Biology.pdf

Dr.Emad Al-Rashidi Biology Lec 1
Introduction

Biology: is the scientific study of living systems.
(Bio-) means life & (-logy) means science.
Biology is divided into sub science:
1. Zoology: deals with study of animals.
2. Botany: deals with study of plants.
Both (Zoology & Botany) are branched into:
A. Morphology: the study of form & it's development.
B. Cytology: the study of cell structure.
C. Histology: the study of tissue structure.
D. Anatomy: the study of gross structure.
E. Embryology: the study of formation & development of embryos.
F. Physiology: the study of life function of cells & organs.
G. Ecology: the study of the interaction of organisms with one another
& with their physical environment.
H. Genetics: the study of variations & heredity.

Kingdoms of organisms
Early classification of organisms recognized only two kingdoms
(Plants & Animals).
Plants were distinguished as being nonmotile organisms with rigid
cell walls capable of using sunlight as a source of energy.
Animal were recognized for their ability to move & inability to
derive energy directly from sunlight.
Advanced in our knowledge led to major classification changes.
A five kingdom classification system became widely followed and
this division of living things into five kingdoms must be viewed as
a widely-accepted theory.

Prokaryotic organisms
The archaebacteria are one of the two prokaryotic kingdoms, they
live only in very special environment some of them live under
strictly unaerobic conditions, others live in environment with very
high salt concentrations.
The second prokaryotic kingdom now called eubacteria which
include the more commonly known bacteria & the blue-green
cyanobacteria which single – celled organism.
Homeostasis: is maintaining relatively stable internal condition in
organism.
Organisms are classified into five kingdoms members of monera
(bacteria) are prokaryotic organisms in the other four kingdoms
eukaryotic.

Protista consist of many groups that generally unicellular &
have given rise to three primarily multicellular kingdoms.
Monera Prokaryotic Absent Non-photosynthesis in some Polysaccharides, Amino
acids
Protista Eukaryotic Present Present in some Present in some
Fungi Eukaryotic Present Absent Chitin, Other non-
cellulose
polysaccharides
Plantae Eukaryotic Present Present Cellulose, Other
polysaccharides
Animalia Eukaryotic Present Absent Absent

The Cell Wall
Non all living things have cell walls, most notably animals & many
of the more animal - like protistants.
Bacteria have cell walls containing peptidoglycan. Plant cell have
a variety of chemicals incorporated in their cell walls.
Cellulose is the most common chemical in the plant primary cell
wall.
Some plant cells also have lignin & other chemicals embedded in
their secondary walls.
The cell wall is located outside the plasma membrane
plasmodesmata are connections through which cells
communicate chemically with each other through their thick
walls.

Fungi & many protists have cell walls although they do not
contain cellulose.
Rather a variety of chemicals (chitin for fungi).
Kingdoms of organisms
Early classification of organisms recognizes only two kingdoms.
(Plants & Animals) Advances in our knowledge made possible by
electron microscopy particularly the discovery of the profound
structural differences between prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells, led
to major classification changes. A five-kingdom classification
system that became widely followed was first proposed in 1963.

The classifications are:
Archaebacteria: A small group of organisms some of them
adapted to extremely hot environment & many producing
methane as a product of metabolism, Nucleic acid sequences of
these organisms show them to be only distantly related to
Eubacteria.
Eubacteria: The vast majority of prokaryotic organism including
the typical bacteria & cyanobacteria (blue- green bacteria), no
well-defined nucleus or nuclear envelope, no any type of
organelle (such as mitochondria or endoplasmic reticulum that
requires internal membranes.

Protista: Eukaryotic unicells without plastids or cell walls various
adaptations for locomotions may be present (cilia in one group,
whip-like flagella in another group , pseudopods in the largest
group).
Plantae: Eukaryotic organisms with plastids including various
algae, ferns, conifers & a vast array of ﬂowering plants. Most
plants have non motile life, all Possess chlorophyll are capable of
carrying out photosynthesis, using sunlight.

