This review discusses the role of bioinoculants in bioremediation and inducing systemic resistance in plants. Bioinoculants like PGPR and PGPF colonize plant roots and promote growth through nutrient uptake and disease resistance. They also play a role in bioremediation by degrading toxic contaminants like PAHs, PCBs, and heavy metals through enzymatic activity. Bioinoculants induce systemic resistance in plants through phytohormonal signaling pathways like JA, ET, and SA which activate defense genes and resistance against pathogens. Studies show various bacteria and fungi are effective in bioremediating contaminants and inducing resistance through these pathways.
Genetic Engineering in Insect Pest management Mohd Irshad
gene incorporation is gaining attention across the globe with the aim of improving plant health, crop protection, and sustainable crop production. This versatile method of Scientific cultivation should be adopted by the growers as it has been investigated and assessed by experts and environmentalists. There is not any kind of toxic effect on mammalian.
— The diseases caused by bipartite Begomoviruses have emerged as overwhelming problem in various cropping systems of Pakistan. The study was conducted to evaluate the potential of induced resistance in mungbean to Mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) disease. In this work, resistance to MYMV infection was induced in mungbean plants by activating the Salicylic acid (SA) pathway using SA and Benzothiadiazole (BTH) as treatments. The resistance was characterized by evaluating symptom appearance and virus titter through ELISA. Elicitors i.e., SA and BTH were applied at different concentrations to enhance the innate resistance of mungbean by the induction of defense related compounds. All treatments were helpful in reducing plant infection but the most effective treatment was the combination of SA@5mM and BTH@150mg/L as compared to virus inoculated control. Three weeks analysis showed peak accumulation of defense related enzymatic antioxidants and phenols in the mungbean leaves treated with SA and BTH. Higher enzymatic activity was observed in elicitor treated plants followed by inoculation with MYMV. As the resistance increased due to the application of SA & BTH the enzymatic activities of SOD, POD, and CAT were also increased during second week after application of elicitors. This study revealed that SA and BTH are potential source for management of MYMV by enhancing the level of protection through induction of systemic acquired resistance.
Role of secondary metabolites in insect pest managementMohd Irshad
SECONDARY METABOLITES ARE THOSE COMPOUNDS WHICH ARE DIRECTLY INVOLVED IN PLANT DIFFENCE MECHANISM SO HERE I ADDED SOME SLIDES WITH KNOWLEDGABLE INFORMATION AND CITED SOME CLEAR CUT EXAMPLES.
Insect-resistant transgenic crops were first commercialized in the mid-1990s with the introduction of GM corn (maize), potato and cotton plants expressing genes encoding the entomocidal δ-endotoxin from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt; also known as Cry proteins). In 2010, 148 million ha of biotech crops were grown in 29 countries, representing 10% of all 1.5 billion hectares of cropland in the world. The global value of this seed alone was valued at US $11.2 billion in 2010, with commercial biotech maize, soybean grain and cotton valued at approximately US $150 billion per year. In recent years, it has become evident that Bt-expressing crops have made a significant beneficial impact on global agriculture, not least in terms of pest reduction and improved quality. However, because of the potential for pest populations to evolve resistance, and owing to lack of effective control of homopteran pests, alternative strategies are being developed. Some of these are based on Bacillus spp., e.g. vegetative insecticidal proteins (VIPs) or other insect pathogens.
Genetic Engineering in Insect Pest management Mohd Irshad
gene incorporation is gaining attention across the globe with the aim of improving plant health, crop protection, and sustainable crop production. This versatile method of Scientific cultivation should be adopted by the growers as it has been investigated and assessed by experts and environmentalists. There is not any kind of toxic effect on mammalian.
— The diseases caused by bipartite Begomoviruses have emerged as overwhelming problem in various cropping systems of Pakistan. The study was conducted to evaluate the potential of induced resistance in mungbean to Mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) disease. In this work, resistance to MYMV infection was induced in mungbean plants by activating the Salicylic acid (SA) pathway using SA and Benzothiadiazole (BTH) as treatments. The resistance was characterized by evaluating symptom appearance and virus titter through ELISA. Elicitors i.e., SA and BTH were applied at different concentrations to enhance the innate resistance of mungbean by the induction of defense related compounds. All treatments were helpful in reducing plant infection but the most effective treatment was the combination of SA@5mM and BTH@150mg/L as compared to virus inoculated control. Three weeks analysis showed peak accumulation of defense related enzymatic antioxidants and phenols in the mungbean leaves treated with SA and BTH. Higher enzymatic activity was observed in elicitor treated plants followed by inoculation with MYMV. As the resistance increased due to the application of SA & BTH the enzymatic activities of SOD, POD, and CAT were also increased during second week after application of elicitors. This study revealed that SA and BTH are potential source for management of MYMV by enhancing the level of protection through induction of systemic acquired resistance.
Role of secondary metabolites in insect pest managementMohd Irshad
SECONDARY METABOLITES ARE THOSE COMPOUNDS WHICH ARE DIRECTLY INVOLVED IN PLANT DIFFENCE MECHANISM SO HERE I ADDED SOME SLIDES WITH KNOWLEDGABLE INFORMATION AND CITED SOME CLEAR CUT EXAMPLES.
Insect-resistant transgenic crops were first commercialized in the mid-1990s with the introduction of GM corn (maize), potato and cotton plants expressing genes encoding the entomocidal δ-endotoxin from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt; also known as Cry proteins). In 2010, 148 million ha of biotech crops were grown in 29 countries, representing 10% of all 1.5 billion hectares of cropland in the world. The global value of this seed alone was valued at US $11.2 billion in 2010, with commercial biotech maize, soybean grain and cotton valued at approximately US $150 billion per year. In recent years, it has become evident that Bt-expressing crops have made a significant beneficial impact on global agriculture, not least in terms of pest reduction and improved quality. However, because of the potential for pest populations to evolve resistance, and owing to lack of effective control of homopteran pests, alternative strategies are being developed. Some of these are based on Bacillus spp., e.g. vegetative insecticidal proteins (VIPs) or other insect pathogens.
