The brain has an extremely high metabolic demand, utilizing 20% of total oxygen and glucose consumption despite making up only 2% of body weight. The majority of this energy is used to maintain membrane potentials through ion transport mechanisms like the sodium-potassium pump. The brain relies almost exclusively on glucose as an energy source, consuming around 120 grams per day. While fatty acids cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, the brain can derive up to 50% of its energy from ketone bodies during prolonged starvation after three weeks of adaptation. Neurons primarily use lactate and pyruvate produced by astrocytes as an energy source rather than glucose. Astrocytes also play a key role in recycling the neurotransmitter glutamate and producing

1. ENERGY METABOLISM OF
THE BRAIN

2. ENERGY METABOLISM OF THE CNS
Although brain constitutes only 2 % of the total body weight its metabolic demands are
extremely high. It utilizes around 20 % of the total oxygen and 20 % of the total glucose
consumption. The biggest share of its consumption is used to maintain the membrane
potential through Na /K -ATPase and other processes involved in transport of ions across
the membrane.
Brain is at the same time the most sensitive organ to oxygen or glucose deficit. Shortage
of oxygen causes unconsciousness within few tenths of seconds and the damage to
neurons becomes irreversible after about 5 minutes

3. This means that the brain metabolism utilizes almost exclusively saccharide
sources, particularly glucose. Its daily consumption is about 120 g.
Regarding other energy sources, our brain (unlike most of the other peripheral
tissues) does not utilize fatty acids. Transported in bloodstream bound to the
albumin, fatty acids are unable to cross the hematoencephalic barrier. However,
during a long-term starvation brain metabolism adapts to the consumption of
ketone bodies (synthesized from the excess of acetyl-CoA). A full adaptation
develops approximately within three weeks of starvation. After this period, the
brain is able to cover up to 50% of its energy expenditure from the oxidation of
ketone bodies.

4. The main energy substrate of brain is glucose. It is, however consumed
mainly by astrocytes. Neurons themselves utilize other substrates: primarily
lactate and pyruvate. These substances are produced and released into the
extracellular space by astrocytes and followed by an absorption into neurons.
The production of a lactate in astrocyte is coupled with the activity of neuron.

5. Apart from glucose metabolism astrocytes play an important role in the
recycling of glutamate (the most important excitatory neurotransmitter
in CNS). Glutamate from the synaptic cleft is transported into the
astrocytes through symport with sodium cations (EAAT 1 and 2
transporters). Increased concentration of Na in astrocyte causes an
activation of Na /K -ATPase, which restores the electrochemical
gradient necessary for transport. Astrocytes convert glutamate into
glutamine and return it back to the neuron to the further utilization.
Both of the above-mentioned processes require ATP

6. Interaction between the neurons and astrocytes works in the following
way: when the activity of neuron is high (requiring large amounts of
lactate), it secretes a lot of glutamate into the synaptic cleft. Increased
transport of glutamate into the astrocyte activates Na /K - ATPase and
the conversion of glutamate into glutamine. The consumption of ATP
increases and its amount in astrocyte drops. This stimulates the
glycolysis leading to an increase in glucose intake from the blood and
ATP synthesis. More lactate is produced the same time, which is than
utilized by neurons.

7. Astrocytes contain small quantities of glycogen that undergo an
intense metabolism (degradation and resynthesis). Glycogen acts as a
short-term energy reserve (until the supply of glucose is increased).

9. METABOLISMS OF AMMONIA IN THE CNS
Ammonia is able to freely cross the hematoencephalic barrier. If its
concentration in blood increases (the upper physiological limit is
around 50 μmol/l) it significantly interferes with the brain metabolism.
Ammonia incorporates into α-ketoglutarate and glutamate thus
stopping the Krebs cycle and causing a depletion of ATP together with
accumulation of glutamine and glutamate in astrocytes. Metabolisms
of both astrocytes and neurons collapse.

10. Excess of glutamate leads to a disruption in its transport from synaptic
cleft and to socalled excitotoxic neuronal damage with an impaired
neurotransmission. Excessive glutamate (that the neurons are unable
to get rid of) causes a change in osmotic relationship between the
inner and outer environment. The resulting influx of water leads to a
brain edema (intracellular at first and later extracellular as well).

11. There are many conditions that may cause hyperammonemia, for
example an insufficient synthesis of urea due to the damage to liver
function. Especially quick (so-called fulminant) liver failure (e.g.
paracetamol poisoning) leads to a set of symptoms called liver
encephalopathy. They are caused by the toxicity of ammonia and
according to the severity of symptoms (confusion, disorientation,
agitation, unconsciousness or coma) we recognize four grades of this
encephalopathy (I-IV).

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