement. Industrial development neglected.
General – Little involvement of West Indians in this “New Deal”; Comptroller and his staff all British. No
systematic or overall plan, just a succession of piecemeal projects.
Improvements in Post – Moyne Years - Colonial Development and Welfare Acts of 1945 and 1949 provided
further funds for development. Up to 1950, a quarter of all CD and W funds had been spent in the West Indies.
1958 – 62 federation – the responsibilities of the comptroller passed to the federal government. Colonial
Development and Welfare [CD & W] funds used in all territories for the provision of public utilities [water,
sanitation, hospitals, schools], aid to agriculture [research, new crops, experimental farms, agricultural schools]
and some industrial development. After 1950, Industrial Development Corporations and Boards were set up in
most territories. Therefore, there was a rapid expansion of industry – particularly small, low capital industries.
TRADE UNIONS IN THE BRITISH CARIBBEAN
Factors Contributing to the Development of the Trade Union Movement
1. In the period of 1890 to 1920 attempts to organize Trade Unions mainly failed because: -
a. Migration made membership erratic
b. Workers were of diverse abilities and occupations, e. g. skilled / unskilled, agricultural / professional;
c. Employers and employees were divided by race and class
d. Union activity was illegal and therefore subject to persecution; terms of the masters and labourers
ordinances were extremely harsh

113. 2. From the 1920s to the 1930s an increase in successful trade unionism resulted in:
i. High unemployment created largely by the decline of sugar, the seasonal nature of Caribbean agro –
industries and the end to the safety value of emigration due to restrictive immigration legislation passed in
the USA in 1924, in Venezuela in 1929 and in Cuba and Central America in the 1930s
ii. Poor working and living conditions – low wages, no pensions, no sickness or injury compensation,
slum dwellings
iii. Strong union leaders sprang from among veterans of the First World War and from the middle class.
Racist humiliations suffered by members of the various battalions of the British West Indies Regiment
during their war service in Mesopotamia led to the Mutiny of Taranto [Dec. 1918], outbreaks of disaster
on the men’s return home in Belize, St Lucia and Grenada and fear of such disaster in Guyana, Barbados
and St Vincent [1919 – 1920].
vii. The recommendations of the Orde Brown and Moyne Commission which led to the legislation of
trade unions and the protection of workers who were involved in industrial actions
iv. The influence of Garveyism - While not a labour movement, the creation of branches of the UNIA
throughout the Caribbean encouraging working class blacks to seek their own salvation in collective
action and was a factor in the unrest of 1919 – 1920 referred to in [iii]. Many early labour leaders were
ardent Garveyites
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRADE UNION MOVEMENT
January 1917 – Hubert N. Critchlow led a dockworkers’ strike in British Guiana. Dissatisfied with
higher wages and a 9 – hour day, he demanded an 8 – hour day and was fired by Brookers.
1919 – Critchlow formed the British Guiana Labour Union, supported by all workers and the British Labour
Party, which agitated for its legal recognition. Captain Arthur “Tattoo” Cipriani joined the Trinidad’s Working
Men’s Association, which went on strike in that year; he became leader and expanded its base to include all
workers, particularly East Indians and creoles and also sought political power. The association became the
Trinidad Labour Party in 1934 and was never registered as a trade union
1921 – The BGLU became the first legally recognized trade union in the British Caribbean when the colonial
office ordered the Guiana Court of Policy to pass a law recognizing the union’s right to exist. It was registered
on July 21st, 1922. Critchlow then established the British Guiana and West Indian Labour Congress. The
Jamaica Legislative Council was likewise forced to legalize trade unions
February 14th, 1922 – Registration of Bain Alves Longshoremen’s Union No. 1; Alves envisioned this union
as the first section of the Jamaican Federation of Labour. In British Honduras [Belize], the Civil Service
Association was registered as a union

114. 1924 – The forcible break – up of a peaceful march carried out by the BGLU in support of striking Bookers
Labourers resulted in the death of 13 people. This demonstrated the need for further law reforms as unions
were still not fully protected from employers who could sue them for strike damages and employees could not
carry out picket action.
1929 – The “Great Depression”, unemployment and social conditions became worse as 20% to 50% of the
labour force was unemployed. Discontent with social conditions and Crown Colony Government culminated
in a series of laborers’ riots, starting in 1934.
1933 – Cipriani’s threatened oil - workers’ strike forced the legislative council to pass an unsatisfactory
minimum wage bill that later created a split in the Trinidad Labour Party. The BGLU in support of
striking Bookers Labourers resulted in the death of 13 people. This demonstrated the need for further law
reforms as unions were still not fully protected from employers who could sue them for strike damages and
employees could not carry out picket action.
1934 – Strikes and riots by sugar workers in Trinidad. On 1st October Soberanis’ labour and
unemployed association rioted in Belize City, British Honduras
1935
St Kitts – Arrival of a warship restored order after police killed 3 and injured 8 among striking sugar
workers who demanded higher wages
St Vincent – Working Men’s Association called a general strike in response to increased customs
duties; state of emergency imposed and 3 strikers shot.
St Lucia – Strikes by Stokers at Castries naval yards was broken by soldiers and the arrival of a warship
Trinidad – Tubal Uriah “Buzz” Butler led Oilfield workers in a hunger march; his demands for
more forceful action by the TLP caused his expulsion from the party.
Jamaica – Alexander “Busta” Bustamante and Allen G. S. Coombes formed the Jamaica Workers’
and Tradesmen’s Union; Bustamante oratory at public meetings propelled him to prominence
British Guiana – 3 months of riots and strikes on sugar estates led to the formation of the
Manpower Citizen’s Association by Ayube Edun
1937
British Guiana – Strikes and riots against further mechanizations of sugar industry
Trinidad – Fyzabad riots broke out when workers prevented police from arresting Butler; 2 policemen
killed; fires in the Apex oilfield; British troops aided Trinidad Light House Volunteers in suppressing
strikes; from his hiding Butler demanded and eventually got a hearing by a Royal Commission

115. Jamaica – Sugar workers demanded higher wages; police smashed workers blockade of factory at
Serge Island. Bustamante expelled from the JWTU, joined William Grant in agitation for labour
organization at riots sites; petitioned George VI to remedy Jamaican poverty
Barbados – The fiery “Seventeen Consecutive Meetings” of Butler’s self – styled “Minister of
Propaganda” and Garveyite Clement Payne led to his deportation back to Trinidad in spite of a successful
court defence against deportation by lawyer Grantley Adams; this sparked off riots in Bridgetown
which spread to the countryside and left 14 dead, 47 wounded and 500 imprisoned. Adams rose to the
defence of the workers; attacked the Barbados Oligarchy; by 1941 he was president of both Barbados
Workers’ Union and the Progressive League whose organization he had spearheaded.
1938
Jamaica – Frome strike and riot spread to the Kingston waterfront workers, led by Bustamante; 10
killed, 2000 wounded and 700 arrested including Bustamante. Lawyer Norman Washington Manley
arranged for Bustamante’s release; both negotiated a settlement to the dispute and replaced Coombes as
labour leaders
British Guiana – West Indies labour congress expressed labour and political demands which were
adopted by the politico – labour leaders. In August, Lord Moyne, Sir Walter Citrine [Secretary of the
British Trade Union Congress] and other members of the Moyne Commission started their 14 – month
investigation of the causes of the disturbances
1939
Trinidad – Formation of the Trade Union Council
St Kitts – The political St Kitts Workers League created the St Kitts / Nevis Trades and Labour Union,
its labour organization
Antigua – Formation of the Antigua Trades and Labour Union
Jamaica – Bustamante Industrial Trade Union registered on 23 January. The final report of the
Moyne Commission [not published until 1944] totally condemned British Colonial policy in the Caribbean
1940 – Recommendations of the Moyne Commission published; Colonial Governments instructed to
legislate for the recognition of trade unions and the protection of workers. Local laws legalized
picketing, reducing registration costs and freed unions from liability for damages to company properties
during industrial action. Thus freed from legal encumbrances, unions increased; by the end of 1945
membership had grown to approximately 100 000
1941 – About 28 unions joined Guiana’s trade union council

116. 1945 – Meeting of the Caribbean Labour Congress held in Georgetown; collapse soon afterwards to be replaced
in 1960 by the Caribbean Congress of Labour
1950 – Eric Gairy led the newly formed Grenada Manual and Metal Workers Union
1956 – All major unions, with a combined membership of around 40, 000 workers, joined in the Trinidad National
Trade Union Congress
THE POLITICAL CONNECTION
a. The 1953 election merger of the Guiana’s Industrial Workers Union [1946] and Dr Cheddi Jagan’s
People’s Progressive Party [1950] and the General Workers Union – People’s United Party alliance in
Belize [1950 – 54] is two illustrations of the necessarily close connection for their mutual support and
survival between the early trade unions and political parties, both of which militantly demanded political
and social reforms
b. The unions needed political power to ensure the passing of beneficial labour laws; thus unions and
political parties were often one and the same and with the same leaders, for example, the Barbados
Progressive League which divided into the Barbados Workers’ Union and the Barbados Labour Party. Or the
labour leaders might form political parties supported by a union already in existence, as was the case of the
Bustamante Industrial Trade Union which spawned the Jamaica Labour Party.
c. On the other hand, political leaders who needed power – bases of working class support tried to form
political parties, for example, the People’s National Party and the National Workers’ Union of Norman
Manley
d. The over – reliance of political leaders on union support was counterproductive in the long run,
however, as their policies became dominated by the need to keep union support by the 1960s the narrowness
of union interests weakened the politico – labour connection though political parties in general maintained
close labour relations
e. Personal ambition of union leaders drove some of them from unionism to politics
The Achievements
1. Marked change in worker – employer status; the old Master and Servant Ordinances were removed
from the statute books, strike action was legalized and workers were able to gain:-
a. Higher wages
b. Better working conditions and inspections of work sites
c. Shorter work hour

