This study examined the impact of human disturbance on waterfowl diversity at two sites within the Wilderness Lakes System in South Africa. Abundance, diversity, and species richness were significantly higher at Rondevlei lake, which prohibits water activities, than at Touw River, which allows limited recreation. A total of 35 waterbird species were observed, but only 11 were found at both sites. Red-knobbed coot was the most abundant species overall. Human disturbance events were more common and potentially disturbing to waterfowl at Touw River than Rondevlei. The results provide evidence that human disturbances negatively impact the waterfowl community at Touw River relative to the protected Rondevlei lake.

1. THE IMPACT OF HUMAN DISTURBANCE ON WATERFOWL DIVERSITY WITHIN
THE WILDERNESS LAKES SYSTEM
Z. BENADE
Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, George Campus
ABSTRACT
The potential impact of human disturbance on waterfowl diversity, abundance and species richness within the
Wilderness Lakes System (WLS) was considered by comparing two sites. Data was obtained for two sites
within the WLS, the Touw River and the Rondevlei Hide. The former site allows limited recreational water-
activities, while the latter (a RAMSAR site) permits no water-based recreational activities. Point counts and
disturbance sampling was undertaken weekly from March to May (weather dependent) until ten surveys for
each site were completed. Statistical tests such a Student’s t-test and Margalef’s Diversity Index were used to
determine differences in abundance and diversity between the sites. Species richness was determined by
summing species numbers for each site. Disturbance data was evaluated by rating data into “Low”, “Medium”,
“High” and “No disturbance” groups to quantify data and allow the use of simple mathematical expressions for
analysis. Species diversity, abundance and richness were significantly higher at the Rondevlei hide than at
the Touw River. Red-knobbed Coot (Fulica cristata) was found to be the most abundant species overall.
Human disturbance events were more common and potentially disturbing to waterfowl at the Touw River than
at Rondevlei. The study provided evidence that the Touw River has a less diverse waterfowl community
compared to the Rondevlei lake and that both observable and underlying anthropogenic disturbances and
habitat differences are potentially to blame./
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INTRODUCTION
Globally estuarine habitats and coastal areas are facing increasing pressure from
anthropogenic development (Cordoni et al., 2008). Climatic change, resource-use
pressures and invasive management actions are some of the factors which continue to
threaten estuarine wetland systems and their waterbirds across Africa (Russel et al., 2012).
The Wilderness Lakes System (WLS) also known as the Wilderness Lakes Complex (WLC)
is a section of the greater Garden Route National Park (SanParks, 2012). The system is
comprised of unique saline systems and considered to be one of South Africa’s most
integrated urban conservation areas (SanParks, 2012). In recent years the WLS has
experienced a significant increase in residential development and tourism along its borders,
threatening the conservation of native avifaunal communities (SanParks, 2012). The
encroachment of the urban environment increases the potential for disturbance on
waterbird communities which are directly and indirectly affected by these changes in their

2. environment (Russel et al., 2012). Birds can encounter a variety of disturbances from
human recreational activities or natural events on a daily basis within their natural
environment and these disturbances can have costly side-effects in terms of energy-use
(Davidson & Rothwell, 1993). Waterbird abundance surveys have taken place in the WLS
since 1992 to assist park management with the formulation of management strategies for
the lakes (SanParks, 2012). The quantification of disturbance on animal populations has
gained considerable interest due to the potential conflicts present between anthropogenic
development and recreation and wildlife conservation (Béchet et al., 2004). The aim of this
study was to determine the impact of anthropogenic disturbances on waterfowl
communities at the Touw River estuary and Rondevlei floodplain within the WLS, and to
determine whether there is a difference in diversity and abundance between the two sites
and if this could be connected to anthropogenic influences on the system. The general
approach used point counts to determine abundance and diversity. Additionally focal
observations were used to document the behavioural response of individual birds to various
types of anthropogenic related activities within the study sites. Finally the findings regarding
the presence/absence and influence of anthropogenic activities on the waterfowl
communities at the sites are discussed
STUDY AREA
The WLS is located in the Wilderness section of the GRNP in the Western Cape Province
of South Africa (33º 59’ to 34º 02’ S / 22º 35’ to 22º 46’ E) and comprises of two estuarine
lake systems, the Touw and Swartvlei (see figure 1.) (SanParks, 2012) (Russel et al.,
2014). The GRNP’s climate is often described as moderate with warm dry summers (22 –
25Cº) and cold wet winters (18 – 21Cº), temperatures can reach 30Cº in winter in
association with strong bergwinds (SanParks, 2012). The area receives precipitation
throughout the year with the majority of the precipitation occurring in autumn and spring,
annual rainfall figures range between 500 – 1400mm (SanParks, 2012). To ensure the
protection of these systems, their biodiversity, natural landscape features and culture
assets the Wilderness National Park was proclaimed in 1983 (SanParks, 2012). Rondevlei,
Langvlei, Eilandvlei and Serpentine are all connected by shallow channels and form part of
the Touw system a proclaimed wetland of international importance in compliance with the
Ramsar Convention of 1991 (SanParks. 2012) (Russel et al., 2012). The lakes are all
relatively shallow at 4.0 to 6.5m deep, Swartvlei being the exception reaching a maximum
of 16m deep (Russel et al., 2014). Intertidal sandflats and saltmarshes are absent from the