The biotic stresses are caused by insects, pathogens (viruses, fungi, bacteria), and wounds. The abiotic stresses are due to herbicides, water deficiency (caused by drought, temperature, and salinity), ozone and intense light.
CHITINASE AS THE MOST IMPORTANT SECONDARY METABOLITES OF STREPTOMYCES BACTERISIJSIT Editor
Fungal phytopathogens pose serious problems worldwide in the cultivation of economi cally
important plants.
Chemical fungicides are extensively used in current agriculture.However, excessive use of chemical
fungicides in agriculture has led to deteriorating human health , environmental pollution, damaged to
ecosystem and development of pathogen resistance to fungicide.
Because of the worsening problems in fungal disease control , a serious search is needed to identify
alternative methods for plant protection, which are less dependent on chemicals and are more
environmentally friendly. Microbial antagonists are widely used for the biocontrol of fungal plant diseases.
Many species of actinomycates, particulary those belonging to the genus sterptomyces, are well known as
antifungal biocontrol agents that inhibit several plant pathogenic fungi.
Another way biological control has been developed as an alternative of chemicals to tock with plant
pathogenic fungi. Considering high presence of chitin in fungal cell wall, chitinase enzyme is camped as an
effective biocontrol agent against phytopathogenic fungi. Streptomyces bacteria are able to produce various chitinase enzymes, chitinases produced by streptomyces belong to the families 18 and 19 glycosyl hydrolases.
The antifungal activity is mostly shown by fomily 19 Chitinases. In comparison with bacterial family 18
chitinases, the specific hydrolyzing activity of chitinase 19 against soluble and in soluble chitinous substrates
has been markedly higher. Considering the importance of family to investigate antifungal potential of
streptomyces bacteria isolated from east Azarbijan region soils based on molecular identification of family 19
chitinase. encoding gene in these bacteria.
To aim the purpose 110 soil samples were collected from East Azarbaijan and 310 strepomyces
isolates were selected using macroscopic and microscopic observations. DNA genomic of all of the isolates
were extracted and PCR reactions was done using chitinase 19 designed primers as marker.
Totally isolates were selected with molecular selection and antagonistic test were done. One of the isolates
exhibit the most strong antifungal activity.
The strain was identified using 16srDNA gene, and the chitinase encoding gene were amplified partially to
prove the PCR selection. Finally the bacterium were introduced as potentially biological fertilizer.
In this slide different fungi are Mentioned and their role as bio-control agents is also elaborated which is reviewed from different research articles cited in reference portion.
Effect of plant growth promoting rhizobacterial (PGPR) inoculation on growth ...IJEAB
Plant Growth promoting rhizobacteria are a heterogeneous group of bacteria that can be found in the rhizosphere, at root surfaces and in association with roots. They benefit plants through Production of plant hormones, such as auxins, asymbiotic N2 fixation, solubilization of mineral phosphates, antagonism against phytopathogenic microorganisms by production of antibiotics, siderophroes, Chitinase and other nutrients ability to effectively colonize roots are responsible for plant growth promotion. An experiment was conducted in the field of National Institute of Agronomic Research of Meknes. Morocco. The experiment was a completely randomized design with six replicates. There were four treatments viz. T1: (control; N0 -PGPR), T2: (N0 +2027-2), T3: (N0 +2066-7) and T4: (N0+2025-1). The results indicated that a remarkable increase in root growth, namely length, the diameter of the rod and the total chlorophyll. A total of three different bacteria colonies were isolated and proceed with in vitro screening for plant growth promoting activities; phosphate solubilization, nitrogen fixation, indole acetic acid (IAA), ammonia production and antimicrobial enzymes (cellulose, chitinase and protease) activity. Among the three bacterial strains, all bacterial strains are able to produce ammonia, IAA production and nitrogen fixation activity, one strain phosphate solubilizing activity, two strain are able to produce cellulase syntheses, Protease activity and Chitinase activity.
Insecticide resistance management strategies in Stored grain pestsramya sri nagamandla
References
Champ, B.R., Dyte, C.E., 1976. Report of the FAO global survey of pesticide susceptibility of stored grain pests. FAO Plant Production and Protection Series, No. 5, p.297.
Collins, P.J., 1996 – 2006. Unpublished annual reports to the National Working Party on Grain Protection, Australia.
Collins, P.J., Wilson, D., 1987. Efficacy of current and potential grain protectant insecticides against fenitrothion-resistant strain of the sawtoothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, L. Pesticide Science 20, 93-104.
Collins, P.J., Daglish, G.J., Pavic, H., Kopittke, K.A., 2005. Response of mixed-age cultures of phosphine-resistant and susceptible strains of the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica, to phosphine at a range of concentrations and exposure periods. Journal of Stored Products Research 41, 373-385.
Collins, P.J., Emery, R.N., Wallbank, B.E., 2003. Two decades of monitoring and managing phosphine resistance in Australia. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection, July 2002, York, UK, pp 570-575.
Collins, P.J., Lambkin, T.M., Bridgeman, B.W., Pulvirenti, C., 1993. Resistance to grain-protectant insecticides in coleopterous pests of stored cereals in Queensland, Australia. Journal of Economic Entomology 86, 239-245.
Heather, N.W., Wilson, D., 1983. Resistance to fenitrothion in Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Silvanidae) in Queensland. Journal of Australian Entomological Society 22, 210.
Lorini, I., Collins, P.J., Daglish, G.J., Nayak, M.K., Pavic, H., in press. Detection and Characterisation of strong resistance to phosphine in Brazilian Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae). Pest Management Science.
Nayak, M.K., Collins, P.J., Pavic, H., 2003. Developments in phosphine resistance in China and possible implications for Australia. In: Stored grain in Australia 2003, proceedings of the Australian Postharvest Technical Conference, Canberra 25-27 June 2003.
Nayak, M.K., Daglish, G.J., Byrne, V.S., 2005. Effectiveness of spinosad as a grain protectant against resistant beetle and psocid pests of stored grain in Australia. Journal of Stored Products Research 41, 455-467.