117. d. Pensions, medical aid and compensation for injury
e. Employment of young persons and women
f. Holiday with pay
1. Employers became more willing to negotiate with workers’ representatives rather than face industrial
action
2. Union progressed to the level of national organizations with close political affiliations to make
further gains through legislation
3. Governments became more responsive to workers’ demands for social advancements in such fields as
education, housing, water supplies, etc. especially where union – party ties were strong and after the granting of
the franchise
4. Promotion of the growth of political consciousness, social democracy, nationalism and decolonization from the
movement was produced the first generation of nationalist political leaders’ e. g. Bradshaw in St Kitts, Manley
and Bustamante in Jamaica, Bird in Antigua, Adams in Barbados
CHRONOLOGY OF INDEPENDENCE
Jamaica, Trinidad 1962
Barbados, Guyana 1966
Bahamas 1973
Grenada 1974
Dominica 1978
St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines 1979
Antigua and Barbuda 1981
Belize 1981
St. Kitts and Nevis 1983
A few territories have not been granted independence but have attained the status of Associated Statehood.
These include Montserrat, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands and Anguilla. In this arrangement, each country controls
its internal policies but the British is in charge of foreign policy. Of the independent territories, Trinidad and
Tobago, Guyana and Dominica have gone a step further to Republican status. Thus, in all other former British-
colonized territories, the Queen is still the Head of the State and the Governor General continues to be the Queen’s
representative. Thus, even in the absence of military battles, the fight for independence was very real in the British-
colonized territories.

118. The French-colonized Caribbean
On the 19th March 1946, the French-colonized territories become overseas departments of France, Departments
d’autre-mer (DOMS). This change was also accomplished through constitutional modifications. In this case, the
nature of the change involved a greater integration with France. Though seemingly the polar extreme of
independence, it is also decolonization in the sense that the French-colonized territories are no longer colonies.
They have moved away from their former colonial status and are now administered like any other part of
France. Thus, once more, fundamental changes were made to the way in which the islands were governed in the
middle of the century.
Guadeloupe, Martinique and French Guiana were assimilated into the political structure of France. They were
integrated into the legislative, administrative and judicial systems. Centralized administrative structures were
introduced. This involved the dismantling of local structures and institutions and dispersing the internal affairs of
the territories under various French ministries. The colonies, through these changes, would be administered as if
they were any other French department. The populations are entitled to all the rights and privileges of full French
citizenship. This means that they vote in French elections and are represented in the French Parliament.
REGIONAL COOPERATION
Integration is the process of coming together to achieve a common goal and operate as an
effective community, unit or body. In the context of the Caribbean, particularly amongst the British
Caribbean, integration has historically been a political affair which was driven by Britain to reduce the
administrative cost of the colonies.
Earliest attempt at Integration
Legislative actions by Britain created the Leeward Islands Federation (1671-1958) and the Windward
Islands Federation (1871-1958), these being the earliest attempts of integration
1871: Leeward Island Federation – Federal Colony of the Leewards [Antigua, Dominica, Montserrat,
Nevis, St Kitts, and Virgin Islands] established by the Leeward Island Act. Leewards divided up into
presidencies each run by an Administrator responsible to the Governor. There was one Legislative Council,
one High Court and the police, prisons and posts were centrally administered. However, there was no
common treasury and every measure requires the consent of the local assemblies. The Federation saw one
change in 1882 when St Kitts and Nevis amalgamated. The Federation lasted until 1965
1875: Abortive Windward Island Federation – In 1868, the Imperial Government proposed the
Federation of the British Windwards with Barbados. The Barbadian ‘representative’ assembly resisted
because:
a. It feared the loss of its ancient privileges and saw that its financial power would pass to
the Imperial Government.

119. b. It feared that relatively wealthy Barbados would be forced to finance the less prosperous
Windwards
c. The Barbadian plantocracy feared the loss of its ‘captive’ labour force to the Windward
islands
Barbadian workers supported the proposed Federation because:
A. They hoped to improve their wage – bargaining power as the labour market was opened
to competition
B. . They hoped that the Federation would provide greater labour opportunities and the prospect
of land purchase
1875 – Appointment of John Pope – Hennessy as Governor. Pope – Hennessy supported ‘Confederation’
and opposed the oligarchic Barbadian Assembly – “If I cannot bend the whites, I will stir up the blacks”
March 1876 – Whites formed the Barbados Defence Association. “Confederation Riots” 8 killed.
Troops brought in from British Guiana
Consequences
a. Pope– Hennessy recalled. Idea of federation dropped
b. 1885 – All connections between Windwards and Barbados ended. Windwards put under
separate governor in Grenada but no common legislature
c. However, those federations were not so significant to create a Caribbean identity, nor
did they involve the conscious coming together of Caribbean people.
d. They did show, however, that the smaller British Caribbean countries, with the exception of
Barbados, were generally keen on a political integration.
Why was integration not feasible in the early 1900s?
1. Integration was not a reality due to the distance between the colonies, the different economic statuses
of the colonies and the general insularity between colonial people.
2. Although the British Caribbean colonies had much in common such as their agriculture-based
economy, cultures and their British heritage, throughout their entire history they operated
independently of each other.
3. Britain was also averse to integration at the time because there was no perceived benefit to it, and it
seemed costly to put into effect. Federation was also not popular among Caribbean people and
administrators.

120. How did things change by the 1930s?
1. By the mid-1930s, the Caribbean erupted in labour’s protests due to the effects of the Great
Depression which led to the rapid decline in the sugar industries across the region, widespread
unemployment and an increase in socio-economic hardships among black people.
2. Almost no territory was left unaffected in the British West Indies and it became so serious that
warships and marines were dispatched from Britain to the region.
3. These labour protests of the 1930s were significant because they politicized the region’s people and
led to the growth of trade unions and political parties.
4. Britain also convened several Commissions of Enquires to investigate the causes of these unrest. One
of the most significant commissions was the Moyne Commission which completed its report in 1939,
which was published in 1945. Among the recommendations of the Commission was to grant adult
suffrage to the colonial people, create trade unions, grant self-determination to the larger colonies and
integrate the colonies.
Desire to Integrate among British Caribbean colonies
1. It became clear to people across the British West Indies and emerging political leaders such as
Alexander Bustamante, Albert Marryshow, Norman Manley and Eric Williams that colonialism was
averse to their socio-economic and political development, and they wanted to break permanent ties
with Britain.
2. It also became clear to them that Britain would not grant them independence so easily and the best
avenue to get independence was to integrate and demonstrate their ability to monitor their own
affairs.
3. The labour protests of the 1930s also paved the way for several political changes in the Caribbean
which led to new nationalist sentiments and a sense of regionalism. Caribbean people wanted
independence from Britain and figured that integration was the best way to break ties with their
colonial overseer.
4. The Caribbean people also felt that it was necessary to integrate because, on the face of it, they had
more similarities than differences such as:
(a) Similar history – colonialism, plantation slavery, Indentureship
(b) Similar socio-economic conditions such as poverty, racism, unemployment crime and violence
(c) Limited resources
(d) Limited economic diversification with a heavily reliance of sugar and agriculture and limited
manufacturing.
(e) Similar language
(f) Similar vulnerability to natural disasters
(g) Similar goals – wanted economic prosperity and independence

121. Britain’s altered opinion on Integration
1. Between 1939 and 1945, Britain became distracted in Europe due to the Second World War and the
British colonies were left to fend for themselves. During that time, the United States of America saw an
opening to improve its relationship with the British colonies and this was also encouraged by
Britain under the Lend-Lease Act (1941), or as it was formally called “An Act to Promote the
Defense of the United States.”
2. At the end of the War in 1945, Britain believed that the colonies were financially burdensome and
believed that a federation between them would lower the cost to administrate them. By as early 1947,
Britain started to encourage a federation between its Caribbean colonies.
3. Britain took initiatives to determine whether the larger colonies could govern their own affairs. In
1944, Jamaica was granted universal adult suffrage and internal self-government. The colony was
granted full internal self-government by 1959. Internal self-government was also granted to Trinidad
and Tobago and Barbados in 1961. By full internal self-government, these colonies were able to
control their internal affairs; however, Britain remained responsible for external affairs such as
defense, constitutional changes and foreign affairs.
THE WEST INDIES FEDERATION
By 1958, Britain and the British Caribbean colonies were on the same page in terms of integration, and this
led to the creation of the West Indies Federation. The Federation was established by the British Caribbean
Federation Act of 1957 with an aim of establishing a political union among them. It comprised of 10
territories being, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, the then St Kitts-
Nevis, Anguilla, Saint Lucia, St Vincent and Trinidad and Tobago. The colonies were willing to integrate in
1958 because:
1. The similarities between the colonies – their relatively small size, British heritage, colonial history and
agricultural dependent economies – meant that they could easily integrate and tackle their problems
together.
2. It could lead to the efficient administration of the colonies which would lower the cost to administer
them.
3. It would lead to a quick and easy independence from Britain if the colonies could come together or
greater self-government. Most of the larger colonies such as Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica only
supported federation because it was the best way for them to get independence.
4. Political negotiations if they were to stand as a bloc, especially against such larger developed
territories such as the United States and Canada.
5. A federation would mean that the region would pool their resources to tackle the social and economic
problems faced by the colonists.