Animalia
Eukaryotic organisms without plastids, usually possessing a life
stage with at least some locomotor capabilities & developing by
means of an embryonic stage consisting of a hollow ball of cells.
(blastula) No chlorophyll, no cell walls.
The Fungi are eukaryotic organisms with cell walls, reproducing
by means of spores includes molds, yeasts, mushroom etc.
Prokaryotes
In the last century, biologists realized that many of the simple
organisms that constitute the microbial world did not ﬁt well into
either the plant or animal kingdoms.
Subsequent advances in microscopy revealed the prokaryotic cells
to reflect their lack of true nucleus (bacteria). The algae, fungi &
protozoa as well as plant & animal cells are termed eukaryotic
cells.

Bacterial cell envelope
The cell envelope or cell wall lies outside the cytoplasmic
membrane & it is the structure that determines the shape of the
cell & provides the rigidity & strength. Because the cell envelope
makes contact with the environment, its constituents are the
major antigenic determinants of the cell and some of them
contribute directly to the virulence of the organism.
Bacteria can be divided into two groups on the basis of their
reaction in the gram - staining procedure. The wall of g+ bacteria
is seen to be thick & homogenous, sometimes having distinctive
structures or dense layers at the inner & outer surfaces. The inner
surface is always in contact with cytoplasmic membrane. The
envelope of gram - negative cell is marked by the presence of an
outer membrane that is exterior to a very thin rigid layer. This
envelope is only rarely attached to the cytoplasmic membrane.

Major designations the kingdoms
The original two kingdoms were plantae and Animalia, which
remained the only kingdoms until the middle of the 20th Century.
During the last 40-50 years, those groups have been splintered a
bit - Fungi was split off
from the Plants, Protista removed the single-celled eukaryotes
(and the problems of their often-combined characteristics) and
Monera was made for the prokaryotes. Those ﬁve Kingdoms were
considered “the" Kingdoms in most basic biology books, even
though the splintering has continued.

The latest basic books now recognize a sixth group, the Archaea,
once thought to be odd monera / bacteria but now considered a
fundamentally different group.
Many advanced systems (mostly in the plant and microbe areas)
add a Domain level above the Kingdoms; most commonly, there
are three domains. The Monera and Archaea (seen below as
Kingdoms) are each Domains, with the rest of the Kingdoms in
the Eukaryota Domain.

MONERA
Prokaryotes (no nucleus); always unicellular (single-celled). Bacteria. May
have plant, fungus, or animal characteristics.
ARCHAEA
Prokaryotes; always unicellular. Often adapted to unusual and/or extreme
conditions, such as very hot, very salty, or no-oxygen environments. Have
several different cellular chemistries from Monera.
PROTISTA
Eukaryotes (nucleus in cell); mostly unicellular, or collections of very similar
cells. May have plant, fungus, or animal characteristics.
PLANTAE
Eukaryotes; multicellular; capable of photosynthesis, production of complex
molecules from simple molecules using light.
ANIMALIA
Eukaryotes; multicellular; must obtain complex food molecules from external
source, broken down and absorbed internally. Usually capable of movement.
FUNGI
Eukaryotes; almost all multicellular; must obtain complex food molecules
from external source, absorbed through external surface. Almost never
capable of movement.

Branches of biology
These are the main branches of biology:
• Aerobiology – the study of airborne organic particles.
• Agriculture – the study of producing crops from the land,
with an emphasis on practical application.
• Anatomy – the study of form and function, in plants,
animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans.
• Arachnology – the study of arachnids.
• Astrobiology – the study of evolution, distribution, and
future of life in the universe – also known as exobiology,
exopaleontology, and bioastronomy.
• Biochemistry – the study of the chemical reactions required
for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular
level.

• Bioengineering – the study of biology through the means of
engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and
especially related to biotechnology.
• Biogeography – the study of the distribution of species
spatially and temporally.
• Bioinformatics – the use of information technology for the
study, collection, and storage of genomic and other
biological data.
• Biomathematics (or Mathematical biology) – the
quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes,
with an emphasis on modeling.
• Biomechanics – often considered a branch of medicine, the
study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on
applied use through prosthetics or orthotics.

• Biomedical research – the study of health and disease.
• Biomusicology – the study of music from a biological point of
view.
• Biophysics – the study of biological processes through
physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally
used in the physical sciences.
• Biotechnology – a new and sometimes controversial branch
of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter,
including genetic modification and synthetic biology.
• Building biology – the study of the indoor living environment
.
• Botany – the study of plants.