Schlipalius, D.I., Cheng, Q., Reilly, P.E.B., Collins, P.J., Ebert, P.R., 2002. Genetic linkage analysis of the lesser grain borer Rhyzopertha dominica identifies two loci that confer high-level resistance to the fumigant phosphine. Genetics 161, 773-782.
Consequence upon the geometrically rising world population and the increasing pressure on food items, it has become increasingly necessary to increase food production from the present level. The possibility of achieving this is not only to increase production but also to protect the crops cultivated. Crop protection can be achieved through several means. One of such is the use of pesticides. This paper therefore reviews the use of neem extracts as bio-pesticides among other plant species with inherent pesticidal activities. It is no doubt that the chemical pesticides or insecticides possess inherent toxic substances that endangers the ecological environment, operators of application equipment and consumers of the agricultural products. It is therefore important that we encourage the use of biological pesticides as they affect only target pest, are easily biodegradable, increase farm land fertility, environmentally friendly, cost effective and ease of availability. It is also important that because of the low cost of production of biopesticides it should be encouraged as an option in African countries especially Nigeria in agricultural practices.
PGPR, or Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria, refer to a group of bacteria that colonize the rhizosphere (the area surrounding the roots) of plants and exert beneficial effects on plant growth and development. These beneficial bacteria play a crucial role in sustainable agriculture by promoting plant growth and enhancing plant health through various mechanisms.
One of the primary mechanisms by which PGPR promote plant growth is through the production of phytohormones, such as auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins. These hormones stimulate root growth, shoot elongation, and overall plant biomass production. Additionally, PGPR can solubilize phosphates and other essential nutrients, making them readily available for plant uptake, thereby enhancing nutrient acquisition and utilization.
PGPR also contribute to plant growth by producing siderophores, which are iron-chelating compounds that help plants acquire iron from the soil. Iron is an essential micronutrient for plants, and its deficiency can lead to chlorosis and stunted growth. By facilitating iron uptake, PGPR ensure proper plant development and overall vigor.
Another important mechanism by which PGPR benefit plants is through the production of various enzymes and metabolites that can suppress the growth of plant pathogens. These bacteria can produce antibiotics, hydrogen cyanide, and other compounds that inhibit the growth of phytopathogenic fungi, bacteria, and nematodes, thereby protecting plants from diseases and improving their overall health.
PGPR can also induce systemic resistance in plants, a phenomenon known as induced systemic resistance (ISR). ISR is a physiological state of enhanced defensive capacity against a broad spectrum of pathogens and pests. PGPR trigger this response by interacting with plant receptors, leading to the activation of defense-related genes and the production of antimicrobial compounds, fortifying the plant's immune system.
Furthermore, PGPR can contribute to plant growth by producing enzymes that degrade organic matter, such as cellulose, lignin, and chitin, thereby releasing nutrients that can be taken up by plants. This process is particularly important in nutrient-poor soils, where the availability of essential nutrients may be limited.
The use of PGPR as biofertilizers and biocontrol agents in agriculture has gained significant attention in recent years due to their potential to reduce the reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which can have adverse environmental impacts. PGPR-based products are considered environmentally friendly and sustainable alternatives to conventional agricultural practices, promoting plant growth while minimizing the negative effects on soil health and ecosystems.
The biotic stresses are caused by insects, pathogens (viruses, fungi, bacteria), and wounds. The abiotic stresses are due to herbicides, water deficiency (caused by drought, temperature, and salinity), ozone and intense light.
CHITINASE AS THE MOST IMPORTANT SECONDARY METABOLITES OF STREPTOMYCES BACTERISIJSIT Editor
Fungal phytopathogens pose serious problems worldwide in the cultivation of economi cally
important plants.
Chemical fungicides are extensively used in current agriculture.However, excessive use of chemical
fungicides in agriculture has led to deteriorating human health , environmental pollution, damaged to
ecosystem and development of pathogen resistance to fungicide.
Because of the worsening problems in fungal disease control , a serious search is needed to identify
alternative methods for plant protection, which are less dependent on chemicals and are more
environmentally friendly. Microbial antagonists are widely used for the biocontrol of fungal plant diseases.
Many species of actinomycates, particulary those belonging to the genus sterptomyces, are well known as
antifungal biocontrol agents that inhibit several plant pathogenic fungi.
Another way biological control has been developed as an alternative of chemicals to tock with plant
pathogenic fungi. Considering high presence of chitin in fungal cell wall, chitinase enzyme is camped as an
effective biocontrol agent against phytopathogenic fungi. Streptomyces bacteria are able to produce various chitinase enzymes, chitinases produced by streptomyces belong to the families 18 and 19 glycosyl hydrolases.
The antifungal activity is mostly shown by fomily 19 Chitinases. In comparison with bacterial family 18
chitinases, the specific hydrolyzing activity of chitinase 19 against soluble and in soluble chitinous substrates
has been markedly higher. Considering the importance of family to investigate antifungal potential of
streptomyces bacteria isolated from east Azarbijan region soils based on molecular identification of family 19
chitinase. encoding gene in these bacteria.
To aim the purpose 110 soil samples were collected from East Azarbaijan and 310 strepomyces
isolates were selected using macroscopic and microscopic observations. DNA genomic of all of the isolates
were extracted and PCR reactions was done using chitinase 19 designed primers as marker.
Totally isolates were selected with molecular selection and antagonistic test were done. One of the isolates
exhibit the most strong antifungal activity.
The strain was identified using 16srDNA gene, and the chitinase encoding gene were amplified partially to
prove the PCR selection. Finally the bacterium were introduced as potentially biological fertilizer.
In this slide different fungi are Mentioned and their role as bio-control agents is also elaborated which is reviewed from different research articles cited in reference portion.
