camera surveilance

1. 1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Camera Surveillance
1.1 Introduction
Government organizations are considering the implementation of video
surveillance Technology with increasingfrequencyfor the purposes of general law
enforcement and public safety programs. In limited and defined circumstances,
video surveillance cameras may be appropriate to protect public safety, detect or
deter, and assist in the investigation of criminal activity.
Organizations governed by the Freedom of Information and Protection of
Privacy Act (the provincial Act) and the Municipal Freedom of Information and
Protection of Privacy Act (the municipal Act) that are considering implementing a
video surveillance program are encouraged not to view video surveillance as a
“silver bullet.” Although technological solutions to security challenges reflect an
“urge for perfect fairness and perfect security, extended equally and automatically
to all,”1 no such world of perfection exists. Institutions must balance the public
benefits of video surveillance against an individual’s right to be free of un
warranted intrusioninto his or her life. Pervasive, routine and random surveillance
of ordinary, lawful public activities interferes with an individual’s privacy.
These Guidelines are intended to assist organizations in deciding whether
the collection of personal information by means of a video surveillance system is
lawful and justifiable as a policy choice, and if so, how privacy protective
measures can be built into the system.
These Guidelines do not apply to covert surveillance, or surveillance when
used as a case specific investigation tool for law enforcement purposes where
there is statutory authority and/or the authority of a search warrant to conduct the
surveillance. These Guidelines are also not intended to apply to workplace
surveillance systems installed by an organization to conduct workplace
surveillance of employees.
1.2 Definitions
In these guidelines:

2. 2
Personal information is defined in section 2 of the Acts as recorded information
about an identifiable individual, which includes, but is not limited to, information
relating to an individual’s race, colour , national or ethnic origin, sex and age. If a
video surveillance system displays these characteristics of an identifiable
individual or the activities in which he or she is engaged, its contents will be
considered “personal information” under the Acts.
Record, also defined in section 2 of the Acts, means any record of information,
however recorded, whether in printed form, on film, by electronic means or
otherwise, and includes : a photograph, a film, a microfilm, a videotape, a
machine-readable record, and any record that is capable of being produced from a
machine-readable record.
Video Surveillance System refers to a video, physical or other mechanical,
electronic, digital or wireless2 surveillance system or device that enables
continuous or periodic video recording, observing or monitoring of personal
information about individuals in open, public spaces(including streets, highways,
parks). In these Guidelines, the term video surveillance system includes an audio
device, thermal imaging technology or any other component associated with
capturing the image of an individual.
ReceptionEquipment refers to the equipment or device used to receive or record
the personal information collected through a video surveillance system, including
a cameraor video monitor or any other video, audio, physical or other mechanical,
electronic or digital device.
Storage Device refers to a videotape, computer disk or drive, CD ROM, computer
chip or other device used to store the recorded data or visual, audio or other
images captured by a video surveillance system.
1.3 Background
Each of these three major or alternative forms of public area surveillance is aimed at
increasing offenders’ perceptions of the risks associated with committing a crime.
How these measures achieve this differs in some respects and, according to Cornish
and Clarke (2003),they can be grouped into three types of surveillance: formal
surveillance ,natural surveillance, and place managers (or surveillance by
employees).Formal surveillance aims to produce a “deterrent threat to potential

3. 3
offenders” through the deployment of personnel whose primary responsibility is
security (e.g., security guards) or through the introduction of some form of
technology, such as CCTV ,to enhance or take the place of security personnel. Place
managers cover a wide range of employed persons who by virtue of their position
(e.g., bus driver, parking lot attendant, train conductor) perform a “secondary”
surveillance function .Natural surveillance shares the same aim as formal surveillance,
but involves efforts to “capitalize upon the ‘natural’ surveillance provided by people
going about their everyday business” . Examples of natural surveillance include the
installation or improvement of street lighting and defensible space measures .As noted
above, security guards represent a growth industry. In the United States, the most
recent estimates suggest that there are more than one million security guards or about
3 for every 2 sworn police officers. A substantial and growing number of these
security guards work in public settings. According to a survey by the Mercer Group
(1997, as cited in Sklansky, 2006, p. 92), 45% of all local governments in the U.S. in
the 1990s contracted out some of their security work to private security firms, and an
increasing amount of this work was devoted to patrols of government buildings,
housing projects, and public parks (Sklansky, 2006).This growth in security guards
has also occurred in many other Western countries (Forst, 1999). In the United
Kingdom, for example, the number of security guards increased by almost one-quarter
(23%) between 1971 and 1991 (the latest data available). Unlike the U.S., however,
the ratio of security guards to police officers in the U.K. is much lower, at 1.1 to 1
(Wakefield, 2003).There is no one good source for information on the use of place
managers in preventing crime in public areas, but a number of recent studies point to
their increased use in some countries (Eck, 2006; Ecket al., 2007; Madensen and Eck,
2008).The beginnings of this form of surveillance can largely be traced to Europe.
Resident caretakers were employed to maintain the buildings and grounds, assist
residents with needs related to their flats, and serve as a visible presence on the estate.
In the Netherlands, “occupational surveillance” or Surveillance by employees became
an important component of government crime prevention policy in the 1980s, with
initiatives dating back to the 1960s. These have included adding more inspectors on
the metro, trams, and buses, introducing caretakers to council estates, and
implementing a program of “Stadswacht” or city guards to patrol city streets. The city
guards and many of the other people who are hired and trained to perform these tasks
are often drawn from the long-term unemployed (van Dijk, 1995). The initial