3. Touw River and mostly found along the upper reaches of the Swartvlei estuary (Russel et
al., 2014). The Touw river estuary together with the Swartvlei estuary is artificially breached
on a regular basis to prevent flood damage to urban developments on the banks of
estuaries (Russel et al., 2014). Submerged macrophytes communities are found in water
levels of less than 3 meters deep in all the lakes and are dominated by water hornwart
(Ceratophylum demersum), fennel-leaved pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus),
filamentous algae and stoneworts (Russel et al., 2014). Common reed (Pragmites australis)
and Clubrush (Schoenoplectus scirpoides) are abundant along the narrow fringes of the
lakes (Russel et al., 2014). Both estuarine and alien freshwater fish species are found in the
lakes.
Figure 1. Map of the study area, the location of the counting stations within the Wilderness
National Park are indicated by the arrows (Adapted from Russel et al., 2014).
This study was conducted at two separate sites within the Wilderness National Park (see
Figure 1). The Touw river site located more specifically on the railway bridge near the Ebb-
and-flow campsite and the Rondevlei Hide site located on the northern bank of the
Rondevlei estuarine lake (SanParks, 2012). The Touw river site permits a variety of human
recreational activities in and the around the lake, with apparent increases in the human
population and activities over weekends and school holidays. The Touw river site falls
within two of SanParks’ special management overlays namely; “Special conservation areas

4. – wetlands” and “Aquatic access and activity control areas” (SanParks, 2012). Both these
overlays specify that the specific area within which the sampling site is situated has been
zoned as such to mitigate the possible impacts of human activity on the Touw ecosystem
(SanParks, 2012). The Rondevlei site allows very minimal interference from human
activities, the only access and view to the lake being from the birdhide. Rondevlei falls
within all the same management overlays as the Touw river site, with “Resource use
management areas – Fishing exclusion area” being an additional overlay preventing any
resource use from the lake, thus restricting the public use of the lake to birdwatching from
the hide (SanParks, 2012).
METHODS
Point counts
Point counts were used at both sites to collect data on the abundance and diversity of bird
species during late autumn/early winter. The counting stations were located at one fixed
point at each site to ensure continuity throughout the study (Ralph et al., 1995). The same
two researchers were always present during each count to prevent observer error; one
responsible for counting and the other for recording of data. Unlimited radius counts were
carried out at each counting station, thus all birds within the visual range of the counter’s
binoculars was counted (Ralph et al., 1995). To ensure the reliability of data; considering
the possible issues concerning unlimited radius counts; the official guidelines for
Coordinated Waterbird Counts (CWAC) as proposed by the Animal Demography Unit
(ADU) was considered during counts (Harrison et al., 2014). Counting flocks in flight (when
they have not been counted yet) and minimizing the disturbance of birds during counts
were some of the CWAC rules followed closely during the counts to ensure the reliability of
data (Harrison et al., 2014). The counts took place between 07:00am and 09:00am at a
minimum rate of twice a week during peak (i.e. weekends, public holidays and school
holidays) and non-peak weekdays regarding human activities over a period of two months
until a full dataset of ten sample counts for each site was collected successfully. To avoid
time biases regarding both bird and human activity, the earliest count timeframe of the day
i.e. 07:00am to 08:00am was varied equally between the sites. The actual counting time at
each site was dependant only on how long it took for the counter to count all the birds within
his immediate visual range. Once the initial count was complete the remaining time was
used to add additional birds to the dataset only if; they entered the visual range of the