Effect of plant growth promoting rhizobacterial (PGPR) inoculation on growth ...IJEAB
Plant Growth promoting rhizobacteria are a heterogeneous group of bacteria that can be found in the rhizosphere, at root surfaces and in association with roots. They benefit plants through Production of plant hormones, such as auxins, asymbiotic N2 fixation, solubilization of mineral phosphates, antagonism against phytopathogenic microorganisms by production of antibiotics, siderophroes, Chitinase and other nutrients ability to effectively colonize roots are responsible for plant growth promotion. An experiment was conducted in the field of National Institute of Agronomic Research of Meknes. Morocco. The experiment was a completely randomized design with six replicates. There were four treatments viz. T1: (control; N0 -PGPR), T2: (N0 +2027-2), T3: (N0 +2066-7) and T4: (N0+2025-1). The results indicated that a remarkable increase in root growth, namely length, the diameter of the rod and the total chlorophyll. A total of three different bacteria colonies were isolated and proceed with in vitro screening for plant growth promoting activities; phosphate solubilization, nitrogen fixation, indole acetic acid (IAA), ammonia production and antimicrobial enzymes (cellulose, chitinase and protease) activity. Among the three bacterial strains, all bacterial strains are able to produce ammonia, IAA production and nitrogen fixation activity, one strain phosphate solubilizing activity, two strain are able to produce cellulase syntheses, Protease activity and Chitinase activity.
Insecticide resistance management strategies in Stored grain pestsramya sri nagamandla
References
Champ, B.R., Dyte, C.E., 1976. Report of the FAO global survey of pesticide susceptibility of stored grain pests. FAO Plant Production and Protection Series, No. 5, p.297.
Collins, P.J., 1996 – 2006. Unpublished annual reports to the National Working Party on Grain Protection, Australia.
Collins, P.J., Wilson, D., 1987. Efficacy of current and potential grain protectant insecticides against fenitrothion-resistant strain of the sawtoothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, L. Pesticide Science 20, 93-104.
Collins, P.J., Daglish, G.J., Pavic, H., Kopittke, K.A., 2005. Response of mixed-age cultures of phosphine-resistant and susceptible strains of the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica, to phosphine at a range of concentrations and exposure periods. Journal of Stored Products Research 41, 373-385.
Collins, P.J., Emery, R.N., Wallbank, B.E., 2003. Two decades of monitoring and managing phosphine resistance in Australia. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection, July 2002, York, UK, pp 570-575.
Collins, P.J., Lambkin, T.M., Bridgeman, B.W., Pulvirenti, C., 1993. Resistance to grain-protectant insecticides in coleopterous pests of stored cereals in Queensland, Australia. Journal of Economic Entomology 86, 239-245.
Heather, N.W., Wilson, D., 1983. Resistance to fenitrothion in Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Silvanidae) in Queensland. Journal of Australian Entomological Society 22, 210.
Lorini, I., Collins, P.J., Daglish, G.J., Nayak, M.K., Pavic, H., in press. Detection and Characterisation of strong resistance to phosphine in Brazilian Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae). Pest Management Science.
Nayak, M.K., Collins, P.J., Pavic, H., 2003. Developments in phosphine resistance in China and possible implications for Australia. In: Stored grain in Australia 2003, proceedings of the Australian Postharvest Technical Conference, Canberra 25-27 June 2003.
Nayak, M.K., Daglish, G.J., Byrne, V.S., 2005. Effectiveness of spinosad as a grain protectant against resistant beetle and psocid pests of stored grain in Australia. Journal of Stored Products Research 41, 455-467.
Schlipalius, D.I., Cheng, Q., Reilly, P.E.B., Collins, P.J., Ebert, P.R., 2002. Genetic linkage analysis of the lesser grain borer Rhyzopertha dominica identifies two loci that confer high-level resistance to the fumigant phosphine. Genetics 161, 773-782.
Consequence upon the geometrically rising world population and the increasing pressure on food items, it has become increasingly necessary to increase food production from the present level. The possibility of achieving this is not only to increase production but also to protect the crops cultivated. Crop protection can be achieved through several means. One of such is the use of pesticides. This paper therefore reviews the use of neem extracts as bio-pesticides among other plant species with inherent pesticidal activities. It is no doubt that the chemical pesticides or insecticides possess inherent toxic substances that endangers the ecological environment, operators of application equipment and consumers of the agricultural products. It is therefore important that we encourage the use of biological pesticides as they affect only target pest, are easily biodegradable, increase farm land fertility, environmentally friendly, cost effective and ease of availability. It is also important that because of the low cost of production of biopesticides it should be encouraged as an option in African countries especially Nigeria in agricultural practices.
PGPR, or Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria, refer to a group of bacteria that colonize the rhizosphere (the area surrounding the roots) of plants and exert beneficial effects on plant growth and development. These beneficial bacteria play a crucial role in sustainable agriculture by promoting plant growth and enhancing plant health through various mechanisms.
One of the primary mechanisms by which PGPR promote plant growth is through the production of phytohormones, such as auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins. These hormones stimulate root growth, shoot elongation, and overall plant biomass production. Additionally, PGPR can solubilize phosphates and other essential nutrients, making them readily available for plant uptake, thereby enhancing nutrient acquisition and utilization.
PGPR also contribute to plant growth by producing siderophores, which are iron-chelating compounds that help plants acquire iron from the soil. Iron is an essential micronutrient for plants, and its deficiency can lead to chlorosis and stunted growth. By facilitating iron uptake, PGPR ensure proper plant development and overall vigor.
Another important mechanism by which PGPR benefit plants is through the production of various enzymes and metabolites that can suppress the growth of plant pathogens. These bacteria can produce antibiotics, hydrogen cyanide, and other compounds that inhibit the growth of phytopathogenic fungi, bacteria, and nematodes, thereby protecting plants from diseases and improving their overall health.
PGPR can also induce systemic resistance in plants, a phenomenon known as induced systemic resistance (ISR). ISR is a physiological state of enhanced defensive capacity against a broad spectrum of pathogens and pests. PGPR trigger this response by interacting with plant receptors, leading to the activation of defense-related genes and the production of antimicrobial compounds, fortifying the plant's immune system.
Furthermore, PGPR can contribute to plant growth by producing enzymes that degrade organic matter, such as cellulose, lignin, and chitin, thereby releasing nutrients that can be taken up by plants. This process is particularly important in nutrient-poor soils, where the availability of essential nutrients may be limited.
The use of PGPR as biofertilizers and biocontrol agents in agriculture has gained significant attention in recent years due to their potential to reduce the reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which can have adverse environmental impacts. PGPR-based products are considered environmentally friendly and sustainable alternatives to conventional agricultural practices, promoting plant growth while minimizing the negative effects on soil health and ecosystems.