4. 4
government funding for the public transport inspectors (also known as “VICs” or
“safety, information and control” officers) was for hiring young people, most of
whom were unemployed (van Andel, 1989).Coined by the American architect Oscar
Newman (1972), defensible space continues to hold a great deal of interest today as a
measure to prevent crime in public places. But seemingly it plays more of background
role compared to some of the currently popular varieties of public area surveillance,
especially CCTV. In many respects, it has-been integrated into the urban land scape.
First implemented in public housing projects, one of the applications of defensible
space was to redesign buildings to allow “residents a better view of vulnerable areas”
(Hough et al., 1980, p. 8). Clarke(1997) notes that Newman’s concept of defensible
space has influenced the design of public housing communities across the world.
1.5 What Is Surveillance?
 The term ‘surveillance’ stems from the French word surveiller, meaning ‘to watch
over’. The Macquarie Dictionary defines surveillance as the ‘watch kept over a
person, etc., especially over a suspect, a prisoner, or the like’. Other definitions
emphasise the motivation for the conduct in question. For example, David Lyon,
one of the foremost academics in this area, defines surveillance as ‘the focused,
systematic and routine attention to personal details for the purposes of influence,
management, protection or directions’.
 In our Consultation Paper we said that surveillance may be a once off or
systematic activity, it may be conducted using a device or by personal
observation, and it usually involves deliberate rather than incidental conduct.
Accordingly, the commission suggested that surveillance should be defined as ‘the
deliberate or purposive observation or monitoring of a person or object’.
 There was general support in consultations and submissions for this definition,
although some consultees raised specific concerns. In particular, there was
concern that the definition refers only to the monitoring of people and objects. It
was suggested that some users of surveillance could potentially avoid regulation
by arguing that their use of surveillance protects or monitors a place or area.
 We have amended our definition of surveillance in response to this concern. In
this report we use the term surveillance to mean the deliberate or purposive
observation or monitoring of a person, object or place.

5. 5
 The expansion of the definition to include ‘place’ means that cameras installed to
observe a general area, such as an outdoor mall or park, would constitute
surveillance. We consider this definition broad enough to cover the many
surveillance practices undertaken in Victoria without risk of over-inclusion.
1.6 What Is A Public Place?
 In our Consultation Paper, we noted that it was difficult to draw a clear line
between a ‘public place’ and a ‘private place’. We suggested that any attempt to
do so should focus on the nature and degree of accessibility to a place by members
of the public, rather than whether a place is privately or publicly owned.
 Drawing on the definition contained in the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth),
we suggested that ‘public place’ should be defined as ‘any place to which the
public have access as of right or by invitation, whether express or implied and
whether or not a charge is made for admission to the place’.
 Thus ‘public places’ include public areas such as parks and streets, as well as
government or privately owned places when they are open to the general public,
such as shopping centres, libraries, sporting arenas and local swimming pools.
This definition received general support in consultations and submissions.

6. 6
CHAPTER 2
Process of Camera Surveillance
2.1 Camera Surveillance Overview
Public surveillance systems are comprised of a network of cameras and
components for monitoring, recording, and transmitting video images. New systems
typically incorporate cameras with good image quality; the ability to pan ,tilt, and
zoom; and capabilities such as color recording and night vision. Most cameras are
pre-programmed to scan an area following a set pattern (referred to as a “tour”) and
can also be operated remotely by security personnel or automated computer
surveillance programs to focus in on specific areas or activities of interest. More
sophisticated systems incorporate audio equipment or motion sensors that provide
additional information about the monitored space, including detecting gunshots or
recognizing license plates.
Careful placement of cameras in a public surveillance network is required to
maximize effectiveness. Camera locations are often selected by examining crime
patterns using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The identification of crime
hotspots may be supplemented with input from police, other criminal justice
stakeholders, and the public regarding areas where they believe surveillance can be
most beneficial. Once target areas have been identified ,a determination must be made
as to the desired number and exact locations of cameras. The coverage area of the
camera network (the area that the cameras can collectively “see”) is a function of the
saturation and distribution of cameras and the range of visibility of each camera,
commonly referred to as the view shed. A camera’s range of N visibility is
determined by its technological abilities to pan, zoom, and focus but can be restricted
by the lighting in the surrounding area or by obstructions blocking the camera’s line
of sight. Cameras are only one component of a public surveillance system—the
arrangements for monitoring, recording, and responding to the video footage play an
equally important role in the system’s effectiveness in both the prevention and
detection of crime. These factors vary widely depending on the purposes of the
system and available resources. “Passive” camera systems rely upon the retrieval of
previously recorded images, which are reviewed after-the-fact as needed, while

7. 7
“active” systems are monitored in real time, typically by police or private security
personnel.
The effectiveness of active monitoring depends on how frequently the images from
each camera are displayed, the ratio of operators to video monitoring screens, and the
training that operators receive on how to detect and respond to suspicious activity.
Typically passive and active systems are used in combination, as few jurisdictions
have there sources to actively monitor all cameras continually.
2.2 Collectionof PersonalInformation Using a Video Surveillance
System
Any recorded data or visual, audio or other images of an identifiable
individual qualifies as “personal information” under the Acts. Since video surveillance
systems can be operated to collect personal information about identifiable individuals,
organizations must determine if they have the authority to collect this personal
information in accordance with the Acts.
Pursuant to section 38(2) of the provincial Act and section 28(2) of the
municipal Act, no person shall collect personal information on behalf of an
organization unless the collection is expressly authorized by statute, used for the
purposes of law enforcement or necessary to the proper administration of a lawfully
authorized activity. For example, the collection of personal information that is merely
helpful and not necessary to the proper administration of a lawfully authorized
activity would not meet the requirements of sections 28(2) and 38(2). Organizations
must be able to demonstrate that any proposed or existing collection of personal
information by a video surveillance system is authorized under this provision of the
Acts.
2.3 Considerations Prior to Using a Video Surveillance System
Before deciding to use video surveillance, it is recommended that
organizations consider the following:
• A video surveillance system should only be considered after other measures to
protect public safety, detect or deter, or assist in the investigation of criminal activity
have been considered and rejected as unworkable.
Video surveillance should only be used where conventional means (e.g., foot patrols)
for achieving the same law enforcement or public safety objectives are substantially