122. 6. The federation would foster freedom of movement amongst the colonies which meant that the level of
unemployment in each colony would be lowered, and this would have led to economic growth.
7. It led to a Caribbean identity and a West Indian desire for unity – intellectuals, politicians, trade
unionists and businessmen sought regional unit, e. g. Marryshow, ‘federate or disintegrate’. Idea
supported by Barbados Progressive League, PNO and Legislative Council of Jamaica, Caribbean
Labour Congress and Chamber of Commerce
8. It could promote democracy amongst the colonies and safeguard the democratic system of government
within the colonies from dictatorship and communism.
9. British Government desired federation – to create administrative, political and economic unit and
efficiency
STEPS TOWARDS FEDERATION
1945 – Imperial Government proposed federation
1947: Montego Bay Conference – Legislatures of all colonies [except the Bahamas] represented. The
conference passed a resolution that federation was not to prejudice the political development of its
separate colonies. The conference set up:
A. Regional Economic Committee – to investigate means of achieving economic unity
B. Standing Closer Association – to devise a federal constitution. The committee reported in March
1950. There was general agreement but British Guiana, British Honduras and the BVI opted out
Reasons - British Guiana – feared black majority would prejudice the rights of its East Indians; British
Honduras – feared influx of West Indian labour; BVI – saw their future with the US Virgin Islands
1953, 1955, and 1956 – Further Conferences
1956 – British Government and the West Indian representatives agreed to a constitution. Imperial
Parliament passed British Government Federation Act.
1957 – Order – in – Council set up the Federation. The Imperial Government retained the responsibility
for defence, external relations and financial stability. Organization:-
1. Senate of 19 nominated members [2 from each colony, 1 from Montserrat]
2. House of Representatives of 45 members to be elected by Universal Adult Suffrage
3. Council of State – Governor General, Prime Minister and 10 Ministers. Chaguaramas to be the site of the federal
capital which was to be temporarily housed in Port of Spain.
4. Revenue to be raised by a levy on each constituent member

123. January 1958 – Federation came into being
March 1958 – Elections to be House of Representatives. West Indian Federal Labour Party [WIFLP]
supported by Adams, Williams and Manley versus the Democratic Labour Party [DLP] supported by
Bustamante and Gomes. Victory for WIFLP with 26 seats; DLP won 19 seats. Grantley Adams first Federal
Prime Minister
April 1958 – 1st session of the Federal Parliament
Failure of the West Indies Federation (1958)
The West Indies Federation failed in 1962 following the departure of Jamaica which pushed for its
own independence in August 1962. The Federation failed because of several factors such as:
(a) There was still a high level of insularity and mistrust between the colonies.
(b) There were many internal weaknesses of the Federation: It had no common currency, custom unions
or free trade, and freedom of movement limited and restricted.
(c) The best leaders were not chosen for the Federation. Men such as Alexander Bustamante, Norman
Manley and Eric Williams refused to be leaders of the federation as this meant that they could not
participate in the government of their own countries. Grantley Adams was reluctantly selected as the
leader and he was deemed as a poor and weak federal leader.
(d) The withdrawal of Jamaica and Trinidad from the federation in 1962 led to the immediate crash of the
federation since both of these nations spent more for the up keeping of the federation.
Jamaican Referendum – in September 1961, Manley held a referendum over Federation. Despite last minute
constitutional changes, 54% of Jamaicans opted for withdrawal. Jamaica withdrew and Williams maintained
that “1 from 10 equaled 0” Trinidad withdrew and in March 1962 the Federation was dissolved
1. The federation did not have sufficient capital to foster growth and they had a small budget. Most of the
funds really came from Jamaica and Trinidad. The prohibition placed on taxation and freedom of
movement meant that the federation had no chances of improving its revenues. The original levy
system [producing £ 2 million p. a.] was inadequate. Of the total, Jamaica contributed 43%, Trinidad
39%, Barbados 9% and the rest 9%. The larger territories regarded this as unfair. Jamaica, however,
would not allow the federation to levy direct taxes or customs duties as it feared that given that power it
would seek to dictate Jamaica economic and fiscal policy. Therefore, the first essential of a strong
federation – a customs union – was not created.
2. One of the main reasons why the Caribbean states felt that a federation would have survived was
mainly because of the development in Communication.

124. 3. The conflicts and tensions between Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago prevent the development of
sustainable policies.
4. Constitutional Arguments - The Federation as structured in 1958 was less advanced politically than
Jamaica and Trinidad. In 1960, full internal self government replaces the Council of State with Cabinet
Government. Thereafter, the Governor General was required to accept the advice of the Prime
Minister. The House of Representatives was increased in size to 64 members in order to placate Jamaica
and Trinidad [Jamaica 30 seats, Trinidad 16] as prior of this the House was controlled by the votes of
the smaller territories
5. Chaguaramas Issue – the site of the Federal Capital was disputed by Jamaica particularly as it was still,
in 1958, a US Military Base. In 1961 Trinidad negotiated with the U.S. for a continuation of the lease
Weaknesses of the Federation
1. Failure of mainland countries to join and fears of the smaller states
2. Nationalist aspirations of Jamaica and Trinidad: their rival ideas about the nature of Federal
Government and their discontent with the Federal Constitution
3. Imposition of Political Unity without prior consideration of economic agreement and cooperation
4. Failed to improve the communication within the West Indies.
5. Failed to create unity among the colonies.
6. Did not develop a custom union nor a common currency
7. Freedom of movement was not fully granted and was limited and restrictive.
8. Did not help to create an efficient administration.
GENERAL AND LONG TERM
Federation incomplete – Refusal of British Guiana, British Honduras and the British Virgin Islands to
participate weakened the original
Fear of Jamaica and Trinidad – between them Jamaica and Trinidad held 77% of the population, 83% of the
land, and 75% of the wealth of the Federation. They contributed 82% of the levy yet, because the smaller
territories supported the WIFLP and their representatives dominated the Ministerial Seats in the federal cabinet,
Jamaica and Trinidad feared - As “haves” their economies would be taxed to subsided the “have – not’s”. That
their population would be swamped by immigrants from the “have – not’s”

125. Conflicting Concepts of federation – Jamaica conceived of the federation as a loose political
grouping, decentralized with a weak federal government without powers of taxation or the creation of a
customs union. Trinidad conceived of its as a strong union, its government having wide powers of
economic and fiscal control
Separatism and ‘Small Island’ Loyalty – Ordinary West Indians saw themselves as Jamaicans,
Barbadians or Trinidadians first and West Indians second. Unlike their political, intellectual and
commercial leaders they looked first to Kingston, Bridgetown or Port of Spain [second to London] as
their centres of gravity – not to Chaguaramas. They conceived few advantages from federation and many
disadvantages. In 1958 Jamaica and Trinidad were politically and constitutionally nearer independence
than the federation they were joining. Many in those territorial saw membership as likely to hinder the
advance to self – government and independence
Subsequent Attempts at Unity
1962 – Common Services Conference called to establish continuance of common services set up
under federation [e. g. UWI, WISCO, CMS]
1963 – First Heads of Government Conference. First of annual meetings; Jamaica, Trinidad,
Barbados, and British Guiana stressed need for closer cooperation
1962 – 65: Discussion of the Federation of the “Little Eight” ended when Barbados
became independent in 1966
1966 – 67: Discussion of the Federation of the “Little Seven” ended when 6 of the 7 accepted
Associated Statehood with Britain [Montserrat, remained a Crown Colony]
1968 – “Little Seven” created East Caribbean Common Market. CARIFTA
established 1973 – CARICOM established
THE LITTLE EIGHT
With the dissolution of the federation in 1962 - Trinidad and Jamaica opted for independence in 1962 -the eight
remaining colonies were determined to unite into a single economic unit call “the little eight.” It was so called because
those colonies were relatively small and were more likely to benefit from integration than the larger colonies.
Grantley Adams of Barbados was the forerunner of this. It failed by 1965 because the colonies just did not have
the resources to maintain a federated union. Furthermore, individual colonies started to push for their independence
as well. While nationalism was high, regionalism was low. The chronology of Independence amongst the British West
Indies colonies by the 1960s is as follows:
1962 – Jamaica, Trinidad
1966 – Barbados, Guyana
1973 – Bahamas
1974 – Grenada