• Cell biology – the study of the cell as a complete unit, and the
molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living
cell.
• Conservation biology – the study of the preservation,
protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural
ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife.
• Cryobiology – the study of the effects of lower than normally
preferred temperatures on living beings.
• Developmental biology – the study of the processes through
which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure.
• Ecology – the study of the interactions of living organisms
with one another and with the non-living elements of their
environment.

• Embryology – the study of the development of embryo
(from fecundation to birth).
• Entomology – the study of insect.
• Environmental biology – the study of the natural world, as a
whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by
human activity.
• Epidemiology – a major component of public health
research, studying factors affecting the health of
populations.
• Epigenetics – the study of heritable changes in gene
expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms
other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence.
• Ethology – the study of animal behavior.
• Evolutionary biology – the study of the origin and descent of
species over time

• Genetics – the study of genes and heredity.
• Hematology (also known as Haematology) – the study of
blood and blood-forming organs.
• Herpetology – the study of reptiles and amphibians.
• Histology – the study of cells and tissues, a microscopic
branch of anatomy.
• Ichthyology – the study of fish.

Dr.Emad Al-Rashidi Biology Lec 2 1
The characteristics &
variety of living things
The characteristics of life

Biology: is the study of living things, but it has not yet produced a definition of
life it has, however, produced a list of the characteristics of life it has done this
by studying the differences between living & non living things All living things
on earth are characteristics
by
1- Movement , 2- Sensitivity , 3- Reproduction , 4- Respiration , 5-
Feeding 6- Growth , 7- Secretion
These characters define the life:
Metabolism & Enzymes
Metabolism is a word used to describe all the chemical changes within on
organism which are necessary for life. For example, carbon dioxide & water
are metabolites used in the process of photosynthesis.

There are two different types of metabolism
1. Catabolism: is process in which complex substances are broken down
into simpler ones, resulting in the release of energy. During respiration, for
example, Glucose sugar is broken down into Carbon dioxide gas & water,
releasing energy for life
2. Anabolism: ls a process which uses energy released during catabolism to
build up complex substances from simpler ones Examples of anabolism
are photosynthesis & all the processes of growth & repair in the bodies of
organisms
Enzymes: Metabolism would occur very slowly or not at all if it were not for
chemicals called enzymes. Enzymes speed up chemical changes inside
organisms without themselves during the changes Each type of enzyme acts
as a catalyst for only one type of chemical changes

Biological Classification
Organisms are first divided into very large groups called Kingdoms. most
organisms can be placed in either. The plant kingdoms or the animal
kingdoms. some simple organisms which cannot easily be fitted into either of
these groups can be put together into the protista kingdoms. These large
groups are then gradually broken down into smaller groups, containing fewer
& fewer types of organisms, kingdom dre sub divided into smaller groups,
called phyla (Singular phylum). Each phylum or division is divided into classes,
into the classes are divided into orders, & the orders are divided into families.
Each family is divided into genera (singular genus) & genera are divided into
species. Domain – Kingdom – Phylum – Class – Order – Family – Genus –
Species.

Major differences between Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1- Organisms Bacteria , Cyanobacteria Protists , Fungi , Plants & Animals
2- Cell size 1-2 mm 5-100 mm
3- Organelles Absent
Subcellular membrane organelles
present
4- Intracellular membrane Absent Present
5- DNA Circular & in cytoplasm
Long & linier contained within
nuclear envelope
6- RNA & Protein Synthesized in some compartment
RNA synthesized in nucleus
proteins is synthesized in the
cytoplasm
7- Cytoskeleton Absent ( cell wall ) Present

The Cell
1

Cell structure and function
The cell is the structural and functional unit of all organisms The
development of this concept began in the seventeenth century with
Robert hook s observations on slices of cork. He noticed that cork was
made up of small units, which called cells. A hundred years later,
the cell theory emerged with three principles:
1-All organisms are composed of one or many cells.
2-The cell is the basic functional unit of living organisms
3-All cells arise from pre-existing cells

Cells vary in organization, size, and function. With respect to internal
organization, there are two major types of cells:
A-Prokaryotic (before uncleus) : has no uncleus ; its genetic material
(DNA) is concentrated in a region called the nucleoid, but no membrane
separates this region from the rest of the cell. The cytoplasm contains
ribosomes, thylakoids only in cyanobacteria that participate in
photosynthesis, and innumerable enzymes organisms with prokaryotic
cells are usually unicellular, small cell size no membranes bound
organelles, and have limited capabilities compared with eukaryotic
organisms.