8. 8
less effective than surveillance or are not feasible, and the benefits of surveillance
substantially outweigh the reduction of privacy inherent in collecting personal
information using a video surveillance system.
• The use of each video surveillance camera should be justified on the basis of
verifiable, specific reports of incidents of crime or significant safety concerns.
• An assessment of privacy implications should be conducted of the effects that the
proposed video surveillance system may have on personal privacy, and the ways in
which any adverse effects can be mitigated by examining the collection, use,
disclosure and retention of personal information. Organizations may wish to refer to
the Ontario Government’s Privacy Impact Assessment tool.
• Consultations should be conducted with relevant stakeholders as to the necessity of
the proposed video surveillance program and its acceptability to the public. Extensive
public consultation should take place.
• Organizations should ensure that the proposed design and operation of the video
surveillance system minimizes privacy intrusion to that which is absolutely necessary
to achieve its required, lawful goals.
2.4 Developing the Policy for a Video Surveillance System
Once a decision has been made to use a video surveillance system, an organization
should develop and implement a comprehensive written policy for the operation of the
system.
This policy should include:
• The rationale and objectives for implementing the video surveillance system.
• The use of the system’s equipment, including: the location of the reception
equipment, which personnel are authorized to operate the system and access the
storage device, and the times when video surveillance will be in effect.
• The organization’s obligations with respect to the notice, access, use, disclosure,
retention, security and disposal of records in accordance with the Acts.
• The designation of a senior staff member to be responsible for the organization’s
privacy obligations under the Acts and its policy.
• A requirement that the organization will maintain control of and responsibility for
the video surveillance system at all times.

9. 9
• A requirement that any agreements between the organization and service providers
state that the records dealt with or created while delivering a video surveillance
program are under the organization’s control and subject to the Acts.
• A requirement that employees and service providers review and comply with the
policy and the Acts in performing their duties and functions relating to the operation
of the video surveillance system.
Employees should be subject to discipline if they breach the policy or the provisions
of the Acts or other relevant statutes. Where a service provider fails to comply with
the policy or the provisions of the Act, it should be considered a breach of contract
leading to penalties up to and including contract termination.
Employees of organizations and employees of service providers should sign written
agreements regarding their duties under the policy and the Acts, including an
undertaking of confidentiality.
2.5 Designing and Installing Video Surveillance Equipment
In designing a video surveillance system and installing the necessary
equipment, the organization should consider the following:
• Reception equipment such as video cameras, or audio or other devices should only
be installed in identified public areas where video surveillance is necessary to protect
public safety, detect or deter, and assist in the investigation of criminal activity.
• The equipment should be installed in such a way that it only monitors those spaces
that have been identified as requiring video surveillance. Cameras should not be
directed to look through the windows of adjacent buildings.
• If cameras are adjustable by operators, this should be restricted, if possible, so that
operators cannot adjust, zoom or manipulate the camera to overlook spaces that are
not intended to be covered by the video surveillance program.
• Equipment should not monitor the inside of areas where individuals generally have a
higher expectation of privacy (e.g., change rooms and public washrooms).
• The organization should consider restricting video surveillance to time periods when
there is a demonstrably higher likelihood of crime being committed and detected in
the area under surveillance.
• The public should be notified, using clearly written signs, prominently displayed at
the perimeter of the video surveillance areas, of video surveillance equipment

10. 10
locations, so the public has reasonable and adequate warning that surveillance is or
may be in operation before entering any area under video surveillance. Signs at the
perimeter of the surveillance areas should identify someone who can answer questions
about the video surveillance system, and can include an address, telephone number, or
website for contact purposes.
• In addition, notification requirements under section 39(2) of the provincial Act and
section 29(2) of the municipal Act include informing individuals of the legal authority
for the collection of personal information; the principal purpose(s) for which the
personal information is intended to be used and the title, business address and
telephone number of someone who can answer questions about the collection. This
information can be provided at the location on signage and/or by other means of
public notification such as pamphlets or the organization’s website. See Appendix A
for a good example of a city’s sign.
• Organizations should be as open as possible about the video surveillance program in
operation and upon request, should make available to the public information on the
rationale for the video surveillance program, its objectives and the policies and
procedures that have been put in place. This may be done in pamphlet or leaflet form.
A description of the program on an organization’s website would also be an effective
way of disseminating this information.
• Reception equipment should be in a strictly controlled access area. Only controlling
personnel, or those properly authorized in writing by those personnel according to the
organization’s policy, should have access to the controlled access area and the
reception equipment. Video monitors should never be in a position that enables public
viewing.
2.7 Privacy and Video Surveillance
Historically, pervasive video surveillance has posed a threat to privacy and
constitutional rights. When controlled by government departments, video surveillance
can provide the government with massive amounts of personal information about the
activities of law-abiding citizens, going about their daily lives. When individuals
know they are being watched, this may have a chilling effect on their freedom to
speak, act and associate with others. Since individuals may censor their own activities

11. 11
when they are aware of being watched, video surveillance may also be perceived as a
means of enforcing social conformity.
Privacy and the right of individuals to go about their daily activities in an anonymous
fashion not only protects freedom of expression and association, but also protects
individuals from intrusions into their daily lives by the government. Accordingly,
when government organizations wish to use surveillance technology in a manner that
will impact the privacy of all citizens, there must be clear justification for doing so.
Specifically, the benefits of the technology should justify any invasion of privacy.
It has been argued that individuals cannot have a reasonable expectation of privacy in
public places, especially in the case of urban mass transit systems where large
volumes of people may be concentrated in relatively restricted spaces. In addition, it
has been argued that video surveillance in such places is an enhancement of a
person’s natural ability to observe what is happening in public. While the expectation
of privacy in public spaces may be lower than in private spaces, it is not entirely
eliminated. People do have a right to expect the following: that their personal
information will only be collected for legitimate, limited and specific purposes; that
the collection of their personal information will be limited to the minimum necessary
for the specified purposes; and that their personal information will only be used and
disclosed for the specified purposes. These general principles should apply to all
video surveillance systems.
In order to address situations where government organizations elect to deploy video
surveillance systems, my office issued Guidelines for the Use of Video Surveillance
Cameras in Public Places (the Guidelines), in 2001. These Guidelines were later
updated in 2007, and are based on the provisions of Ontario’s Freedom of Information
and Protection of Privacy Act and its municipal counterpart, the Municipal Freedom
of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (the Acts). Since they were issued, the
Guidelines have been used by many government organizations to develop and
implement video surveillance programs in a privacy-protective manner, in compliance
with the Acts.
The Guidelines are intended to assist organizations in determining whether the
collection of personal information by means of video surveillance is lawful and