126. 1978 – Dominica
1979 – St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines
1981 – Antigua and Barbuda, Belize
1983 – St. Kitts and Nevis
CARIFTA (1965-1973)
CARIFTA was founded by Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Guyana, and Trinidad and Tobago on December
15, 1965, with the signing of the Dickenson Bay Agreement. They were joined on July 1, 1968 by Dominica,
Grenada, St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, Saint Lucia, and St Vincent and the Grenadines; and on August 1, 1968 by
Montserrat and Jamaica. In 1971, Belize (then British Honduras) joined the Association.
CARIFTA was purely economic. The regional governments wanted to create a Common Market in stages. It
was created with the intent to unite the various economies of independent Caribbean nations and give them a
joint presence on the international scene. It was also aimed at creating free trade amongst the Caribbean
states that joined, develop new industries and expand existing industries among the members states, increase
trade between the member countries and the international community and ensure fair competition to
safeguard the smaller Caribbean countries.
Achievements of CARIFTA
1. It paved the way for the Creation of CARICOM in 1973.
2. The Caribbean countries had finally shown that they were capable to carry out free trade amongst
each other. They gradually removed custom duties, taxes and licensing arrangements amongst
themselves.
3. It was more successful than the Federation of 1958.
4. The establishment of the Commonwealth Caribbean Regional Secretariat in 1968
5. The establishment of the Caribbean development Bank in 1969
Failures of CARIFTA
1. There was no overall agreement on freedom of movement.
2. There was still a poor administration among the member countries.
3. There was little progress in agriculture, defence, education, foreign policies and industries.
4. There were insufficient attempts to generate regional unity among the members.

127. CARICOM - Caribbean Common Market or Caribbean Community
CARIFTA had many weaknesses but it did not fail. It was simply replaced with CARICOM by treaty of
Chaguaramas on July 4, 1973. The Caribbean governments decided to move from a free trade area to a limited
common market. CARICOM became fully operational on August 1, 1973. The first four (4) countries to
become members of CARICOM were Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Guyana and Jamaica. Other countries
joined soon after. CARICOM had a major objective of improving the economy of its member states through
the introduction and expansion of free trade. Areas such as transportation, culture, education, employment and
tourism were considered vital for development. The objectives of CARICOM included:
1. To maximize the bargaining power of member states so that they can deal effectively with
multinational co-operations and larger countries.
2. Improving the standards of living and working conditions within the Caribbean.
3. Increasing sustainable economic development.
4. Expanding trade and economic relations with non-members.
5. Enhancing levels of international competitiveness.
6. Increasing production and productivity.
7. Creating greater control (leverage) when dealing with other countries regarding economic policies.
8. Harmonizing (agreement) economic policies among its members.
9. Enhancing functional cooperation, including a focus on greater understanding of social, cultural
and political development.
10. Enhancing technological development, health, education, transportation, and telecommunications
that would benefit all Caribbean countries involved.
Achievements of CARICOM:
1. Increased trade among the members of CARICOM after 1973 due to trade liberalization (removal of
trade barriers).
2. The establishment of a Caribbean Development Bank and other institutions which saw the flow of
resources among Caribbean states.
3. Improvement in housing, education and social systems in many territories.
4. Improvement in housing, education and social systems in many territories.
5. Strong persuasive voice in the global community
6. Creation of common policies that deals with non-members
7. Creation of the Caribbean Court of Justice
8. Work alongside several associated institutions such as the University of the West Indies, Caribbean
Development Bank etc. to enhance development in the region.

128. Failures:
1. There is a high level of competition among the members especially for air transport of
Jamaica, Trinidad and Guyana. This included competition in air transport, agriculture, and
tourism.
2. Total freedom of movement was not achieved by the 1980s and is still a problem in the Caribbean.
3. little was done to see a common flow of different resources in the region
4. Though there was free trade up to the 1980s, there were still a lot of barriers there.
5. There is still not a single market and economy in the Caribbean – no single currency, common
passport, custom union and unrestricted movement of people.
6. Member states have not yet settled the issue of the Privy Council in England being completely
replaced by the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ).
7. Continued dominance of foreign companies (multinational governments).
8. There is no common response to imperialism, especially to United States, China and other European
CHALLENGES FACING CARICOM
1. The countries in the Caribbean have varying levels of economic development which undermines
their desire to completely operate as a united economic body or participate in a free trade area. The
more developed countries include Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and the
Bahamas. The other states and territories are the less developed countries.
2. The differences among states in stages of growth and development of their economies generally
hinder regional integration.
3. Some Caribbean countries depend solely on tourism and agriculture, while countries like Jamaica
and Trinidad and Tobago rely on bauxite and oil respectively. The effect of this is that the countries
would generally not agree on common policies that might affect their respective economies.
Consider, debating on a common policy on oil that will generate a higher level of interest from
Trinidad and Tobago delegates vis-à-vis the other member states.
4. It is difficult to determine how member states should benefit from the wealth generated from natural
resources in the Caribbean.
5. Many Caribbean people are not aware of the importance of CARICOM, and some accuse it of being
“all talk, no action.” It means that Caribbean people do not have faith in CARICOM. A key challenge is
to improve Caribbean people’s understanding of CARICOM through the proper dissemination of
information.

129. 6. The way CARICOM is governed is a problem: There are no sanctions for those who do not enforce
regulations agreed upon; members are generally free to decide whether or not to implement
CARICOM decisions and regulation; OECS makes decisions for its members rather than CARICOM
although those countries are a part of CARICOM; the reliance on unanimity rule, meaning decisions
must be unanimous.
7. It is difficult to determine how member states should benefit from the wealth generated from natural
resources in the Caribbean.
8. Many Caribbean people are not aware of the importance of CARICOM, and some accuse it of being
“all talk, no action.” It means that Caribbean people do not have faith in CARICOM. A key challenge is
to improve Caribbean people’s understanding of CARICOM through the proper dissemination of
information.
ORGANIZATION OF EASTERN CARIBBEAN STATES
The Organization of Eastern Caribbean States was created on June 18, 1981 by the Treaty of
Basseterre and its current members include Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St/
Kitts/Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Guadeloupe
and Martinique. The OECS is limited to the Eastern Caribbean countries and was created to promote
development among member states and allow them to protect and defend their political independence.
Since its creation, the OECS has the following achievements:
1. Creation of common currency – Eastern Caribbean Currency. However, British Virgin Islands
uses $US and Guadeloupe and Martinique use Euro.
2. Share common strategies for development.
3. A common Central Bank – Eastern Caribbean Central Bank.
4. Common High Court – West Indies Associated States Supreme Court (now referred to as
the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court).
5. Joint Stock Exchange.
6. Creation of a military support unit – Regional Security System– includes Barbados.
7. Joint aviation authority.
8. Free movement of people between member states with no restrictions
9. Creation of a common market – Eastern Caribbean Common Market (ECCM)
10. Creation of a tourism association – Eastern Caribbean Tourism Association

130. ASSOCIATION OF CARIBBEAN STATES
The Association of Caribbean States was created on July 02, 1995, by the Treaty of Cartagena, and
currently has 25 member states, 3 associate members and 14 countries with observer status. Its administrative
office is in Port of Spain, Trinidad. The members include Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados,
Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Grenada,
Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia,
St Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela. The associate members
include Aruba, France (on behalf of French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique) and the Netherlands
Antilles. ACS was created to strengthen regional cooperation and integration and incorporate the
collective human and physical resources of the Caribbean for economic, social, cultural and technological
advancement.
Achievements:
1. Declaration of the Establishment of the Sustainable Tourism Zone of the Caribbean (STZC)
2. Regional Co-operation in natural disasters
3. Uniting Caribbean by air and sea to facilitate trade and tourism
4. Cooperation in the field of Science and Technology
OVERALL FACTORS HINDERING INTEGRATION IN THE CARIBBEAN
1. Different strategies for economic growth
2. Territorial interests supersede regional interest (insularity)
3. Some concessions to foreign investors run contrary to CARICOM objectives.
4. Stifled regional trade due to commonality in products
5. Poor communication among territories
6. Competition among member states
7. Differences in resource distribution
8. Countries produce similar product which affect trading relationship
9. Territories do not have the same currency which could make economic integration easier and more
practical.
9. Territories are scattered over the region

131. ORGANIZATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH REGIONAL INTEGRATION
THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES (UWI) - The University of the West Indies (UWI) was
established in 1948 and has 3 main campuses in the Caribbean: St. Augustine in Trinidad, Mona in
Jamaica and Cave Hill in Barbados. UWI provides higher education for Caribbean people who can help them
contribute to the development process of the Caribbean and their own wellbeing.
CARIBBEAN INSTITUTE OF MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION (CARIMAC) - The Caribbean
Institute of Media and Communication (CARIMAC) was founded in 1974 with 31 students in a wooden
building on the Mona campus. As its applications and demands increased, in 1979 it was moved into its
current building which was opened by Michael Manley.
CARIBBEAN EXAMINATION COUNCIL (CXC) - The Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) was
established in 1972 with the objective of establishing curricula with a Caribbean focus. Prior to CXC,
students in the Caribbean were tested under the Oxford and Cambridge Examination Syndicates and their
scripts were marked in England. CXC was significant because it created curricula based on Caribbean
people, identity and events which enhanced regional integration. There are currently 16 participating
countries that utilizes CXC and whose students and citizens are examined by the council.
WEST INDIES CRICKET BOARD (WICB) - The West Indies Cricket Board is perhaps the oldest
example of regional cooperation in the British Caribbean and was created in 1920. It became a full
member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) in 1926. Cricketers are selected from all over the
Caribbean to represent the region in international cricket competitions. The WICB was established to
sustain West Indies cricket as the sporting symbol of the West Indies, and to establish the West Indies team
as a dominant team in international cricket
CARIBBEAN DEVELOPMENT BANK (CDB) - The Caribbean Development Bank started operation in 1968
with its headquarters in Barbados. Since it was in existence before CARICOM, its members include members
of CARICOM and other states outside of the region. Members of the bank contribute toa common fund that is
used to fund development programmes within the region. It also provides technical assistance to members to start
new projects started
REGIONAL SECURITY SYSTEMS (RSS) - is associated with the Organization of Eastern Caribbean
States, rather than the Caribbean as a whole. It was created in October 1982 when 5 Eastern Caribbean
states, being Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines
signed a memorandum of understanding to creation a regional security system. In 1985, St. Kitts and
Nevis joined. Accordingly, there are only 6 members of the RSS. The RSS could be considered an
institution that was politically motivated because of what was happening in Grenada (Grenada Invasion) in
the late 1970s.

132. On March 13, 1979, Grenada’s Prime Minister Eric Gairy was ousted in a coup organized by the New
Jewel Movement and led by Maurice Bishop, who embraced socialism. The countries that signed the
memorandum to start the RSS were concerned about the safety of their own territories and were unsure of
Bishop’s intentions. The United States of America, which was also anti - socialist, supported the
formation of the RSS. In October 1983, military forces from the RSS along with military personnel from
Jamaica and the United States of America invaded Grenada with a view to restore democracy. Matters
relating to drugs trafficking and terrorism are usually referred to the RSS. They have marine, air and land
operations.
RELIGION AS A SOCIAL FORCE
Spanish Catholicism and the Amerindians, 17th to early 19th Centuries
Most historians agree that Spain’s main aim in establishing her American Empire was the exploitation of the
Americas and only secondly to convert the indigenous populations to Roman Catholic Christianity. ‘It is not
Christianity that leads them on, but rather ‘gold and greed’; stated by a Spanish writer in the early 17th
century. But the Dominican Friars were motivated by their religious beliefs – so were the
Augustinians Camelities and Franciscans along with members of the Society of Jesus, all of whom
formed a select group, within the Catholic Church, that carried the Gospel to the far reaches of the
Empire. In the 17th and 18th centuries the Friars advanced into hostile Indian territories accompanied by
soldiers; the Indians were pacified, missionary villages with prominent churches and school established.
Christianity poorly understood and reluctantly accepted, among the Indians. Thus the Spaniards were not
completely successful in converting the American Indians to Christianity; factors contributing to this
failure included:-
a. An ambiguous, inconsistent Spanish official policy towards the Indian population resulted in its
enslavement and decimation under the Encomienda System; Arawaks were exterminated in spite of the
efforts of Montesinos, Las Casas and many others to promote peaceful conversion
b. Conversion required the removal of Amerindian religious which was very difficult; pagan traits only
partially eliminated
c. Indian understanding of Christian doctrine was very weak or distorted, for example, Christian trinity
and Indian polytheism not easily distinguished
d. Encomenderos violently opposed the Friars

133. Spanish and French Catholicism and Negro Slavery - Slavery was accepted by the Catholic Church; argued that it
aided in the conversion of the Africans. Relationship between Spanish Colonists and their slaves regulated by a slave
code “Siete Partidas”, which required baptism and religious instruction of slaves; slave marriages allowed; favoured
Manumission. The Code Noir of 1685 laid down rules for treatment of slaves in French colonies; only Roman
Catholics could own slaves, who were to be converted and awarded the rights of Christians. In practice, actual
treatment of slaves depended largely on their individual owners but church acceptance of converts’ ensured great
success at indoctrination, especially in the Spanish colonies where the Roman Catholic Church was almost fully
supported by the emancipated
RELIGION IN THE BRITISH CARIBBEAN
The Anglican Church (Church of England) before 1800
Performance extremely poor because:-
A. . Christianity unattractive to settlers; British West Indies described as “The Devil’s
Country” because of irreligiousness of people.
Weak Church and Missionary Organization: no local clergy until Codrington College produced first
vicars in 1834; too few clergymen and parish churches; British West Indies a part of the diocese of
London, whose Bishop had no control over the clergy in the West Indies
B.Slaves almost totally rejected by Anglican Church, even when they were converted; clergy
enjoyed the slave system; argued that slaves were unfit for Christianity
C. Poorly motivated clergy; no evangelical zeal; scanty education; often immoral; would not oppose the
plantocracy
The Anglican Church – 1800 to Emancipation
The Anglican Clergy in the West Indies wanted to preserve slave society; their sermons typically
encouraged the subservience of slaves to masters; did nothing to help bring about emancipation.
However, reforms were made to compete with non – conformist influence: -
1. Cancellation of the 20 – shilling slave baptismal fee in 1824
2. The creation of 2 British treasury – financed West Indian Diocese by Act of Parliament in 1824;
Barbados, including the Leewards, Grenada, St Vincent, Trinidad, British Guiana and Jamaica including
the Bahamas and British Honduras. First Bishop Lipscomb and Coleridge in Jamaica and Barbados
respectively had responsibility to discipline the clergy and report on work among the slaves

134. 3. The British treasury provided a yearly grant of £ 20, 000 for the West Indian church; this was used
primarily to increase the number of clergymen
THE NON– CONFORMIST CHURCHES – 17THCENTURY TO EMANCIPATION
Society of Friends [Quakers] – Most active in Barbados from1658 to 1676 when the Barbadian Assembly
legislated against them, also active in Jamaica and Nevis. They faced harassment by planters as they converted
their slaves and manumitted them; in 1727 they condemned the slave trade and members were forbidden to buy
slaves in 1755 or be expelled from the society; would neither serve in the planter militia nor partake in
Anglican Church liturgy. Attracted only a small congregation from among the slaves but initiated the
humanitarian assault on the Slave trade and slavery.
Moravians – Started working in St Thomas in the Danish Virgin Islands in 1732; came to Antigua in 1754, St
Kitts in 1756 and spread to Jamaica and Barbados. Their piety earned the respect of white planters. They
always aimed at either running their own estates or with the consent of its owner, converting the estate into a
Moravian Community, converted and accepted blacks as equals, doing manual labour with them. By 1800,
Antigua had the most converts
Methodists – Most numerous and active missionaries, all chiefly concerned with slaves and free blacks, their
basic Gospel message human equality aroused the enmity of the planters who severely persecuted them, for
example, the burning of Reverend Shrewsbury’ s Chapel in Bridgetown and the destruction of 6 chapels in
Jamaica by the Colonial Church Unions. In spite of this, Methodism attracted many blacks; by 1833 there were
about 70 Methodist Missionary Societies with an ex – slave membership of around 32, 000
Baptists – The General Baptist Faith was introduced to the Bahamas and Jamaica by American loyalists from
around 1776. The Jamaican Baptist Church was founded by George Lise, a coloured Baptist deacon from
Virginia; he converted Moses Baker, who came from the Bahamas and they spread the faith throughout the
island with Lisle’s Kingdom Chapel as the Centre of Operations; Lisle himself suffered imprisonment and
persecution. Their immense work was finally recognized in 1814 by the Baptist Missionary Society of Britain
which sent missionaries to the Caribbean Simplicity of the Baptist rituals, beliefs and chapels attracted the
largest group of followers in Jamaica, while the missionaries, like the Methodists, were violently opposed by
the planters who claimed that: ‘Chapels and meeting houses were centres of subversive activity and that
religious instructions was a pretence for stirring up the slaves to rebellion.