5. counter and have not been counted yet or was identified as new species for that specific
count.
Disturbance sampling
Disturbance sampling took place at each site during each point count throughout the course
of the study. Anthropogenic disturbances and their effect on the behaviour of waterfowl
were recorded during disturbance sampling. Waterfowl disturbance datasheets from
Clowater (2008) were adapted to provide comprehensive results during data capture. The
variables recorded during the sampling included the type of disturbance, the reactions of
the birds towards the disturbance, the species being disturbed and the group size of the
species being disturbed.
Analysis of species abundance, diversity, richness and disturbance.
The difference in abundance between the two sites was tested using a Student’s T-Test,
grouped by site only; in the software package Statistica (StatSoft inc. 2011). Species that
are associated with the riparian zone but which also occur inland from the lakes were
recorded during the point counts but excluded from the analysis; these species include
african stonechat (Saxicola torquatus), cape wagtail (Motacilla capensis), common waxbill
(Estrilda astrild), levaillant’s cisticola (Cisticola tinniens), lesser swamp warbler
(Acrocephalus gracilirostis), little rush warbler (Bradypterus baboecala), hadeda ibis
(Bostrychia hagedash), helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris), knysna warbler
(Bradypterus sylvaticus). The similarity between the two sites in terms of species diversity
was calculated using the Margalef’s diversity index (Dᵐᵍ), which only calculates the number
of different species in an area; data was grouped by site only:
Dᵐᵍ =
(𝑆−1)
ln 𝑁
where S= the number of species recorded, and N= the total number of individuals in the
sample (Clifford & Stevenson, 1975). Furthermore, species richness was determined for
each site by calculating the total number of species recorded over the entire survey. Data
on anthropogenic disturbance was analysed using simple mathematical expressions to
produce quantitative data on the dataset. Disturbance events were divided into four
different rating related groups to allow a logical approach for the analysis of the data

6. namely: (1.) high – birds were flushed, flew away and did not return; (2.) medium – birds
were flushed, flew away, and returned to site; (3.) low – birds moved away by swimming or
walking or expressed limited response; (4.) no rating – no birds were present or no
disturbance was noted.
RESULTS
Species abundance, diversity and richness
A total of 35 waterbird species were counted during the surveys (see Appendix 1 for a
complete list), of which only 11 were present at both sites. These were african spoonbill
(Platalea alba), egyptian goose (Alopochen aegyptiaca), giant kingfisher (Megaceryle
maxima), little egret (Egretta garzetta), little grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis), malachite
kingfisher (Alcedo cristata), pied kingfisher (Ceryle rudis), purple heron (Ardea purpurea),
reed cormorant (Microcarbo africanus), white-breasted cormorant (Phalacrocorax lucidus),
yellow-billed duck (Anas undulata). The Touw River site had less individuals per species
(538.00 ind./sp.; p < 0.001), than the Rondevlei site over ten point counts. Thus the
abundance between the sites were found to be significantly different from one another (t =
15.0, df = 18, p < 0.001) ( see Appendix 2, Table 1). The Rondevlei counts were dominated
in both biomass and numbers by red-knobbed coot (F. cristata), with 4363 of the 5370.
Lower, but still significant, abundances, of great-crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus) (n= 305)
and reed cormorant (M.africanus) (n= 288) were also observed at Rondevlei. At the Touw
River counts, out of 209 individuals numbers were dominated by egyptian goose
(Alopochen aegyptiaca) (n= 75), little egret (E.garzetta) (n= 32) and reed cormorant
(M.africanus) (n= 34), all in significantly lower abundances compared to the Rondevlei
counts. African fish eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer), half-collared kingfisher (Alcedo
semitorquata) and little grebe (T. ruficollis) occurred in low numbers at the Touw River
individually contributing less than 1% to the total biomass. Rondevlei counts further
indicated that 25 out of 34 species at the site individually contributed less than 1% to the
total biomass. Red-knobbed coot (F. cristata) was found to be the most abundant species
overall making up 81% of the biomass at Rondevlei and 78% of the total in numbers and
biomass across both sites. Red-knobbed coot was not recorded during any of the ten
surveys at the Touw River site. The species richness at Rondevlei (n= 32) was determined
to be higher than that of the Touw River (n= 15) (see Appendix 2, Table 2). Rondevlei was
calculated to have the highest species diversity (Dᵐᵍ= 3.377) and the Touw River the lowest