12. 12
justifiable as a policy choice, and if so, how privacy-protective measures may be
built into the system. The Guidelines do not apply to covert surveillance, or
surveillance when used as a case-specific investigation tool for law enforcement
purposes, where there is statutory authority and/or the authority of a search warrant
to conduct the surveillance.
Before deciding whether to use video surveillance, the Guidelines recommend that
organizations consider the following:
 A video surveillance system should only be adopted after other measures to
protect public safety or to deter, detect, or assist in the investigation of criminal
activity have been considered and rejected as unworkable. Video surveillance
should only be used where conventional means (e.g., foot patrols) for achieving
the same law enforcement or public safety objectives are substantially less
effective than surveillance or are not feasible, and the benefits of surveillance
substantially outweigh the reduction of privacy inherent in collecting personal
information using a video surveillance system.
 The use of video surveillance cameras should be justified on the basis of
verifiable, specific reports of incidents of crime or significant safety concerns.
 An assessment should be made of the effects that the proposed video surveillance
system may have on personal privacy and the ways in which any adverse effects
may be mitigated.
 Consultations should be conducted with relevant stakeholders as to the necessity
of the proposed video surveillance program and its acceptability to the public.
Once a decision has been made to deploy video surveillance, the Guidelines set out
the manner in which video surveillance cameras should be implemented in order to
minimize their impact on privacy.
2.7 Why Video Surveillance is Believedto Enhance Public Safety
Historically, video surveillance was most often implemented in public spaces
because of an expectation of crime deterrence. In general, the goal of deterrence and
crime prevention strategies is to put in place practices or conditions that will lead
potential offenders to refrain from engaging in criminal activities, delay criminal

13. 13
actions, or avoid a particular target. As is the case with many crime prevention
strategies, video surveillance aims to make the potential offender believe that there is
an increased risk of apprehension. To increase the perception of risk, the potential
offender must be aware of the presence of the cameras and believe that the cameras
present sufficient risk of capture to outweigh the rewards of the intended crime.
Awareness of the cameras may be enhanced through public education, clear signage,
and media coverage of incidents caught on camera. In addition to awareness,
however, understanding the consequences of being caught by the cameras requires
rational thought. It is unlikely that potential offenders under the influence of drugs or
alcohol would be deterred from acts of violence or public disorder by the presence of
cameras.
Video surveillance is also believed to reduce crime by helping in the detection, arrest
and prosecution of offenders. When an incident occurs in the presence of video
surveillance cameras, the police can respond quickly and in a manner that is more
appropriate to the situation. To the extent that offenders are captured and convicted
using video surveillance evidence, this may prevent them from committing further
crimes.
While video surveillance has contributed to the apprehension of criminals in a number
of high profile cases, historically its value has stemmed from its potential to deter
rather than detect criminal activity. This view is now changing. The value in detecting
crimes is now being considered as a primary goal of video surveillance.
In addition, video surveillance is believed to make people feel more safe and secure.
This is an important goal of security programs for all mass transit systems. If
members of the public do not feel secure, they may avoid using public transit, thereby
decreasing ridership.
In short, there are reasons other than deterrence, as to why video surveillance may
help to prevent crime and aid the police in criminal investigations. This may help to
explain why video surveillance systems are strongly supported and continue to
proliferate.

14. 14
.CHAPTER 3
VSAM Test bed System
3.1 Introduction To Testbed System
We have built a VSAM test bed system to demonstrate how automated video
understanding technology described in the following sections can be combined into a
coherent surveillance system that enables a single human operator to monitor a wide
area. The test bed system consists of multiple sensors distributed across the campus of
CMU, tied to a control room (Figure 3.1 a) located in the Planetary Robotics Building
(PRB). The test bed consists of a central operator control unit (OCU)
(a) (b)
Figure 3.1 : a) Control room of the VSAM testbed system on the campus of Carnegie
Mellon University.b) Close-up of the main rack.
which receives video and Ethernet data from multiple remote sensor processing units
(SPUs) (see Figure 3.2). The OCU is responsible for integrating symbolic object
trajectory information accumulated by each of the SPUs together with a 3D geometric
site model, and presenting the results to the user on a map-based graphical user
interface (GUI). Each logical component of the test bed system architecture is
described briefly below.

15. 15
Figure 3.2: Schematic overview of the VSAM testbed system.
3.1.1 Sensor Processing Units (SPUs)
The SPU acts as an intelligent filter between a camera and the VSAM network. Its
function is to analyze video imagery for the presence of significant entities or events,
and to transmit that information symbolically to the OCU. This arrangement allows
for many different sensor modalities to be seamlessly integrated into the system.
Furthermore, performing as much video processing as possible on the SPU reduces
the bandwidth requirements of the VSAM network. Full video signals do not need to
be transmitted; only symbolic data extracted from video signals.
The VSAM test bed can handle a wide variety of sensor and SPU types
(Figure 3.3). The list of IFD sensor types includes: color CCD cameras with active
pan, tilt and zoom control; fixed field of view monochromatic low-light cameras; and
thermal sensors. Logically, each SPU combines a camera with a local computer that
processes the incoming video. However, for convenience, most video signals in the
test bed system are sent via fiber optic cable to computers located in a rack in the
control room (Figure 3.1b). The exceptions are SPU platforms that move: a van-
mounted re-locatable SPU; an SUO portable SPU; and an airborne SPU. Computing
power for these SPUs is on-board, with results being sent to the OCU over relatively
low-bandwidth wireless Ethernet links. In addition to the IFD in-house SPUs, two
Focused Research Effort (FRE)n sensor packages have been integrated into the
system: a Columbia-Lehigh Cyclo Vision Para Camera with a hemispherical field of
view; and a Texas Instruments indoor surveillance system. By using a pre-specified
communication protocol .these FRE systems were able to directly interface with the
VSAM network. Indeed, within the logical system architecture, all SPUs are treated
identically. The only difference is at the hardware level where different physical
connections (e.g. cable or wireless Ethernet) may be required to connect to the OCU.