135. THE AFRICAN INPUT
Two factors contributed to the preservation of African religious
forms:-
a. Planters’ opposition to religious instructions by the missionaries forced many of the slaves to keep
African religious cults alive in order to satisfy their spiritual need;
b. Newly – arrived and older slaves used tales, discussions and religious and magical rites to add
vitality to the elements of African culture
African religions, beliefs and practices kept secret, included:
1. The Supernatural – strong belief in evil ghosts [duppies] and beneficent ancestral spirits;
many committed suicide to liberate their spirits so they could return to Africa
2. Obeah – the obeah man was ‘doctor philosopher as well as priest’, hated and deeply feared.
Clients solicited their assistance to harm other person [s] through their use of shadow – catching,
charms and poisons; could also carry out faith healing
3. Myalism – invocation of ancestral spirits during ritual dances, dancers became possessed by the
spirits, regarded as ‘good medicine’. Some myalists were skilled herbalists. The folk religion
of the Asante.
4. Cumina [Kumina] – possession by ancestral spirits induced by dancing to the accompaniment
of drums; practiced by the Bongo Cult of Jamaica Maroons. From the TWI ‘AKOM’ – to
be possessed and ‘ana’ – an ancestor.
5. Haitian Vodun [Voodoo] – influenced by Boukman, a Jamaican slave and others, it was used by
the revolutionary leaders of Haiti, through nocturnal rites, to bind the slaves into a formidable force against
white oppression during the 1790s and early 1880s. Later on, elements of Catholic worship were absorbed
into the religion which essentially consisted of various rituals to sacred ‘loas’ or African ancestral deities
carried out by priests or “houngans
6. Some African rituals became associated with specific Christian or secular holidays, e. g. John Canoe dances
at Christmas in Jamaica

136. 7. As marriages and family life were not normally permitted, polygamy and the extended family
consisted; children’s respect for elders enforced; babies were ‘outdoored’; wakes and elaborate funerals
marked death; there were even special mourning dances. Secular [mainly recreative] and religious
song and dance accompanied by drums [goombays], flutes, mouth violins [abenghorn], boxes
filled with pebbles [tambourine], corrugated sticks rubbed with plain sticks [rookaw and scraper] and the
teeth of the lower jaw bone of a horse scraped with a stick
THE INDIAN INPUT: HINDUISM AND ISLAM
Islam – belief in one god, Allah, whose prophet was Mohammed; Moslem [Muslim] life rigidly guided by
the Koran; formed relatively small communities centered on mosques. Indian Moslems/ Muslims faced
the same ostracism and social difficulties as their Hindu brothers. However, the large Indian influx was
absorbed into West Indian society; they formed an expanding peasant class in Trinidad and Guyana and have
enriched Caribbean music, dance and art.
Hinduism – polytheistic e. g. gods – Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna; mysticism, doctrines of re – incarnation and
transmigration of souls, caste system and festivals [e.g. Phagwah / Holi, Mahasivarati and Diwali] caused it to
exert strong influence on social life; belief in the sanctity of all forms of life, to the extent of not taking
life; rejection of material things; essentially vegetarian diet, all of which contributed to the Christian
evaluation that the religion was unacceptable. Hindi language was another difficult barrier to overcome and
Indians tended to live in separate communities. Thus Hinduism was despised; Indians suffered such
consequent difficulties as the necessity to register marriages to make them legal, which they were unwilling to
do; Indian children were illegitimate and unable to inherit property.
To Rival Christianity: Afro – West Indian Religion
Haitians Voodoo – continues to inspire confidence in the peasant as he faces life’s uncertainties
and dangers. The Roman Catholic Church is officially predominant in Haiti, with an impressive
number of clergymen, but faces serious competition from the Vodun Cult. The religion itself has
developed, in spite of attempts to suppress it in the 19th and 20th centuries, into a mixture of African
[Dahomian] and Roman Catholic practices and beliefs.
Jamaica – Maroons untouched by Christian doctrine practiced and preserved African religious forms, e.
g. Kumina Cult
Pocomania – presently chief African / Christian derived religion in this island; emphasis on
spirit possession, drumming and dancing

137. Belizean Black Carib [Garifuna] Religious Beliefs – stem from Africa, European and
Amerindian traditions, with a preponderance of African input, some Roman Catholic influences and
only a little of the Carib Indian contribution. Practice of Obeah of great importance; death may be
attributed to the magic of obeah – men who may also be asked to influence the course of a love affair
or bring in a good harvest. Belief in the spirits of the dead has led to complex rituals in ‘temples’,
rhythm of drums, chanting, dancing and sacrificial offerings of food, animals, liquor under
supervision of priests or priestesses, e. g. the ‘dugu’ ritual.
Rastafarianism – vibrant messianic – millenarian movement inspired by the ‘back to Africa’ teachings
of Garvey and the coronation of Haile Selassie in Ethiopia in 1930. Founding fathers included
Joseph Hibbert and Leonard Howell who had lived and worked in West Africa, set up the Ethiopian
Salvation Society in 1934 and the Pinnacle Community in the Kingston Hills in the 1940s. Later
exponents were Prince Edward C. Emmanuel, the founder of the Back o’ Wall Rasta Community
[1953 – 66] and the Ethiopian National Congress and Res Sam Brown, poet and polemicist.
Various Rasta Groups, often subjected to official persecution, believe Haile Selassie [who visited Jamaica in
1966 and died in 1975] is the living god, JA, that society [particularly white support] is corrupt and is
“Babylon”, that repatriation to Ethiopia is ;heaven’ and that black will inherit the earth. Collective problems
are aired at meetings, Nyabingi, where the sacred herb, ganja [marijuana] is smoked and prayers to JA are
said. Rasta rituals include wearing of locks, consumption of I – tal food, symbolic colours red, black and
green and soul language. Since 1950s Rasta Groups set up throughout the Caribbean and Jamaicans have
emigrated and much of the most innovative music and art in Jamaica is Rasta – inspired.
Trinidadian / Grenadian Shango – Yoruba god of thunder and lightning; shango, remembered by slaves
and a cult developed around this deity; still practiced by many
SOCIAL LIFE [1838 – 1938]
Poor race relations and little integration were the results of: -
1. “White bias” of pre – emancipation ‘plantation society’ being preserved in post – emancipation
‘Creole society’. Whiteness implied freedom, material wealth and political power hence it became
the ideal for black and coloured people until the flowering of Black Consciousness and Garveyism
in the early 20th century
2. The awarding of higher social status to children of mixed [black/white] parentage than to those of
black parentage

138. 3. Deliberate or covert ‘divide and rule’ policy of the colonial office, e. g. British Guiana, where
East Indians were set against whites
4. Influential literature such as Thomas Carlyle’s Occasional Discourse on the Nigger Question
[1849] and J. A. Froude’s the English in the West Indies [1888] which convinced West Indian
whites and the British public and policy – makers of Negro inferiority
5. Lack of understanding or tolerance of immigrants’ e. g. East Indians refused to integrate;
retained much their culture including a rigid caste system; formed separate and exclusive
communities and were rejected by their fellow black workers, the Coloureds and the whites.
In general, 3 main class divisions could be identified: -
1. An upper class of the white elites – the old plantocracy, civil servants, professionals
and businessmen; determined to retain its supremacy through the possession of land, capital and
political power
2. Middle coloured class: descendents slavery’s free Coloureds; highly competitive in the struggle
for advancement; sought white patronage and suppression of Negros
3. Negro / East Indian laboring class: controlled by Vagrancy, contract and licensing
laws; disenfranchised. Negroes considered themselves superior to the East Indian immigration
MOVEMENTS TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE UP TO 1962
Response to Metropolitan Rule in the
late 19th Century British Caribbean
A. Constitutional Movements for change in Crown Colonies - In the ‘new’ Crown Colonies [Trinidad
and British Guiana], despite reforming governors [e. g. Lord Harris in Trinidad, 1846 – 54], there
was constant criticisms of rule from Downing Street. Trinidad: Dr Louis de Verteuil set up the
Reform Association [1856] to obtain election representatives on the legislative council. British Guiana:
in 1891 unofficial members of the Court of Policy were chosen by direct election
B. Violent Movements for change in Jamaica: October, 1865: Morant Bay Rebellion. Popular riot led
Paul Bogle against the unsympathetic Administration of Edward John Eyre. Execution of Gordon
and Bogle. 1866: the Jamaican Assembly voted itself out of existence
C. Response to the Imposition of Crown Colony Government elsewhere – variants of Crown
Colony government was introduced into all British Caribbean Colonies [except Barbados] after 1860.
Thereafter rule from government house led to a campaign for elected representatives in these
colonies but with limited success e. g. Jamaica obtained some elected members in 1884.