— Qualitative and quantitative analysis of selected mycotoxins has been performed in extracts of Conidiobolus coronatus pathogenic fungus cultivated under optimal and stress conditions. Furthermore, the analyses of these compounds in post-incubation filtrates were done. For identification purposes the analytical method allows identification and quantitation of selected mycotoxins including beauvericin , fumonisin B1, enniatin A and B and destruxin A based on high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was developed. Only beauvericin was detected in very low amounts in C. coronatus mycelium extract cultivated under optimal condition. In the extract of C. coronatus mycelium grown on LB 12.3 ± 0.1 µg/g of beauvericin was determined, while in the extract of C. coronatus mycelium grown on MM medium beauvericin content was lower and amounted 4.6 ± 0.1 µg/g. Also the presence of beauvericin was confirmed in postincubaction filtrate extract (MM). The content of this compound was 2.2 ± 0.1 µg/g. In other extracts beauvericin was not detected. In addition, in the tested extracts other compounds were not detected.
Probiotics and medicinal plants in poultry nutrition: a reviewSubmissionResearchpa
The use of medicinal plants and probiotics has recently gained interest since the ban on the use of antibiotics as growth promoters by the European Union in 2006. They are new alternatives to bridge the gap between food safety and production. Medicinal plants are cheaper and loaded with several minerals, vitamins and phytochemicals such as: alkaloids, saponin, flavonoids, phenols, tannins etc. which allows them to perform multiple biological activities. Probiotics on the other hand, repopulates the gastro intestinal tracts (GIT) with beneficial bacteria which controls the action of pathogens and control their population, thereby reducing mortality and improving general performance of an animal by Akintayo - Balogun Omolere. M and Alagbe, J.O 2020. Probiotics and medicinal plants in poultry nutrition: a review. International Journal on Integrated Education. 3, 10 (Oct. 2020), 214-221. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v3i10.730 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/730/703 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/730
Proteomic analysis of the interaction between the plant growth promoting fhiz...kys9723331
Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) facilitate the plant growth and enhance their
induced systemic resistance (ISR) against a variety of environmental stresses. In this study,
we carried out integrative analyses on the proteome, transcriptome, and metabolome to investigate
Arabidopsis root and shoot responses to the well-known PGPR strain Paenibacillus
polymyxa (P. polymyxa) E681. Shoot fresh and root dry weights were increased, whereas root
length was decreased by treatment with P. polymyxa E681. 2DE approach in conjunction
with MALDI-TOF/TOF analysis revealed a total of 41 (17 spots in root, 24 spots in shoot)
that were differentially expressed in response to P. polymyxa E681. Biological process- and
molecular function-based bioinformatics analysis resulted in their classification into seven different
protein groups. Of these, 36 proteins including amino acid metabolism, antioxidant,
defense and stress response, photosynthesis, and plant hormone-related proteins were upregulated,
whereas five proteins including three carbohydrate metabolism- and one amino
acid metabolism-related, and one unknown protein were down-regulated, respectively. A good
correlation was observed between protein and transcript abundances for the 12 differentially
expressed proteins during interactions as determined by qPCR analysis. Metabolite analysis
using LC-MS/MS revealed highly increased levels of tryptophan, indole-3-acetonitrile (IAN),
indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and camalexin in the treated plants. Arabidopsis plant inoculated
P. polymyxa E681 also showed resistance to Botrytis cinerea infection. Taken together these
results suggest that P. polymyxa E681 may promote plant growth by induced metabolism and
activation of defense-related proteins against fungal pathogen.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Digital Tools and AI for Teaching Learning and Research
Bioinoculants
1. REVIEW ARTICLE
Bioinoculants for Bioremediation Applications and Disease
Resistance: Innovative Perspectives
Twinkle Chaudhary1 • Pratyoosh Shukla1
Received: 20 January 2019 / Accepted: 23 January 2019
Ó Association of Microbiologists of India 2019
Abstract Soil microbial species that act as PGPR or
bioinoculants have the capability of improving plant health
and promoting its growth. They facilitate plants for uptake
nutrients from their surroundings. They provide resistivity
to pathogenic pests and also play many roles in the
bioremediation process. Bioremediation is the biological
approach for the elimination of toxic contaminants by the
approach of beneficial microbes. By the consortium of
beneficial microbes and plant, a large number of heavy
metal and organic contaminants can be controlled. With
this advancement of bioremediation, microbial species that
act as bioinoculants also help in the enhancement of
induced systemic resistance (ISR) and their consortium
triggers it by controlling SA, JA, ET and hormonal sig-
naling pathways. Here, this review discusses the progress
made on these areas and how the beneficial microbes that
act as bioinoculants towards triggering bioremediation and
ISR mechanism.
Keywords Bioinoculants Induced systemic resistance
(ISR) Bioremediation Phytohormones Signaling
pathway
Introduction
Microbial species that act as bioinoculants have the capa-
bility of promoting plant growth by colonizing within the
plant root system. They show the various type of rela-
tionship viz. free-living or symbiosis [5]. Particularly in the
soil, plants play a crucial role in maintaining complex food
web by utilizing useful microbes. Various principle and
mechanism are studied for a plant-bioinoculants relation-
ship. In this type of relationship, the root system of the
plant is the chief host due to deposition of photosynthetic
carbon in plant roots. The supreme rich zone is the rhizo-
spheric zone in the ecosystem. PGPR (Plant growth pro-
moting rhizobacteria) and PGPF (Plant growth promoting
fungi) are the most beneficial and useful microbiota for the
health improvement of plants. Basically, those PGPR that
acts as bioinoculant performs their function in different
ways: by the uptake of nutrients and lessening or reducing
plant from diseases [16, 43, 45]. The increasement in the
modernization leads to fateful effects on the world by the
discharge of toxic wastes. According to the EPA report in
2004, more than 35,000 contaminated sites present in
developed countries like the U.S. and in European coun-
tries. Hence, for the elimination of pollutants in soil,
mostly chemical, physical and biological methods are used.