16. 16
The re-locatable van and airborne SPU warrant further discussion. The re-
locatable van SPU consists of a sensor and pan-tilt head mounted on a small tripod
that can be placed on the vehicle or of when stationary. All video processing is
performed on-board the vehicle, and results from object detection and tracking are
assembled into symbolic data packets and transmitted back to the operator control
workstation using a radio Ethernet connection. The major research issue involved in
demonstrating the re-deployable van unit involves how to rapidly calibrate sensor
pose after redeployment, so that object detection and tracking results can be integrated
into the VSAM network (via computation of geo-location) for display at the operator
control console.
Figure 3.3 : Many types of sensors and SPUs have been incorporated into the VSAM
IFD testbed system: a) color PTZ; b) thermal; c) relocatable van; d) airborne. In
addition, two FRE sensors have been successfully integrated: e) Columbia-Lehigh
omnicamera; f) Texas Instruments indoor activity monitoring system.
The airborne sensor and computation packages are mounted on a Britten-
Norman Islander twin-engine aircraft operated by the U.S. Army Night Vision and

17. 17
Electronic Sensors Directorate. The Islander is equipped with a FLIR Systems Ultra-
3000 turret that has two degrees of freedom (pan/tilt), a Global Positioning System
(GPS) for measuring position, and an Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) for
measuring orientation. The continual self-motion of the aircraft introduces
challenging video understanding issues. For this reason, video processing is
performed using the Sarnoff PVT-200, a specially designed video processing engine.
3.1.2 Operator Control Unit (OCU)
Figure 4 shows the functional architecture of the VSAM OCU. It accepts video
processing results from each of the SPUs and integrates the information with a site
model and a database of known objects to infer activities that are of interest to the
user. This data is sent to the GUI and other visualization tools as output from the
system.
Figure 3.4: Functional architecture of the VSAM OCU.
One key piece of system functionality provided by the OCU is sensor arbitration. Care
must be taken to ensure that an outdoor surveillance system does not underutilize its
limited sensor assets. Sensors must be allocated to surveillance tasks in such a way
that all user-specified tasks get performed, and, if enough sensors are present,
multiple sensors are assigned to track important objects. At any given time, the OCU
maintains a list of known objects and sensor parameters, as well as a set of “tasks”
that may need attention. These tasks are explicitly indicated by the user through the
GUI, and may include specific objects to be tracked, specific regions to be watched,

18. 18
or specific events to be detected (such as a person loitering near a particular
doorway). Sensor arbitration is performed by an arbitration cost function. The
arbitration function determines the cost of assigning each of the SPUs to each of the
tasks. These costs are based on the priority of the tasks, the load on the SPU, and
visibility of the objects from a particular sensor. The system performs a greedy
optimization of the cost to determine the best combination of SPU tasking to
maximize overall system performance requirements.
The OCU also contains a site model representing VSAM-relevant information
about the area being monitored. The site model representation is optimized to
efficiently support the following VSAM capabilities:_
 object geo location via intersection of viewing rays with the terrain._
 visibility analysis (predicting what portions of the scene are visible from what
sensors) so that sensors can be efficiently tasked._
 specification of the geometric location and extent of relevant scene features.
For example, we might directly task a sensor to monitor the door of a building,
or to look for vehicle passing through a particular intersection.
3.1.3 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
(a) (b)
Figure 3.5: a) Operator console located in the control room. Also shown is a laptop-
based portable operator console. b) Close-up view of the visualization node display
screen.

19. 19
One of the technical goals of the VSAM project is to demonstrate that a single
human operator can effectively monitor a significant area of interest. Keeping track of
multiple people, vehicles, and their interactions, within a complex urban environment
is a difficult task. The user obviously shouldn’t be looking at two dozen screens
showing raw video output. That amount of sensory overload virtually guarantees that
information will be ignored, and requires a prohibitive amount of transmission
bandwidth. Our approach is to provide an interactive, graphical user interface.(GUI)
that uses VSAM technology to automatically place dynamic agents representing
people and vehicles into a synthetic view of the environment (Figure 3.5). This
approach has the benefit that visualization of scene events is no longer tied to the
original resolution and viewpoint of a single video sensor. The GUI currently consists
of a map of the area, overlaid with all object locations, sensor platform locations, and
sensor fields of view (Figure 3.5b). In addition, a low-bandwidth, compressed video
stream from one of the sensors can be selected for real-time display.
The GUI is also used for sensor suite tasking. Through this interface, the operator can
task Individual sensor units, as well as the entire test bed sensor suite, to perform
surveillance operations such as generating a quick summary of all object activities in
the area. The lower left corner of the control window contains a selection of controls
organized as tabbed selections. This allows the user to move fluidly between different
controls corresponding to the entity types Objects, Sensors, and Regions of Interest.
 Object Controls. Track directs the system to begin actively tracking the current
object .Stop Tracking terminates all active tracking tasks in the system.
Trajectory displays the trajectory of selected objects. Error displays geo location
error bounds on the locations and trajectories of selected objects.
 _ Sensor Controls. Show FOV displays sensor fields of view on the map, otherwise
only a position marker is drawn. Move triggers an interaction allowing the user to
control the pan and tilt angle of the sensor. Request Imagery requests either a
continuous stream or single image from the currently selected sensor, and Stop
Imagery terminates the current imagery stream
3.1.4 Communication
The nominal architecture for the VSAM network allows multiple OCUs to be linked
together, each controlling multiple SPUs (Figure 6). Each OCU supports exactly one

20. 20
GUI through which all user related command and control information is passed. Data
dissemination is not limited to a single user interface, however, but is also accessible
through a series of visualization nodes (VIS).
There are two independent communication protocols and packet structures supported
in this architecture: the Carnegie Mellon University Packet Architecture (CMUPA)
and the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) protocols. The CMUPA is designed
to be a low bandwidth, highly flexible architecture in which relevant VSAM
information can be compactly packaged.
_
Figure 3.6 : A nominal architecture for expandable VSAM networks
Figure 3.7 : CMUPA packet structure. A bitmask in the header describes which
sections are present. Within each section, multiple data blocks can be present. Within
each data block, bitmasks describe what information is present.