B-Eukaryotic ( true nucleus): has a true nucleus enclosed by a
membranous nuclear envelope, The entire region between the nucleus
and the plasma membrane bounding the cell is called the cytoplasm.
consists of a semifluid medium called the cytosol, in which are
suspended organelles of specialized form and function, most of them
absent in prokaryotic cells.
. organisms with eukaryotic cells are of two kinds:
1-Unicellular: The unicellular eukaryotic organisms are in the kingdom
protista, which includes organisms with both photosynthetic (algae) and
heterotrophic (amoeba, paramecium)
2-Multicellular: The multicellular eukaryotic organisms (fungi, plants,
and animals)

The principal parts of a cell are:
The cell membrane plasma membrane
o Cytoplasm
o Organelles
o Inclusions
The cell membrane
plasma membrane plays an important part in many aspects of cell
behavior it is responsible for creating and maintaining concentration
gradients of many different types of cellular metabolites.

It is a thin structure that separate one cell from others and from the
external environment .The outer surface of mammalian cells consist of a
unit membrane consist of phospholipids bilayer there are charged and
uncharged lipids in the bilayer there are also protein found in the gap
between the lipid bilayer complex oligosaccharides are often attached
both to the lipids exposed on the outer cell surface to form cerebrosides,
gangliosides and other complex glycolipids and to the proteins to from
glycoprotein. The protein molecules are found as integral proteins some
may extend partially or penetrate completely the phospholipids bilayer
among the fatty acid tail, some integral protein unites form minute
channels thru which some substances could be transported into and out
of the cell other integral proteins carry branching chains of glycoprotein's
which provide receptor sites used to recognize and attached to some
other substances like hormones nutrients and other chemicals some
acts as enzymes

Peripheral proteins
Are loosely attached to the outer or inner surface of the membrane they
normally attached to one of the integral proteins.
Function of cell membrane
1- Encloses the cellular contents & separates from the external
environment.
2- Maintains the homeostasis by controlling the passage of substances
into out of the cell.
3- Maintains the shape.
4-Proivdes receptors for chemicals hormones, enzymes. nutrients &
Antibiotics.
5- involves in cell to cell adhesion.

Cytoplasm: Jelly like substance. of 75-90% water plus solid
components. The inorganic substances enzymes & most carbohydrates
are soluble in water & present as true solution.
The majority of these micromole clues are held suspended in the
cytoplasm as a colloid.
Also organells (small organ) like nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, centrioles. Cilia& Golgi apparatus.

Mitochondria
small, spherical irod-shaped or filamentous stracture,consist of
enclosing membrane & an inner membrane which is thrown into folds to
from large internal surface called cristae.The center of the mitochondria
is called the matrix the enzymes involved in generation & releasing
reaction of ATP i.e the respiratory chain enzymes are located in the in
the cristae.ATP is produced in mitochondria by break down of organic i.e
glucose & is sent to other parts of cell for providing energy during
reaction. cells of liver & muscle have a large number of mitochondria
because of their high energy need. The mitochondria matrix has various
enzymes ribosomes, RNA & DNA granules. The plasma membrane is
made of two layers of lipids molecules and proteins. The two layers are
of phospholipids and consist of outer which is predominantly made of
phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelins, and glycolipids The inner later
contains phosphatidylethanolamin, phosphatidylserine and
phosphatidylinositol.

Cholesterol is distributed in both layers. The phospholipids are
organized as bimolecular layer with the nonpolar fatty acids chains in
the middle. The polar regions of the phospholipids are oriented toward
the surfaces of the membrane as a result of their attraction to the polar
water molecules in the extracellular fluid and cytosol.
The lipid bilayer has characteristics of a fluid, like a thin layer of oil
on a water surface. There is considerable possibility of lateral movement
of both membrane lipids and proteins. These features described as fluid
mosaic model of the cell membrane.
Protein molecules are forming large proportion of the cell constituents.
They vary in size, shape and distribution in the membrane. They are
classified into integral, and peripheral Integral proteins are closely
associated with the membrane lipids and cannot be extracted from the
membrane without disruption of the membrane.