7. (Dᵐᵍ= 2.621). Due to the significant difference in absolute abundance between the sites,
few diversity indices provided statistically viable results.
Anthropogenic disturbance
Six different types of anthropogenic disturbances were recorded during ten disturbance
sampling surveys across both sites which include kayaking, swimming, fishing and some
unexpected disturbances such as the playing of birdcalls through electronic devices by
tourists and the opening of the hide shutters at Rondevlei. The majority of disturbance
events were expected to be at the Touw River site as this site allows at least some form of
direct disturbance in the form of low intensity/non-mechanized recreational water-sports
e.g. kayaking and swimming. At the Touw site 25 individual disturbance events took place
whereas only 2 individual disturbances were recorded at Rondevlei (see Appendix 2, Table
3). During the entire survey only seven species where observed responding to disturbance
by humans, these included egyptian goose (A. aegyptiaca), glossy ibis (Plegadis
falcinellus), white-breasted cormorant (P. lucidus), malachite kingfisher (A. cristata) reed
cormorant (M. africanus), little egret (E. garzetta) and little rush warbler (B. baboecala).
Egyptian goose (A. aegyptiaca) was the most commonly disturbed species at a disturbance
rate of 36% followed by reed cormorant (M.africanus) 32% and white-breasted cormorant
(P. lucidus) 23%. The most common recreational activity at the Touw River was kayaking
representing 60% of all recorded disturbance. The “Low” and “no disturbance” ratings
dominated the dataset at 44% and 41% respectively. Kayaking and swimming were the
only two disturbance factors that reached the “High” and “Medium” disturbance rating
criteria.
DISCUSSION
Overall, 34 different species of waterfowl were observed utilizing the sites during the
survey. We predicted that the sites would support different bird species and abundances of
each species in relation with their human-disturbance histories. Indeed our results show
that a site which allows low intensity recreational human activities (e.g. kayaking and
swimming) compared to a site that only allows limited recreational activities (e.g
birdwatching from a birdhide) supports a less abundant and diverse community of waterfowl
species compared to a less disturbed site within the same lake system. About 11% and
49% of all species observed had a strict occurrence at the more disturbed site and the less

8. disturbed site, respectively. However 11 other species (e.g. african spoonbill, egyptian
goose,giant kingfisher, little egret, little grebe, malachite kingfisher, pied kingfisher, purple
heron, reed cormorant, white-breasted cormorant and yellow-billed duck) were found at
both sites indicating their use of a wide range of habitats most likely related to rich dietary
guilds in the WLS (Ntongani & Andrew, 2013) (Russel et al., 2009). It appears that the
presence and variety of foraging sites and fluctuations of hydrological parameters and
human-disturbance are all contributing factors to the variation in abundance, richness and
diversity of bird species in the WLS.
Species diversity, richness and abundance
Data on bird diversity, richness and abundance can provide managers with valuable
benchmarks regarding the detection and monitoring of changes within a system which
might be caused directly or indirectly by artificial manipulation of that system (Boshoff &
Piper, 1992). Marked differences in abundance, diversity and species richness were noted
between the point count stations throughout the study. The presence or absence of some
species between the sites is likely a combination of direct and indirect influences by
humans on environmental variables e.g water and nutrient levels, but can also be induced
by natural events such as prolonged droughts (Russel et al., 2009). Birds are more likely to
spend their energy foraging in areas where they are able to spend more time foraging and
less time being vigilant (Davidson and Rothwell, 1993). To avoid the cause of the
disturbance some sensitive species will adapt their behaviour and natural patterns
accordingly and move to other more favourable areas within the same habitat (Davidson
and Rothwell, 1993). Due to the estuarine nature of the habitat and the management
thereof the diversity of bird species between the sites was within the expected ranges. The
results obtained over the entire survey indicated that the Rondevlei site supports a more
diverse and abundant waterbird community than the Touw River site. The difference in
abundance of species between the Rondevlei site and Touw river site was particularly
apparent. The exclusion of recreational activities at the Touw River site due to a low
species diversity and abundance would not be a fair recommendation to be made since the
study covered recreational activities observed on the river only and excluded any other
urban related and other underlying threats to birdlife within the extended area and its
outlying rural environment. These indeterminate threats should not be ignored however and
management should further investigate the presence and possible effects such threats
might have on the native fauna and flora in and around the lakes. Natural and artificial