21. 21
redundant overhead. The concept of the CMUPA packet architecture is a hierarchical
decomposition. There are six data sections that can be encoded into a packet:
command; sensor; image ; object; event; and region of interest. A short packet header
section describes which of these six sections are present in the packet. Within each
section it is possible to represent multiple instances of that type of data, with each
instance potentially containing a different layout of information. At each level, short
bitmasks are used to describe the contents of the various blocks within the packets,
keeping wasted space to a minimum. All communication between SPUs, OCUs and
GUIs is CMUPA compatible. The CMUPA protocol specification document is
accessible from http://www.cs.cmu.edu/_ vsam.

22. 22
CHAPTER 4
Video Understanding Technologies
4.1 Introduction to Video understanding Techniques
Keeping track of people, vehicles, and their interactions in a complex
environment is a difficult task. The role of VSAM video understanding technology in
achieving this goal is to “parse” people and vehicles from raw video, determine their
geo locations, and automatically insert them into a dynamic scene visualization. We
have developed robust routines for detecting moving objects and tracking them
through a video sequence using a combination of temporal differencing and template
tracking. Detected objects are classified into semantic categories such as human,
human group, car, and truck using shape and color analysis, and these labels are used
to improve tracking using temporal consistency constraints. Further classification of
human activity, such as walking and running, has also been achieved. Geo locations
of labeled entities are determined from their image coordinates using either wide-
baseline stereo from two or more overlapping camera views, or intersection of
viewing rays with a terrain model from monocular views. The computed geo locations
are used to provide higher-level tracking capabilities, such as tasking multiple sensors
with variable pan, tilt and zoom to cooperatively track an object through the scene.
Results are displayed to the user in real-time on the GUI, and are also archived in
web-based object/event database.
4.1.1 Moving Object Detection
Detection of moving objects in video streams is known to be a significant, and
difficult, research problem .Aside from the intrinsic usefulness of being able to
segment video streams into moving and background components, detecting moving
blobs provides a focus of attention for recognition, classification, and activity
analysis, making these later processes more efficient since only “moving” pixels need
be considered.
There are three conventional approaches to moving object detection: temporal
differencing background subtraction .and optical flow .Temporal differencing is very
adaptive to dynamic environments, but generally does a poor job of extracting all
relevant feature pixels. Background subtraction provides the most complete feature

23. 23
data, but is extremely sensitive to dynamic scene changes due to lighting and
extraneous events. Optical flow can be used to detect independently moving objects in
the presence of camera motion; however, most optical flow computation methods are
computationally complex, and cannot be applied to full-frame video streams in real-
time without specialized hardware.
Under the VSAM program, CMU has developed and implemented three
methods for moving object detection on the VSAM test bed. The first is a
combination of adaptive background subtraction and three-frame differencing. This
hybrid algorithm is very fast, and surprisingly effective – indeed, it is the primary
algorithm used by the majority of the SPUs in the VSAM system. In addition, two
new prototype algorithms have been developed to address shortcomings of this
standard approach. First, a mechanism for maintaining temporal object layers is
developed to allow greater disambiguation of moving objects that stop for a while, are
occluded by other objects, and that then resume motion . One limitation that affects
both this method and the standard algorithm is that they only work for static cameras,
or in a ”stepand- stare” mode for pan-tilt cameras. To overcome this limitation, a
second extension has been developed to allow background subtraction from a
continuously panning and tilting camera. Through clever accumulation of image
evidence, this algorithm can be implemented in real-time on a conventional PC
platform. A fourth approach to moving object detection from a moving airborne
platform has also been developed, under a subcontract to the Sarnoff Corporation.
This approach is based on image stabilization using special video processing
hardware.
Figure 4.1 : problems with standard MTD algorithms. (a) Background subtraction
leaves “holes”when stationary objects move. (b) Frame differencing does not detect
the entire object

24. 24
4.1.2 ObjectTracking
To begin to build a temporal model of activity, individual object blobs generated by
motion detection are tracked over time by matching them between frames of the video
sequence. Many systems for object tracking are based on Kalman filters. However,
pure Kalman filter approaches are of limited use because they are based on unimodal
Gaussian densities that cannot support simultaneous alternative motion hypotheses .
We extend the basic Kalman filter notion to maintain a list of multiple hypotheses to
handle cases where there is matching ambiguity between multiple moving objects.
Object trajectories are also analyzed to help reduce false alarms by distinguishing
between legitimate moving objects and noise or clutter in the scene.
An iteration of the basic tracking algorithm is
1) Predict positions of known objects
2) Associate predicted objects with current objects
3) If tracks split, create new tracking hypothesis
4) If tracks merge, merge tracking hypotheses
5) Update object track models
6) Reject false alarms
4.1.3 Airborne Surveillance
Fixed ground-sensor placement is fine for defensive monitoring of static
facilities such as depots, warehouses or parking lots. In those cases, sensor placement
can be planned in advance to get maximum usage of limited VSAM resources.
However, the battlefield is a large and constantly shifting piece of real-estate, and it
may be necessary to move sensors around in order to maximize their utility as the
battle unfolds. While airborne sensor platforms directly address this concern, the self-
motion of the aircraft itself introduces challenging video understanding issues. During
the first two years of this program, the Sarnoff Corporation developed surveillance
technology to detect and track individual vehicles from a moving aircraft, keep the
camera turret fixated on a ground point, and multitask the camera between separate
geodetic ground positions.
4.1.3.1 Airborne Object Tracking
Object detection and tracking is a difficult problem from a moving sensor
platform. The difficulty arises from trying to detect small blocks of moving pixels