Integral proteins have polar amino acid side chains and nonpolar
regions. The Polar Regions are at the surfaces in association with water
molecules, and the nonpolar regions are in the interior in association with
nonpolar fatty acid chains Most of the integral proteins span the entire lipid
bilayer, and are referred to as transmembrane proteins. Some of these
proteins cross the lipids bilayer several times. Peripheral membrane proteins
are located at the membrane surface and they are not associated with
nonpolar region of the lipids bilayer. Some is attached to the membrane
bilipid or glycolipid anchors. Some of the peripheral proteins are anchored to
cytosolic surface and associated with cytoskeletal elements in the cytoplasm
and influence cell shape and motolity. Many of these play important role in
the transmission of signals from cell surface receptors to the intracellular
targets. At some points, sphingomyelins and glycolipids cluster together in
small semi-solid patches termed lipid rafts. These are usually enriched by
anchored proteins (GTP-binding proteins), that move in and out of rafts.
These allow for process such endocytosis and receptor-mediated signaling.

Glycocalyx: Extracellular portions of plasma proteins are generally
glycosylated. Likewise, the carbohydrate portions of glycilipids are
exposed on the outer face of the plasma membrane. Consequently, the
surface of the cell is covered by a carbohydrate coat known as
Glycocalyx (or cell coat), formed by oligsaccharides of glycolipids and
transmembrane glycoproteins. The glycocalyx protects the cell surface
and serves as carrier of markers for a variety of cell-cell interactions.

1
Chemistry of the cell
inorganic , H2O , salts
Organic, lipids, protein , CHO and nucleic acids
Water 75-85% , lipid 23%
organic 1% protein , 10 - 20% CHO according to the size these components are
classified into : small molecules ( sugar water , A-A, nucleotides and F.A.)
macrornolecules (large ) include Proteins , n.A and poly saccharides,each A.A has
amino group ( NH2 ) and carlaoxytgroup (CooH)
A.A are 20 in number making the A.A pool in cytoplasm of the cell
Carbohydrates
Molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with the concentration of
hydrogen and oxygen a toms in 2:1 ratio.
it is an energy source and structural component of the cell.
lt is classified into : monosaccharides simple sugars like ribose ,hexose like
glucose.....etc.
Disaccharide two monosaccharide's linked together with loss of one molecule of
water.
Poly saccharides , long, insoluble polymer composed of sugar , starchs which is
polysaccharides that are storage form of sugar in plants

2
Fast and lipids
Fats large molecules made up of carbon , hydrogen and oxygen
with a hydrogen - to — oxygen ratio higher than 2:1 ,one type
of lipid.
Lipid : composite molecule made up of glycerol and fatty acids
in a case of oils and fats or carbon rings in the case o steroids.
Lipids occur in cells both as an energy reserve and as structural
components.
Triglycerides constitute the majority of lipids and so generally
referred as fat.
Proteins :
Formed from amino acids bounding together by peptides bond
in a poly peptide chains. proteins divided into two types
structural proteins and globular ,proteins.

3
Nucleic acids:
Organisms store information about the structures of their
proteins in macromolecules called nucleic acids.
Nucleic acids are long polymers of repeating subunits called
nucleotides each nucleotide is made up of three smaller
building blocks :
1- A five — carbon sugar.
2- A phosphate group (PO4)
3- An organic ,nitrogen -— containing molecule called base.
To form the nucleic acid chain , the sugars and phosphate
group making up the nucleotides are linked , a nitrogenous
base protrudes.
from each sugar . the order in which the nucleotides are linked
together forms a code that ultimately specifies the order of
amino acids in a particular protein.

4
Organisms have two forms of nucleic acids , oneform
deoxyribo — nucleic acid ( DNA), stores the formation for
making proteins. The other form ribonucleic acid (RNA) direct
the production of proteins.