9. changes regarding the environmental variables within the WLS has been extensively
studied by SanParks scientific services and more recently by Russel et al.,(2014). During
survey numbers seven to nine a significant increase in species richness and abundance
was noticed at the Touw River. The observation linked closely with the artificial breaching of
the Touw estuary which caused a drop in the water level exposing a larger area of the
littoral zone and mud-and sand-flats possibly providing a more favourable foraging habitat
(Boshoff et al., 1991) (Russel et al., 2009). African spoonbills (P. alba) and little egrets (E.
garzetta) were recorded for the first time at the Touw River utilizing the habitat by foraging
in the shallow water during this period. The water level and the condition of submerged
aquatic macrophytes in the lakes are considered as important environmental variables to
which the waterbird community of the WLS responds to with great sensitivity (Boshoff &
Piper, 1992). During the surveys red-knobbed coot (F.cristata) was found to be the most
abundant species overall and dominanted in numbers at all the Rondevlei counts, although
entirely absent at the Touw river. Waterfowl abundance in some of the lakes (e.g
Rondevlei) is closely related to the macrophyte biomass indicating the significance of local
food availability and suitable management practices regarding breaching (Russel et al.,
2009). The possible reductions in macrophyte availability at the Touw River due to
extended high water levels is unlikely to be the only variable to trigger the absence or
presence of some species due to employment of the artificial breaching policy (Russel et
al., 2009).
Anthropogenic disturbance
A common perception among recreationist seem to be that they have little impact on the
environment compared to extractive users of natural resources e.g livestock farmers or
foresters (Knight & Gutzwiller, 1995). The degradation of land, water and wildlife resources
are often caused by recreationists through increased animal mortality, simplification of plant
communities and disturbance and displacement of wildlife (Knight & Gutzwiller, 1995). The
WNP and the greater GRNP both make use of special management overlays or zones
which dictate the recreational usage of wetland areas within the parks (SanParks, 2012).
Zones are designed based on criteria regarding the environmental sensitivity of a site and
the value it holds in terms of scenic, heritage and biophysical resource (SanParks, 2012).
The zoning plan is used as a framework in and around the parks to guide managers in the
co-ordination of conservation objectives in relation to visitor and tourism initiatives
(SanPark, 2012). Rondevlei is listed under two special management overlays known as

10. “Special conservation areas – wetlands” and “Resource use management areas – fishing
exclusion area” (SanParks, 2012). These overlays aim to minimize tourist and development
impacts as well as impacts associated with bait collection and fishing (SanParks, 2012).
The Touw river is also listed under two special management overlays known as “Aquatic
access and activity control areas – speed controlled areas” and “Aquatic access and activity
control areas – canoes are allowed, but motorized boats are prohibited” (SanParks, 2012).
The aims of these overlays are mainly the exclusion of motorised boats or limitation of them
regarding speed and equipment type, canoes however are allowed in the overlay
(SanParks, 2012). Kayaking, swimming and fishing were the only disturbances recorded
during the study at the Touw River. Kayaking was by far the most dominant disturbance
recorded at 60% of all recorded disturbance events, followed by swimming 32%. The lack
of disturbance and/or birds was noteworthy at the Touw River at times, often disturbance
factors were present but no birds were observed in the immediate presence of such factors,
thus disturbance sampling provided no concrete visual results regarding direct disturbance
at these times. However, when birds were present and exposed to the elements of
disturbance present they often showed no dramatic changes in their behaviour, but often
just slowly moved away from the threat without leaving the habitat entirely. The human
activity on the eastern bank of the Touw River and vehicle traffic crossing the old railroad
bridge within the same site should be considered as possible disturbance factors as well.
As Burton et al., (2002) suggested that sustained impacts on waterbird communities should
be expected in the vicinity of railroads, roads and footpaths. Most species might move away
from the persistent human disturbance, whereas other species might continue to use the
disturbed sites (Burton et al., 2002). The abundance of Egyptian Goose at the Touw River
site and their absence at Rondevlei might support the theory that some waterfowl species
are more tolerant to disturbance than others (Burton et al., 2002). The playbacks of bird
territorial calls and to a lesser extend the flushing of birds due to the opening of the shutters
of the hide were the most noteworthy disturbances observed at the Rondevlei Hide. Range
restricted and threatened species of birds can be negatively affected by recorded
vocalizations played by birdwatchers at the hide (Harris & Haskell, 2013). The playback of
such recordings may alter the behaviour of individual birds or pairs by forcing them to
spend their energy reacting to the threat and less time foraging, making them more
vulnerable to predation (Harris & Haskell, 2013).