139. Cuba: 1868 – 78’ Ten Years’ War, a liberal /nationalist revolt against Spanish rule.
‘Independencia Y Cuba Libre’ proclaimed by Cespedes, De Palma and Maceo. 1868
“Bayanw Declaration” of independence. Maceo led the military action in which Spanish lost 140
000 men. Treaty of El Zanjon, by which Spanish promised reform. Slavery was ended but the
promises of the creation of a liberal democracy remained a dead letter.
Puerto Rico – Spanish rule was negligent rather than repressive but was absolute.
1868: Grito de Lares – a nationalist revolt engineered by Ramon Betances. Its failure was inevitable
after Spanish capture of “El Telegrafo” with imported arms. The attack on Lares [near Mayaguez]
led to the deaths of the rebel leaders, Brugman and Bauren. The “Grito” became a rallying call for all
nationalists
1887: the Spanish repressed a liberal campaign which demanded self – Government
1897 – Sagasta Constitution – Praxedes Sagasta, the Spanish Prime Minister, promised to grant
autonomy to Puerto Rico. Declaration of 28th November 1897. The charter provided for Puerto Rican
delegates to the Spanish Cortes and for the creation of a bi – cameral legislature in Puerto Rico.
The Sagasta Constitution was rendered inoperable by the outbreak of the Spanish – American War.
FACTORS OF INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS
Factors leading to the Growth of Nationalism
A. Racial Awareness – 1914: Foundation on the UNIA by Marcus Garvey. The UNIA and
its mouthpiece, the Negro World, with the West Indian experience of white racism in the years 1914
– 18, fostered nationalism.
A. Working – class Solidarity: The Creation of a Trade Union Movement in the 1930s.
B. Economic Depression: 1929 – 38; unemployment, rising prices and wage reductions led to
serious discontent with Crown Colony Government between 1934 and 1938 there was a series of
‘disturbances’ in the British Caribbean. D. Experience of War [1939 – 45] – The restrictions imposed
by war and the experience of West Indians fighting abroad plus the influence of the USA’s anti –
colonial policy led to an upsurge in national feeling

140. JAMAICA
1944: Constitution – House of Representatives chosen by Universal Adult Suffrage. JLP Vs
PNP: Bustamante Vs Manley
1953: Ministerial Government
1959: Self – Government
1958 – 62: Membership of the West Indian
Federation
1961: Referendum on membership of the
federation
1962: Independence
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
1955: Eric Williams’ creation of the People’s National
Movement
1958 – 62: Unhappy member of the West Indian
Federation
1961: Williams’ Prime Minister
1962: Independence
BARBADOS – Barbados Labour Party founded by Grantley Adams [1939]. He was Chief Minister
and Premier [1944 – 61]; member of the Federation [1958 - 66] and independence in 1966
GUYANA
1953: Constitution – Ministerial government and elected assembly with Universal Adult Suffrage.
People’s Progressive Party [PPP] led by Burnham and Jagan won the 1953 election but suspended the
constitution on the grounds that the PPP was subject to ‘communist’ infiltration.
1958: New constitution and elections. PPP victory but Burnham split with Jagan and formed the People’s
National Congress [PNC]. Racial split – PPP [East Indians] and PNC [African]
1961: Full internal self – government. Jagan first Prime Minister
1961 – 68: Outbreaks of Racial / Political violence – British military intervention

141. CUBA
1895 – 98: Cuban Revolution – work of Jose Marti. Cuban exiles invaded, April 1895. Early deaths of
Marti and Maceo but Palma announced a Republican constitution. Spanish atrocities committed by
‘Butcher’ Weyler. US concern over the war led to an American invasion after the USS Maine exploded in
Havana Harbour in February 1898. By December 1898 with the Treaty of Paris; Cubans obtained
independence from Spain but had to accept a US army of occupation.
1898 – 1902: US Occupation. Estrada Palma elected as the first president. The US reorganized
government, education and public health but insisted on the Guantanamo Military Base and the Platt
Amendment [1901] – USA’s right to protect Cuban independence a black cheque to interfere in Cuban
affairs, tacked on to the constitution, allowing further US intervention should future disorder endanger US
interests. Inherently destabilizing, the Platt Amendment encouraged opposition parties to create trouble
and provoke US intervention.
1902 – 59: Dictatorship and U. S. influence – US intervention 1906, 1912 and 1920 and support for
various ‘strong men’ [menocal 1913 – 20; Zayas 1921 – 25; Morales 1925 – 33]. After 1933, the
government alternated between Grau San Martin [a left wing academic who had the support of the Cuban
Communist Party] and Fulgencio Batista who secured a dictatorship after a military ‘coup’ in 1952. In
1953, Castro’s attack on the Moncada barracks failed but the attempt was repeated in 1956 and 3 years
later Batista was finally overthrown
PUERTO RICO
1898 – Spanish American War. Puerto Rico ceded to the USA by the Treaty of Paris.
1898 – 1900: U. S. Military occupation
1900 – Foraker [First Organic] Act. Civilian government with bi – cameral legislature set up.
1916: Jones [Second Organic] Act. Puerto Rico became a territory of the USA. Universal
Adult Suffrage, Puerto Ricans became U. S. citizens and obtained a greater role in the island’s
government
1936 - Assassination of the U. S. police chief, E. Francis Riggs, by Nationalists
1937 - Ponce ‘massacre’. Police fired on a Nationalist crowd
1938 – Munoz Marin founded popular Democratic Party
1940 – ‘Populares’ won the election. Initiated industrial and agricultural reform with the support of
the last U. S. governor, R. G. Tugwell

142. 1946 - Appointment of Jesus Pinero as first native governor
1948 – ‘Populares’ electoral victory. Munoz became governor
1950 – Public law 600. New Constitution based on the ‘Estado Libre Asociado’ [Associated Free State
or Commonwealth]
1951 – Referendum on the Commonwealth. Three – quarters of the population supported it.
July, 1952 – Commonwealth initiated
PROMINENT INDIVIDUALS AND THEIR PROPOSALS
BRITISH CARIBBEAN
Marcus Garvey [1887 – 1940] – Jamaican born. St Agunes, worked for the Gleaner, 1914, founder of the
UNIA and the Negro World. Ideas of black, racial pride and ‘back to Africa’ taken to the USA where many
UNIA branches were set up. Deported from the USA followed by an unsuccessful political career in
Jamaica. Garvey’s ideas and teachings have inspired nationalists throughout the Caribbean, the USA and
Black Africa.
Norman Manley [1893 – 1969] – Jamaican and founder of the PNP [1938] which led the fight for
independence. Chief Minister (1954 – 62). Lukewarm support for the federation (1958 – 62)
Alexander Bustamante [1884 – 1977] – Jamaican but origins disputed and his real name was Clarke. He
came to Jamaica in 1932 and led the nationalist / labour opposition to the colonial government. Detained
during the ‘Disturbances’, he formed the Bustamante Trade Union and the JLP in 1943. Chief Minister [1944
– 54] and the Prime Minister at independence in 1962
Grantley Adams [1898 – 1971] – Barbadian, Barrister, nationalist and federalist. Founder of the BLP
[1938] and the BWU [1941]. Chief Minister and Premier [1944 – 61]. Adams strongly supported the
federal ideal and was Prime Minister of the Federation
Eric Williams [1911 – 1978] – Trinidadian, Academic and nationalist. Deputy Chairman of the
Caribbean Commission and prominent West Indian Historian who founded the PNM and became the
Chief Minister after the Election Victory in 1956. A lukewarm federalist, Williams took no political
office in the federation. As Premier from 1962 until his death Williams sought to maximize Trinidad
Natural Resources on a capitalist basis.

143. CUBA
Tomas Estrada Palma [1835 – 1908] – President of the rebel government in the Ten Years War and in
the revolution. First President of the independent republic [1902 – 06] but suspected of being a U. S.
puppet and overthrown by a liberal revolution in1906
Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara [1928 – 67] – Argentinean doctor, guerilla tactician, author and charismatic
leader who assisted Castro in creating the Cuban Revolution and who was killed in Bolivia while
attempting a revolution in that country
Fidel Castro [1927 – 2016] – Son of a sugar planter. A trained lawyer who with a group of Cuban
nationalists made an abortive attack on the Batista garrison at the Moncada barracks in 1953. Imprisoned
and then exiled to the USA and Mexico he repeated the attempt in 1956. The movement of 26th
July; battled with the Batista regime in the Sierra Maestra until December 1958. When Batista regime in the
Sierra Maestra until December 1958 when Batista fled to the Dominican Republic. Thereafter, Castro’s
government combined extermination of Batista’s supporters and the old latifundia with an economic
revolution confiscated land was redistributed to cooperatives and rural housing, education and medical
schemes were set up. Since much of the confiscated property belonged to American nationalists. The US
Government supported the abortive Bay of Pigs invasion by Cuban émigrés in April 1961 and isolated Cuba
economically. Castro, needing a market for his sugar and tobacco, had no alternative but to embrace Marxism –
Leninism and accept Soviet assistance. The USSR’s attempt to place missiles in Cuba led to the Cuban
missile crisis of October 1962.
PUERTO RICO
Luis Munoz Marin [1898 – 1980] – son of the nationalist Munoz Rivera and champion of the peasant,
he founded the PDC in 1938. As President of the Senate and later Senate, he carried out a series of
agricultural, industrial and social reforms known as “Operation Bootstrap”. The architect of the concept
of the associated Free State or commonwealth which defined Puerto Rico’s relationship with the USA
Other Response to Metropolitan Rule
1. Federation – in the British Caribbean. An unsuccessful exercise
2. Associated Statehood – in the British Caribbean. Temporary status for most of the smaller
Eastern Caribbean colonies left without political direction after the collapse of the federation in
1962. In effect associated statehood meant internal self – government in a ‘free and voluntary’
association with Britain which retained responsibility for defence and foreign affairs.