Bioremediation is the beneficial biological process
which is used for the removal and reduction of toxic pol-
lutants from the contaminated soil and environment
[11, 12, 50]. This process is convenient, cost-effective and
causes complete degradation of toxic pollutants. The wide-
spread use of bioinoculants for the remediation process
shows much potential for the reduction of toxic pollutants
by enhancing controlled studies. Various toxic contami-
nants like PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), PCBs
(Polychlorinated Biphenyls), PCTs (polychlorinated
Pratyoosh Shukla
pratyoosh.shukla@gmail.com
1
Enzyme Technology and Protein Bioinformatics Laboratory,
Department of Microbiology, Maharshi Dayanand
University, Rohtak 124001, India
123
Indian J Microbiol
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-019-00783-4
2. terphenyls), PCE (perchloroethylene), atrazine and TPHs
(trichloroethylene) can exist for a long time and cause a lot
of threat for a living being [51]. Hence, for their biore-
mediation, bioinoculants that are used as PGPR are used. In
addition to the bioremediation process, bioinoculants also
improve the health of plants by enhancing their defense
system by the mechanism of ISR (Induced Systemic
Resistance) [40, 42]. This mechanism is activated by JA
(Jasmonic acid)/ET (ethylene) and SA (Salicylic acid),
dependent-independent pathways. It is reported that SA-
dependent pathways are enhanced by the establishment and
activation of PR proteins [21, 59]. P. fluorescens can
induce resistance against several pathogens viz. Spo-
doptera exigua and P. syringae. Many molecular and
hormonal pathways are reported for the defense stimulation
process. SA (Salicylic acid), ABA (Abscisic acid), ET
(ethylene), GA (Gibberellic acid) and JA (Jasmonic acid),
Volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) and phytohormones
play much better coordination signaling pathways during
stress condition and against the various pests [54]. These
phytohormones trigger ISR and mediate another symbiotic
process by the interaction between plants and beneficial
microbes [22, 30]. In addition to this, the tri-trophic
interaction level also has been studied. This present review
describes both the application of bioinoculants, i.e., the
bioremediation process and the hormonal mechanism
implicated in ISR defense mechanism by the beneficial
microbes.
Phytohormonal Effects in Induced Systemic
Resistance
Phytohormones such as ethylene, salicylic acid, JA, cyto-
kinins, IAA (Indole acetic acid), gibberellins and abscisic
acid are the main phytohormones for regulating ISR
throughout tri-trophic interactions [15, 23, 47]. These
phytohormonal dependent pathways can control a lot of
defense response in various ways. JA signaling is the key
ISR pathway which is associated with rhizospheric
microbes against many insect pests. ET and JA dependent
genes, PDF 1.2, HEL and LOX2 enhance the ISR mecha-
nism by the treatment of rhizobacteria against insect pests
in Arabidopsis roots [38]. Rhizobacterial colonization of P.
simiae evokes privileged expression of ET/JA dependent
signaling and cause ISR activation. PGPR enhances the
level of resistance and JA (defense associated and
octadecanoid-derived phytohormone) by root colonization
in cotton plants. By using various mechanisms, B. subtilis
induces resistance against whitefly insect in Solanum
lycopersicum by the expression of JA dependent genes viz.
proteinase and protease inhibitor encoding genes and JA
independent genes viz. terpenoid and photosynthetic genes
[36]. Root colonization by Pseudomonas fluorescens
increased the weakness of Myzus persicae (phloem-feed-
ing) by the expression of PDF1.2 and LOX2. These studies
demonstrate that various rhizobial species including
Pseudomonas and Bacillus have dissimilar effects against
insect pests. Most of the rhizobial strains assist ISR through
ET and JA dependent pathways, but P. fluorescens facili-
tate ISR by SA dependent pathway. It is also reported that
mechanism triggered by PGPR dependent on both SA and
ET/JA signaling pathways. It is reported that MAMPs
(microbe-associated molecular pattern) of various useful
microbes predictable by phytoreceptors that leads to
specific hormonal signals that produced in plant roots.
Molecular pattern of useful microbes like secondary
metabolites, flagellin and LPS can activate immunity and
phytohormonal signals that are triggered by MAMPs
[42, 44]. Expression of the defense-associated genes LOXF
and LOXD are enhanced by B. amyloliquefaciens for the
induction of ISR in tomato plants by the production of
lipopeptide. It is reported many other endophytic lipopep-
tide producing strains of B. amyloliquefaciens like Blu-v2
that helps in the induction of ISR against armyworms pest.
ISR expression against insect pest requires receptiveness to
the ET/JA and SA signaling pathways which depend upon
‘non-expressor of pathogenesis-related genes1’. Organiza-
tion of various signal within plant system activate ISR in
leaves by concurrently activation of ET, SA and JA
dependent signaling pathways. This type of signaling
pathway ahead of the expression of genes that encodes
NPR1 for ISR against pathogens (shown in Fig. 1). Addi-
tional studies are required for the clarification of MAMPs
Fig. 1 Signaling pathway ahead of the expression of genes that
encodes NPR1 by ISR against pathogens
Indian J Microbiol
123
3. that affect phytohormonal signals. Moreover, phytohor-
mones produced by beneficial microbes also stimulate
plant cell division and also their growth under environ-
mental stress condition [10]. The phytohormonal activity of
bioinoculant during stress condition is shown in Table 1.
Specific strains like B. subtilis, B. amyloliquefaciens, B.
pasteurii, B. pumilus, B. mycoides, B. cereus and Tricho-
derma bring out the significant reduction of various disease
by inducing systemic resistance [6]. A snapshot of
enhanced defense strategies of Trichoderma induced
resistance is shown in Fig. 2. It has been reported that
beneficial microbial inoculants protect plants against bac-
terial and leaf-spotting fungal pathogens, root-knot nema-
todes, blue mold, damping off and systemic viruses [27].