11. AKNOWLEDGEMETS
Thank you to Willem Matthee for providing guidance and support throughout the project and
fellow conservation student Pierre Mouski for assisting with data capture and planning of
the project
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CLOWATER, J.S. 2008. Disturbance to birds on the Esquimalt Lagoon Migratory Bird
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DAVIDSON, N.C & ROTHWELL, P.I. 1993. Disturbance to waterfowl on estuaries: the
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HARRIS, C & HASKELL, D.G. 2013. Simulated Birdwatchers’ Playback Affects the
behaviour of Two Tropical Birds. Plos ONE 8(10) 1-8

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dd225f4a1d745926052ca.pdf?sequ ence=1. Accessed 07/07/15
NTONGANI, W.A & ANDREW, S.M. 2013. Bird species composition and diversity...in
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RALPH, J.C., DROEGE, S & SAUER, J.R, 1995. Managing and Monitoring Birds Using
Point Counts: Standards and Applications. USDA Forest Service.
RUSSEL, I.A, RANDALL, R.M & HANEKOM, M. 2009. Relationship between the biomass
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13. APPENDIX 1 Total number of each species counted at the Touw River and Rondevlei hide.
Number of individuals
Species Touw Rondevlei
African Darter 4 0
African Fish Eagle 1 0
African Rail 0 3
African snipe 0 1
African spoonbill 8 6
Black Crake 0 7
Blacksmith Plover 11 0
Blackwinged Stilt 0 5
Cape shoveler 0 30
Caspian Tern 0 2
Common Moorhen 0 11
Egyptian goose 75 7
Giant Kingfisher 5 1
Glossy Ibis 0 6
Great crested Grebe 0 305
Grey-headed Gull 0 17
Grey Heron 0 3
Half collared kingfisher 1 0
Hottentot Teal 0 2
Little Egret 32 18
Little Grebe 1 78
Malachite Kingfisher 7 19
Pied Kingfisher 3 15
Purple Heron 2 13
Purple Swamphen 0 10
Red billed Teal 0 51
Red knobbed coot 0 4363
Reed Cormorant 34 288
Southern Pochard 0 22
Spurwinged goose 0 3
Three banded Plover 0 8
White-backed duck 0 2
White breasted Cormorant 12 36
Yellow Billed Duck 13 38
Number of individuals 209 5370
Number of species 15 34
Number of species in common (j) 11

14. APPENDIX 2
Table 1. The analysis of species abundance for the Touw River and Rondevlei point counts
Table 2. The analysis of species richness for the Touw River and Rondevlei point counts
Table. 3 The analysis of disturbance using ratings for different reactions toward disturbance factor.
T-Test Values
Touw River mean 20.900
Rondevlei mean 538.000
t-value -15.018
df 18.000
P 0.000
Standard Deviation (Touw) 15.947
Standard Deviation (Rondevlei) 107.711
F-ratio variances 45.618
p-variances 0.000
Point Count Station
Average Number
Individuals
Cumulative Species
Richness
Touw River 17.42 15
Rondevlei 448.33 32
Average (Both sites) 232.875 23.5
Cumulative 465.75 47
Difference 25.74 2.13
Disturbance Ratings Type
Touw
(number of
individuals
disturbed)
High
(Flush/ Fly away, do not
return) 2
Medium
(Flush/ Fly away, return to
perch) 2
Low
(Move away slowly, no
reaction 12
No disturbance
No birds were present, no
birds reacted to
disturbance in any way, no
anthrophogenic
disturbance noted 11