25. 25
representing independently moving object objects when the whole image is shifting
due to self-motion. The key to success with the airborne sensor is characterization and
removal of self-motion from the video sequence using the Pyramid Vision
Technologies PVT-200 real-time video processor system. As new video frames
stream in, the PVT processor registers and warps each new frame to a chosen
reference image, resulting in a cancelation of pixel movement, and leading to a
“stabilized” display that appears motionless for several seconds. During stabilization,
the problem of moving object detection from a moving platform is ideally reduced to
performing VSAM from a stationary camera, in the sense that moving objects are
readily apparent as moving pixels in the image. Object detection and tracking is then
performed using three-frame differencing after using image alignment to register
frame It2 to It and frame It1 to It , performed at 30 frames/sec. Sample results are
shown in Figure 4.2 . Under some circumstances, there is some remaining residual
pixel motion due to parallax caused by significant 3D scene structure such as trees
and smokestacks. Removing parallax effects is a subject of on-going research in the
vision community.
Figure 4.2 : Detection of small moving objects from a moving airborne sensor.
4.1.3.2 Camera Fixation and Aiming
It is well known that human operators fatigue rapidly when controlling cameras on
moving airborne and ground platforms. This is because they must continually adjust
the turret to keep it locked on a stationary or moving object. Additionally, the video is
continuously moving, reflecting the self motion of the camera. The combination of
these factors often leads to operator confusion and nausea. Sarnoff has built image
alignment techniques to stabilize the view from the camera turret and to automate
camera control, thereby significantly reducing the strain on the operator. In particular,
real-time image alignment is used to keep the camera locked on a stationary or
moving point in the scene, and to aim the camera at a known geodetic coordinate for

26. 26
which reference imagery is available. More details can be found in . Figure 4.3 shows
the performance of the stabilization/fixation algorithm on two ground points as the
aircraft traverses an approximate ellipse over them. The field of view in these
examples, and the aircraft took approximately 3 minutes to complete each orbit.
4.1.3.3 Air Sensor Multi-Tasking
Occasionally, a single camera resource must be used to track multiple moving objects,
not all of which fit within a single field of view. This problem is particularly relevant
for high-altitude air platforms that must have a narrow field of view in order to see
ground objects at a reasonable
Figure 4.3 : Fixation on two target points. The images shown are taken 0, 45, 90 and
135 seconds after fixation was started. The large center cross-hairs indicate the
center of the stabilized image, i.e. the point of fixation
resolution. Sensor multi-tasking is employed to switch the field of view periodically
between two (or more) target areas that are being monitored. This process is
illustrated in Figure 4.4 and described in detail in.
Figure 4.4: Footprints of airborne sensor being autonomously multi-tasked between
three disparate geodetic scene coordinates.

27. 27
CHAPTER 5
Pros, Cons And Applications Of Camera Surveillance
5.1 Advantages
1. Deter Crime
This is the biggest and the most obvious benefit of installing security cameras.
Once they are placed, you will be able to see their effect on people almost
immediately. Even if they are placed discreetly, you will start feeling a sense of
security, which is priceless. Whether you install the cameras in your home or at the
workplace, you can prevent crime from occurring. The mere sight of the camera
staring back at them, and the sheer thought of getting caught red-handed are
intimidating enough for mischief-makers to be on their best behavior as they would
know that their identity and illegal activity have been captured.
Whether you’re experiencing problems related to theft, punctuality, or productivity,
your security camera can provide you with the solutions. It empowers you and
prevents your home and office from becoming easy targets.
2. Monitor Scenarios and Activities
It is extremely easy to work with security camera systems as they can be placed
anywhere as long as there is a power source close by. They come in all shapes and
sizes; some are tiny enough to be hidden in plants, pictures, photo frames, etc.
Depending on your needs you can buy either hidden cameras or mountable ones.
Never let anyone or anything suspicious out of your sight with security cameras. And
while it is recommended that you avoid buying dummy cameras, one cannot stress
enough on the importance of fixing real cameras as a solid security measure.
Criminals are smart and dummy cameras give themselves away, so there’s really no
point in having them.
Real cameras, on the other hand, are extremely helpful as they enable you to monitor
the activities of people visiting your home and office as well as the goings-on at these
places. This is a great way to detect suspicious people and keep tabs on their
activities.
3. Gather Evidence
Having cameras installed in strategic places comes in handy when you need to
monitor actions and words of people or during an event. Modern security camerasare

28. 28
not only equipped with high-quality video capabilities, but audio as well. The clear
images coupled with flawless sound makes them more efficient than ever at recording
a series of happenings.
This is particularly helpful when dealing with a legal scenario, wherein the eye
witness may have forgotten a certain important detail or may be providing with an
accurate account of what really transpired. With a security camera, the legal
authorities can see the series of events as they really unfolded.
4. Arrive at the Right Decisions
Footage from security cameras can help you make correct and fair decisions when
settling disputes, both in domestic as well as professional scenarios. Whether it is
dealing with a situation involving disagreements within your family, among your
employees, or between a customer and your service staff, your doubts can be laid to
rest with the help of your camera.
Incorrect, inappropriate or fabricated claims made by customers or other authorities
can be sorted out when you make your security camera your ally.
5. Maintain Records
So you got to know of something that happened outside your home or office about a
fortnight ago and curiosity is getting the better of you? You can douse it by simply
looking up your security records. Cameras record and document everything they
see systematically, i.e. as per the date and the time of the event.
Whether it is a crime or a minor tiff, your camera chronicles it, thereby making it easy
for you to investigate the actual happenings.
5.2 Disadvantages
1. Privacy Is an Issue
There have been a few instances in the past where security cameras have stirred up
controversies, especially in professional setups. There have been cases where
employees have objected to being under constant surveillance without their
permission and citing the ‘invasion of privacy’ as the reason. A few have also resorted
to taking legal action against their employers in relation to this.
Critics of security camera systems have taken offense to them being placed in offices
and argued that doing so implies that the employer has either already assumed or is
convinced that his employees are up to no good and will do something wrong which
is why their activities need to be recorded.

29. 29
2. It Can be a Costly Affair
While dummy cameras may not be expensive, the real ones costs hundreds, even
thousands of dollars depending on the features and the number of cameras and
monitoring systems you buy. Getting them installed and their maintenance means
added costs. If you’re thinking of installing them yourself, lay that idea to rest unless
you have good knowledge of wiring systems or you may end up damaging the
cameras.
3. They Can be Vulnerable
When we, as users of security cameras, try to keep ourselves updated on the latest in
security systems, we should not forget that intruders and criminals are doing the same
too. A clever trespasser will probably know all about them and may have figured out a
way to go undetected.
Further, tech-savvy criminals might have understood the technology and worked out
ways to disable/disconnect them from their power source. Plus, if he detects your
cameras as fake/dummies, they can be utterly useless in any crime prevention.
In worst cases, hackers can play havoc with your security camera system by using the
Internet and use them to spy on you instead.
This makes security cameras vulnerable to damage and/or misuse.
4. Can’t Stop Theft
Cameras enable users to record footage for later viewing, and to help nab criminals,
and receive justice from the law. They cannot, however, stop a crime when it is in
progress. They do not alert neighbors or the police like an alarm system would. This
means that you will incur losses even as you run to the court, make insurance claims
and reorder stolen inventory, which may no longer make you feel absolutely safe and
even cause you to lose faith in them.
5.3 Security Camera Applications
The following pages cover the most popular applications of video surveillance
systems, along with surveillance best practices and things to consider when installing
a system. Learn how securing your facility with a surveillance camera system can
bring you peace of mind and improve management of your organization.