Microtitre plate assays developed to find out elicitation of
ISR by Bacillus and compared it with the results of pot
trials in the greenhouse. Peronospora tabacina that cause
blue mold of tobacco has been removed by applying
Bacillus spp. [1]. Actinobacteria also act as bioinoculants
and colonizing the rhizospheric roots of leguminous plants
[19, 46]. Micromonospora strain of Actinobacteria isolated
from root nodules of Alfalfa promotes plant growth by
inducing plant resistance. By in-vitroantagonistic assay, it
was reported that Micromonospora strain had an inhibitory
effect against the pathogenic fungal strain by producing
antitumorals substances and enzymes like proteases,
chitinases and lytic enzyme. Secondary metabolites pro-
duced by Actinobacteria also had an antibiotic effect
against pathogenic fungi [19]. Rhizobial inoculants induce
a different kind of defense mechanism against pathogenic
bacteria, viruses and fungi. Induce systemic resistance
(ISR) utilizes phytohormones (ethylene, salicylic acid and
jasmonic acid) and organic acid in plants signaling and
stimulates the host plant defense response against a variety
of plant pathogens [4, 44]. The response of bioinoculants to
the ISR is felt by the enhanced mechanical and physical
strength of the cell wall and their biochemical and physical
reaction to abiotic and biotic stress. ISR could be triggered
by several bacterial compounds like lipopolysaccharides,
siderophores production, salicylic acid, N-acyl homoserine
lactone, and antibiotics [8, 48, 49]. Microbes involved in
ISR are Pseudomonas and Bacillus pumilus. Zehnder
reported that bioinoculant had improved the ISR against
Colletotrichum lagenarium, Pseudomonas syringae and
Erwinia tracheiphila that causes anthrax in cucumber,
angular leaf spot and bacterial wilt [57].
Bioinoculants Activity Towards Bioremediation
Microbes that are used as bioinoculants enhance the
degradation of toxic contaminants and pesticides present in
soil [53, 56]. Even though, plant growth promoting rhizo-
bial species were earliest used for the control of plant
growth and diseases. They convert toxic organic com-
pounds into harmless compounds. Microbial species have
the capability of degrading both mineralize organic com-
pounds and inorganic compounds by a consortium with
plants. Therefore, the knowledge of effectual pathways for
the mineralization and degradation of toxic organic com-
pounds can play a key role nearby future. Thus far,
microbes with the capability of degrading various organic
compounds like PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) have
been isolated from different places and also their encoding
genes pathways have been studied. Through enzymatic
activity, microbes can effectively remove contaminants
such as TPHs (Total petroleum hydrocarbons), Polychlo-
rinated biphenyls, Zinc, Lead and organophosphates,
organochlorines and carbamates [41, 49]. Toxic contami-
nants degradation capabilities of some notable bioinocu-
lants are described in Table 2. Fungi used as bioinoculants
such as Agrocybe semiorbicularis, Phanerochaete
Table 1 Phytohormonal activity of bioinoculant towards stress condition
Bioinoculants Plant species Effect References
Azospirillum sp. Triticum aestivum Increased uptake of nutrients and water under drought stress and lateral root
formation
[2]
B. subtilis Platycladus
orientalis
Increased also cytokinins production in shoots [26]
B. thuringiensis Lavandula dentate Decreased ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase and IAA production [28]
R. leguminosarum Triticum aestivum Consortia produced IAA and improved biomass and drought tolerance [20]
P. putida Glycine max Increased secretion of gibberellin that improved plant growth [25]
P. brassicacearum Arabidopsis
thaliana
Secretes abscisic acid content that results in decreased leaf transpiration [57]
B. licheniformis Piper nigrum Expressed genes i.e. VA, Cadhn, sHSP and CaPR-10 [31]
Bacillus thuringiensis
AZP2
Triticum aestivum Higher photosynthesis and reduction of volatile organic compounds [32]
Indian J Microbiol
123
4. chrysosporium, Phanerochaete sordia, Auricularia auric-
ular, Hypholoma fasciculate, Coriolus versicolor, Pleuro-
tus ostreatus, and Cyathus bulleri have been reported to
degrade a wide range of pesticide groups like lindane,
phenylurea, phenylamide, chlorinated, triazine and
organophosphorus compounds. It was reported that when
Burkholderia cepacia PCL3, immobilized on a corn cob,
resulted in 94.5% removal of carbofuran [14, 43, 44].
Serratia marcescens DT-1P degraded 15 ppm of DDT and
their further increase in concentration to 45 ppm resulted in
complete loss of the degradative capacity of S. marcescens
DT-1P [9, 36 37].
A large number of plants that can accumulate and tol-
erate heavy metals concentration are described as
Fig. 2 A snapshot of enhanced
defense strategies of
Trichoderma induced systemic
resistance
Table 2 Toxic contaminants degradating capabilities of some notable bioinoculants
Bioinoculants Plant Contaminant Bioinoculants role References
Pseudomonas
putida
(PML2)
Arabidopsis
thaliana
Polychlorinated biphenyls 1. Degradation of PCBs
2. Utilization of secondary metabolites of plants
[34]
Azospirillum
lipoferum and
Azospirillum
brasilense
Triticum aestivum Crude oil Enhancing the development of wheat root system and
level of oil degradation
[39]
Enterobactor
cloacae
Festuca
arundinacea
TPHs (Total petroleum
hydrocarbons)
Promotion of plant growth in the presence of TPHs [13]
Pseudomonas
fluorescens
(Medicago sativa)
Alfalfa
PCBs
(Polychlorinated biphenyls)
metabolized PCBs with
bph gene
[52]
Mesorhizobium
huakuii
Astragalus
sinicus
Cadmium Expression of PCSAtgene [53]
Azotobacter
chroococcum
Brassica
juncea
Zinc and Lead Stimulation of plant growth [35]
Bacillus subtilis Brassica
juncea (Indian
Mustard)
Nickel Ni accumulation [1]
Kluyvera ascorbata Brassica
juncea
Lead and Nickel Plant growth inhibition due to heavy metals [35]
Indian J Microbiol
123
5. hyperaccumulators. Due to the sequestration and high
sensitivity ability of microbes, heavy metals and organic
compounds are used for the bioremediation process.