DNA Replication
The process by which DNA molecules make copies of
themselves by unwinding at intervals along its helix
before cell division A process initiated and coordinated
by enzymes free nucleotides bond to the exposed
bases producing two new DNA strands each identical
to one another and to the original double strand from
which they were replicated DNA carries a code that
directs the synthesis of poly peptides pieces of
enzymes and other proteins that regulate the growth,
development and daily functioning of cells, each
hereditary unit or gene codes for one poly peptide.
1

Gene
A unit of heredity formed of a sequence of nucleotides
that codes for the amino acid sequence of poly peptide
Messenger RNA
A type of RNA that brings information from the DNA
within the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
and directs poly peptide synthesis
2

Transcription
The first step in the process of poly peptide synthesis and gene
expression in which gene is copied into a strand of messenger
RNA
Translation
The second step of gene expression in which the mRNA using its
copied DNA code directs the synthesis of a poly peptide
Cell division growth and reproduction
Mitosis: is a process of cell division that produces two identical
cells from an original parent cell
3

Meiosis: is a process of cell division that Meiosis produces four
cells from one parent cell each of these four cells has one set of
genetic information rather than two sets like the parent cell.
Cell cycle
The time from the generation of anew cell until it reproduces
The cell cycle includes interphase nuclear division and cyto
plasmic division
Interphase
The portion of the cell cycle preceding mitosis in which the cell
grows and carries out life functions. during this time the cell also
doubles in size and produces an exact copy of its heredity
material DNA, as it prepares for cell division
4

types of reproduction
Sexual reproduction
A type of reproduction that involves the fusion of gametes to
produce the first cell of anew individual
Asexual reproduction
The production of anew individual without the union of gametes
e g many plants simple animals like hydra.
5

Microtubules
straight slender cylindrical structures Consist of Protein Called tubulin They
dispersed in the cytoplasm together with microfilaments, help to provide
support and shape for cells. Microtubules form the structure of entrails
flagella and cilia.
How substances move into and out of cells?
-- There are three types of passive transport :
1- Diffusion ,2-osmosis ,3- facilitated diffusion .
1- Diffusion: is the net movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration.
2- osmosis: is a special from of diffusion in which water molecules move from an
area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration across a differentially
permeable membrane like plasma membrane.
An example is a hypertonic solution that contains more dissolved material and less
water than the body fluids. ‫الخليه‬ ‫انكماش‬cell shrink ( plasmolysis)‫البلزمه‬
Hypotonic Solution contain less dissolved material .and more water than the body
fluids Cell swell and burst . ‫اي‬
)‫اكثر‬ ‫الخليه‬ ‫الئ‬ ‫الداخل‬ ‫الماء‬ ‫(الن‬ ‫وانفجارها‬ ‫الخليه‬ ‫انتفاخ‬
3-Facilitated diffusion: is the movement of selected molecules across the cell
membrane by specific transport proteins without an expenditure of energy.
‫رقم‬ ‫محاضره‬
8
9

-
2 Active transport: is the movement of solute across a membrane against the
concentration gradient with the expenditure of chemical energy.
3- Endocytosis: A process in which cells engulf large molecules.
)‫)البلعمه‬phagocytosis: cell ingests an organism or organic matter.
pinocytosis: is type of endocytosis in which cell ingest liquid material.
)‫خارجي‬ ‫هضم‬) Exocytose: The reverse of endocytosis.
Fats and lipids Fats:
Fats: molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and one type of lipid.
Lipids: molecules made up of glycerol and fatty acids glycerol fatty acid .
Fatty acid ch2oh
ch2oh
Fatty acid ch2oh
Fatty acid glycerol
• Triglycerides constitute the majority of lipids. and so generally referred as fat .
• lipids occur in cells both as an energy reserve and structural components .
Fatty acids ( organic compounds )‫عضويه‬ ‫مركبات‬ , ( COOH ) ‫تحتوي‬
3
‫الكاربوكسيل‬ ‫مجموعه‬
‫النخيل‬ ‫حمض‬palmitic acid CH2( CH2)14 CooH ⎹ ‫مثال‬
‫محاضره‬
‫رقم‬
10
g
l
y
c
e
r
o
l
13

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