30. 30
Prevent Copper Theft
Copper theft is a common problem on construction sites and with electric utilities
companies, but your business doesn't need to be a victim — a modern, updated
security system with real-time monitoring by trained security professionals can help
you be aware of what happens on your site and react quickly to prevent theft.
Remote Video Monitoring
As a business owner, one of your top priorities is protecting your property against
theft and break-ins as well as dishonest employees. Thanks to advancements in
security technology, you can rely on remote security experts to monitor your system
live and react quickly to any activity on your site.
Facility Protection
Secure the perimeter of your property with HD video surveillance cameras to thwart
trespassers and create a safer environment. Protecting your facility with security
cameras plays a critical role in improving operations and preventing criminal acts
Monitor Operations
Stay connected to your daily operations by monitoring them with your surveillance
system. This allows you to manage store lines, employee activities, and streamline
workflow based on live or recorded video footage of your business or organization
during working hours.
Loss Prevention
If your business stocks expensive equipment or handles large amounts of
merchandise, it is important to protect those assets. You can quickly log into the
system if any alarms are triggered on locked doors to see what happened, and identify
the possible thief with an HD IP camera.
Vandalism Deterrence
Visible video surveillance cameras are often a deterrent to vandals because of the
possibility they can be identified on the video. Using HD cameras for facial
recognition and a camera in a durable vandal-proof housing, you can protect your
home, business, or office from damage.
Employee Safety
Stay in compliance with safety regulations by investing in video surveillance system
for your business or organization. Increased employee safety can also protect the

31. 31
employer from frivolous employee lawsuits by giving an impartial view of an
incident.
Parking Lots
There is a lot to monitor for in parking lots—potential accidents and damage to
vehicles, theft, or vandalism. With a powerful HD video surveillance system,
however, you can monitor even the largest parking lots with clear megapixel video of
any suspicious activity or accidents.
Event Video Surveillance
Video surveillance can help enormously with crowd control as well as prevent crime
by providing security staff with real-time images from an event. Zoom in on
suspicious behavior before it becomes a problem with modern IP HD surveillance
systems.
Public Safety
Parks, communities, and neighborhoods — all public spaces — should be outfitted
with video surveillance systems to help deter crime and enhance public safety. Law
enforcement can also view video directly from their smartphones, enabling quicker
response times.
Traffic Monitoring
Monitoring traffic, whether it's to count the cars passing through or to improve the
flow of traffic for better travel times, can be a challenge. Outdoor cameras are
designed to withstand harsh weather, and HD cameras can clearly record even fast
moving cars in challenging light.
Other Video Projects
Thanks to advancements in video technology, surveillance cameras are used in a wide
array of applications outside the “typical” security scope. Examples include animal
monitoring, time-lapse videos, and tourism marketing. Find out if your project would
benefit from surveillance.
Internet Security Systems
IP, or internet protocol, video surveillance cameras use the power of internet
networking to send and receive data. This makes them easy to install and connect to
your system, and you can view live camera feeds at any time with free mobile apps
for smartphones and tablets.

32. 32
Outdoor Perimeter Security
Outdoor perimeter security can be maintained in a variety of ways including guards
who walk the grounds, locked gates and entrances with alarms, and surveillance
solutions to monitor the grounds. Using one or all of these solutions together will be a
key part of increasing your business security, a central tenant to reducing the risk your
business faces from crime.
Industrial Processes:
In several industries, CCTV supervision is required to monitor the stages involved in
various processes. Sometimes the law orders compulsory CCTV monitoring in these
industries. Special CCTV cameras, which measure the temperature of the processes,
are used for such purposes.

33. 33
CONCLUSION
Before making the important decision of installing security camera systems, it
is better to be equipped with complete knowledge about them, as that will enable you
to make an informed decision and help you choose a camera that fulfills your needs
and expectations. Once you’ve weighed the pros and cons of setting up this
technological marvel, you will feel better about your choice.
There is only limited recognition in the law that there are some places into which a
surveillance camera is not allowed to intrude. And there are virtually no rules that
prohibit police or private entities from archiving, selling or freely transmitting images
captured by a video surveillance camera. The courts have yet to address the
fundamental privacy and associational rights implicated by the phenomenon of
widespread video surveillance. Philadelphia Police Inspector Thomas Nestel, author
of a widely cited study on video surveillance, has warned that “forging ahead with
reckless abandon by providing no written direction, no supervision, no training and no
regulating legislation creates a recipe for disaster.”
The findings documented in this report indicate the nature and magnitude of the harm
posed by the unregulated proliferation of video surveillance cameras. It is now
incumbent upon the City Council and Mayor Michael Bloomberg to address this issue
with the seriousness it requires. New York City must enact comprehensive, well-
crafted legislation that recognizes video surveillance technology affects fundamental
rights and liberties, and that the use of such technology must reasonably balance the
city’s interest in protecting public safety with the individual’s interest in enjoying
personal privacy.

34. 34
REFERENCES
 https://www.videosurveillance.com/apps/
 http://info.avalanwireless.com/blog/bid/328660/Applications-Of-
CCTV-Video-Surveillance
 http://www.a1securitycameras.com/blog/advantages-
disadvantages-using-security-cameras/
 http://www.swann.com/us/security-cameras/
 http://www.cctvcamerapros.com/Palm-Beach-Surveillance-
System-Seminar-s/320.htm
 http://seminarprojects.org/d/seminar-on-motion-detection-using-
video-camera-surveillance-ppt