Microbial species including PGPR have been proved more
effective for removal of contaminants. These microbial
species facilitate the growth of plants by degradation of
heavy metals. The consortium of PGPR increased the
degradation of toxic organic pollutants like creosote and
aromatic hydrocarbon by the enhancement of plant survival
and germination in contaminated soil. It was reported that
remediation technology for the TPHs (petroleum hydro-
carbons) is not so effective. Hence, the consortium of
PGPR and the contaminant degrading of a specific strain of
bacterial species were found more effectual. Recently, it is
reported that for the degradation process, the MPPS (multi-
process phytoremediation system) was developed [44, 55].
In this system, both specific pollutant-degrading bacteria
and PGPR used for the treatment of TPHs and this specific
strain is selected according to the contaminants properties.
These strains easily and fastly metabolize these pollutants
and help in plant growth promotion by enhancing the tol-
erance capability to pollutants.
Rhizosphere Metabolomics-Driven
and Genetically Engineered Approach
As discussed above, rhizobial species that play key role in
the mineralization and degradation of organic compounds
but their metabolic efficiency is not very high. This may be
due to less solubility, high pressure and little microbial
biomass. For this problem, plant exudates are employed to
enhance microbial degradation. While PCB-degrading
microbe that acts as PGPR are found everywhere, but most
of them are not efficient for the degradation of PCBs due to
lack of underneath nutrients. It has been reported that
various plants have the capability of releasing structural
analogs of Polyaromatic hydrocarbons, such as phenol for
the promotion of the growth of PAHs degrading-microbes.
The approach for enhancing microbial biomass via sec-
ondary metabolites that are discharged by plants [34]. By
the foundation of Pseudomonas- Arabidopsis spp. rhizo-
spheric model, secondary metabolites were discharged for
the establishment of that rhizosphere that are specific to
rhizobial strain for metabolizing phenylpropanoids. By
using genetic-engineering methods, characteristics for
using secondary metabolites by pollutant degrading were
also introduced [3, 17, 29]. It has been shown that
switchgrass and canarygrass degraded Aroclor 1248 (type
of PCB) by enhancing the activity of microbial dehydro-
genase. Some researchers reported that various bacterial
species are inoculated into rhizosphere for the degradation
of pesticides and chlorobenzoates [33, 58]. But their
mechanism of degrading is not defined. P. savastanoi and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa degraded various types of toxic
compounds such as 2, 5-dichlorobenzoic acid, 2,
3-dichlorobenzoicacid and 2-chlorobenzoic acid by
enhancing their inoculation in Elymus dauricus (white rye).
It is also found that bioinoculants that have the capability
of degrading 3CBA can also have the degradation power of
2CBA and cause no effect on 25diCBA and 23diCBA [24].
By this type of degradation capability, several pathways
can be studied. Also, when two or more bacterial strain was
inoculated in hydroponic system of plants, then no degra-
dation of contaminants was seen. Hence, it was summa-
rized that phytoremediation of toxic contaminants only
affected by the rhizospheric community present in soil. The
rhizospheric community shows much potential for the
bioremediation of contaminants. With the advancement of
mol-bio techniques, genetically-engineered rhizobial strain
and the contaminant-degrading gene are formed for the
conduction of bioremediation in rhizosphere. For toxic
pollutants like PCBs and TCE, the molecular mechanism
by genetically engineered rhizobial species has been
understood [47]. The selection of appropriate strain for
inoculation and gene recombination in the rhizosphere is a
vital problem. The subsequent criteria for their selection
are considered as (1) Strain must be insensitive or tolerant
to pollutant contaminant; (2) strain has a stability nature
during expression. Rather than these criteria some other
things are also considered. It has been shown that expres-
sion of bph gene in Pseudomonas fluorescens was lesser in
a parental strain that restricted the ability for the degra-
dation of PCBs but grows on biphenyl. Hence, the tran-
scription rate of degrading biphenyl activity has been
enhanced by changing the promoter region of genes. The
endophytic bacteria were genetically engineered for the
improvement of the phytoremediation process of volatile,
water-soluble and organic pollutants. This type of engi-
neered approach showed much improvement in the
degradation of volatile compounds. Phytochelatins (PCs)
and metallothioneins (MTs) are natural peptides that show
high-affinity binding with heavy metals. Phytochelatins has
more binding affinity than metallothioneins towards heavy
metals [7]. For phytochelatin synthase, Arabidopsis thali-
ana gene was introduced into Mesorhizobium huakuii and
then a mutual symbiosis was established between Astra-
galus sinicus and Mesorhizobium huakuii. This expressed
gene showed the production of PCs and the accumulation
of CD2?, under the regulation of specific promoter. Dif-
ferent type of rhizobacteria can be utilized for the reme-
diation process of contaminant soil under legume-rhizobial
symbiosis [18].
Indian J Microbiol
123
6. Conclusion and Future Perspectives
The recent approaches of the interaction between plants
and bioinoculants proved an achievement for the succes-
sive studies. ISR mechanism and the bioremediation pro-
cess that is shown by the beneficial microbes play a key
role in the defense response and removal of pollutants from
plants and soil. Several pathways are activated by the
biosynthesis of defense linked compounds, volatile organic
compounds, secondary metabolites and enzymes. These
pathways are activated by useful microbes when they show
the root colonization process. The chemicals that are syn-
thesized by metabolic pathways act as inhibitors for
pathogens. The mutual role of specific strain and plant
effectively remove pollutants from soil. Genetic-engineer-
ing technologies proved a better extension for the biore-
mediation. This review provided the latest information for
the bioremediation and defense system of plants by ISR.
The selection of advantageous soil microorganisms, that
acts as bioinoculants manage the pathogen more effec-
tively. This advancement adds a sustainable control on the
control of pathogens and defense mechanism by ISR.
Acknowledgements The author, TC acknowledges Maharshi Day-
anand University, Rohtak, India for University Research Scholarship
(URS). PS acknowledges Department of Science and Technology,
New Delhi, Govt. of India, FIST grant (Grant No. 1196 SR/FST/LS-I/
2017/4) and Department of Biotechnology, Government of India
(Grant no. BT/PR27437/BCE/8/1433/2018). PS acknowledges,
Department of Microbiology, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
for their infrastructural support for D.Sc. work.
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