144. Other Response to Metropolitan Rule
3. Federation – in the British Caribbean. An unsuccessful exercise
4. Associated Statehood – in the British Caribbean. Temporary status for most of the smaller
Eastern Caribbean colonies left without political direction after the collapse of the federation in
1962. In effect associated statehood meant internal self – government in a ‘free and voluntary’
association with Britain which retained responsibility for defence and foreign affairs.
5. Assimilation – in the French Caribbean. In 1946, Guadeloupe, Martinique and French Guiana became
overseas departments of France. A prefect replaced the governor in each territory who, because of the
distance from Paris, held more power than his metropolitan counterparts. After some violence in the
1950s, the General Councils were given more control in 1960. The benefits of assimilation have seen
greater spending on education and social services. While most French Antilleans are French ‘in heart, in
blood’ and are satisfied with the French connection, there is a continuing debate between the
‘departmentalists’
6. Commonwealth – Puerto Rico. After 1902 the status of Puerto Rico was not clear. There were charges
of US. ‘Colonialism’. The relationship needed definition. In 1952 Munoz obtained general acceptance of
the commonwealth idea. Puerto Rico became an ‘associated free state’ [Estado Libre Asociado] of the US
with its own governor and bi – cameral legislature which managed its own budget and all internal affairs.
By the Federal Relations Act, the federal government was to be responsible for defence and foreign
affairs. Puerto Rico was to remain in the US commercial sphere and all US tariffs were to apply but
Puerto Ricans did not pay federal income tax. Puerto Ricans became US citizens but had no vote in
federal elections. Since 1952 the supporters of commonwealth have been challenged by those demanding
complete statehood or complete autonomy but the 1952 compromise still has general acceptance
7. Partnership – the Netherlands Antilles. Since 1945 the Netherlands Antilles have been members of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands. While this partnership has provided the two groups of islands with both
autonomy and security and has been successful because of the historical links with Holland [and relative
isolation from the rest of the Caribbean]. There have been outbreaks of economic and racial violence
particularly in Caracas. In that island the wealth generated from oil refining has been largely controlled by
a powerful white elite and the expatriate [Jewish, Lebanese and East Indian] merchant community and
this has created resentment
8. . Colony – Montserrat. Elected in 1967 not to become an ‘associated state’ but to remain a
colonial dependency of the UK.

145. ART FORMS
ARAWAKS /CARIBS
1. Functional Artifacts – included dugout canoes which are still made and used in Dominica, St
Vincent and Belize; woven straw items such as basketry [called ‘pagala’ by the Caribs], cassava
presses and sieves; woven cotton items such as aprons [quieou] and hammocks; earthen and
stone ware; shell ornaments; Arawaks zemis, conch shell or stone.
2. Petroglyphs – archaeology has revealed rock paintings in Cuba, Haiti, and Puerto Rico and in some
of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. These were of a religious nature and also reveal some aspects
of the Indians’ lifestyle
THE MAYA
1. Architecture – construction of corbelled vaults, pyramids, elaborate temples, observatories and
ball courts, all executed in cut in limestone blocks and pulverized limestone mortar, entire structures
were normally polished and glazed with a vegetable dye.
2. Sculpture – massive and impressive stelle, gods, lintels and the ‘roof combs’ of temples in
stone, wood, stucco and clay, carvings depicted dignitaries, gods, glyphs, animals, all of which were
highly stylized and austere
3. Painting – wall frescoes and murals, normally of a religious nature or depicting aspects of Maya life, e.
g. warfare or recording historical events; vivid colours, naturalistic poses of characters and emphasis
on action which create a narrative quality in murals e. g. the Bonampak murals
4. Ceramic Art – pottery was made without the potter’s wheel through the technique of
‘coiling’ followed by elaborate decoration and firing in kilns; thus cooking utensils, dishes, beakers,
huge storage jars, braziers and even idols were made. The most beautiful were decorated on religious
and everyday scenes, e. g. ‘thin – orange’ polychromic pottery of the classic period.
5. Architecture – this medium has been influenced primarily by the aesthetic values of the European
colonizing powers, climate conditions and by the functional demands that each had to meet.
THE BRITISH INFLUENCE
1. Estate Great Houses - built by planters in elegant style of the day of finely cut stone blocks
and seasoned timber [mahogany or rosewood] with handsome carved woodwork [e. g. interior
stairways] and highly polished floors. Two well – ventilated upper floors were living quarters, while
the ground floor was used mainly for storage. Design commonly Georgian or Palladian e. g. Rosehall
[recently restored] and Good Hope - Jamaica; Holders House – Barbados.

146. 2. Functional Stone Building – connected with sugar manufacture – mills, boiling houses, curing houses
and still houses
3. Fortifications – Brimstone Hill [St Kitts]; Port Royal [Jamaica] and St Anne’s Fort [Barbados]
4. Churches – Constructed in stone, brick or wood e. g. St John’s Cathedral [Belize City, Belize] founded
in 1812. Parham Church and St John’s Cathedral [Antigua]; St. John’s Church [Barbados]; St George’s
Cathedral in Georgetown, Guyana [large, wooden and elegant Anglican Church]
5. Government or Public Buildings – Devon House and the Georgian House of Assembly in Spanish
Town, Jamaica and Belize City’s 19th century Governor Residence [wooden]
THE FRENCH INFLUENCE
1. Great Houses – most of which are now in ruins, for example, Chateau Margot [recently restored] in
Marie Galante
2. Fortifications – Morne Fortune [St Lucia]; Fort St Louis [Martinique]; Henri Christophe’s San Souci
Palace and La Citadelle Fortress at Milot, Haiti. The massive French designed La Citadelle was built to
withstand a 3 year siege that never came
3. Many Town Houses – in Haiti are typically French – 3 storied, pitch – roofed with scrollwork –
decorated balconies and dormers
THE SPANISH INFLUENCE: Cuba, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico
1. Churches – Spanish Catholicism demanded the construction of awesome cathedrals in the gothic and
baroque traditions e. g. Santa Maria de Menor in Santo Domingo
2. Town Houses – heavy Mediterranean accent built around central patios with high arched ceilings and
numerous windows to make them cool; balconies decorated with wrought – iron scrollwork, e. g. Casa de
Marques de Arcos, Havana
3. Fortifications – the best examples of which are the 2 Morro Fortresses guarding Havana and San Juan
Harbors respectively
THE DUTCH INFLUENCE: Netherlands Antilles
1. Distinctive rectangular town houses, of wood or stone, 3 floors high, steep tiled roofs and facades
decorated with scrollwork
2. Fortifications – Fort Orange, St Eustatius, Fort Amsterdam, Curacao

147. MUSIC
Each Caribbean territory has produced its own musical form, some of which have achieved international
acclaim, almost all of which skillfully blend, in rhythm, melody and instrumentation, greater or lesser
degrees of African, European and Asian influence. Examples:
Cuba – Rhumba
Jamaica – Reggae, the chief exponents of which are Jimmy Cliff, the late Bob Marley and Byron Lee.
Like steelband music, reggae has gained credit in European and North American cities
Trinidad – Calypso [now common throughout the English – speaking West Indies], the masters of
which are the Mighty Sparrow and Calypso Rose; Steelband music and Soca which has been popularized
by Ed Watson.
Belize – brukdown, ‘boom and chime’ and Garifuna drumming
Martinique and Guadeloupe – Cadence Haiti – Merengue and Drumming
Dominican Republic – Merengue
Puerto Rico – Merengue, guaracha, danza and bomba [preformed by the Negro population of Loiza
Aldea District
INSTRUMENTS
1. The Drum – the most durable and dominant African musical heritage; survived slavery in modified
forms, prominent in Haitian and Black Carib [Garifuna] ethnic music.
2. Xylophone – and its offshoot the Trinidadian ‘Tamboo Bamboo’
3. Maracas – rattles made from dried gourds [calabash], filled with beads or seeds and attached to a
handle; a section of dried bamboo filled with beads is also used
4. Boom and Chime – found only in Belize; the band consists of a mixture of African and European
musical instruments: accordion, drums, small marimba, horse’s lower jaw bone, guitar, banjo and
maracas.
5. Marimba – made and used by the Kekchi and Mopan Maya of Belize
6. European Instruments – Saxophone, guitar, trumpet, piano and trombone most commonly used
7. The Asian Input – the Indian sitar and Chinese cymbal
9. Steel Orchestras – the ubiquitous Trinidad oil drum was ingeniously converted into a unique and
versatile musical instrument from 1945 onwards by such masters of the craft as Simon Spree,
Ellie Manette, Rafael Samuel and others; Steelbands are now an integral part of Trinidadian and West
Indian Culture

148. Painting and Sculpture: 20th Century - Across the Caribbean, many artist have created a wide range of
paintings and sculptures as well as statues; for example, the 1763 monument (Guyana) and Heroes square
(Jamaica)
Literature - Across the Caribbean, there have many literary authors like V. S. Naipaul, Kamau
Braithwaite, Derek Walcott, Eric Williams, Aime Cesaire, Frantz Fanon, John Price Mars and Marcus
Garvey to name just a few who have gotten worldwide fame up to this day