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Bioinformatics as a tool for
understanding clinically significant
variations in cancer
Kalfakakou Despoina, Bioinformatician, PhD candidate
Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory @ NCSR “Demokritos”
Γενετική Κληρονομικών Καρκίνων στην εποχή της
πολλαπλής παράλληλης αλληλούχισης και της
στοχεύουσας θεραπείας
Σάββατο 23 Ιουνίου 2018
∙A Code passed from cell to cell
∙~3.2 bn “letters” in total
∙Encodes about 22,000 proteins
Inspired by:
http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2011/07/14/cracking-the-cancer-code-the-international-cancer-genome-
consortium/
“Bugs” in the Code
Read the
code
• WGS or WES or Targeted Sequencing
• NGS primary and secondary data analysis
Place the
code
snippets
• Variant calling
Identify
the bug
• Variant annotation and interpretation
• Variant filtering
Fix the
bug
• Incorporation of findings in clinical
practice
Bioinformatics
Debugging
Massive Parallel
Sequencing
First Tumor
Sequenced
>20,000 Tumor
Genomes Sequenced
Wetterstrand KA.
DNA Sequencing Costs: Data from the
NHGRI Genome Sequencing Program
(GSP)
Add a Slide Title - 3
Add a Slide Title - 3
For each person
the file containing
all of their raw data
from a WGS
experiment is
~240GB
NGSDataAnalysisOverview
G.R. Oliver et al., Bioinformatics for Clinical Next Generation Sequencing Clin Chem (2014)
In Silico tools for variant effect evaluation
In Silico tools for splicing defect prediction
Human Variation Resources
Common
Variation
Databases
dbSNP
Ensembl Variation
ExAC
gnomAD
1000G
Databases
Reporting
Clinical
Significance
ClinVar
LOVD
HGMD
DMuDB
CIViC
Gene
Specific
Databases
BRCA Exchange
IARC TP53
InSiGHT DB
BIC
Molecular Diagnostics Lab
Documentation of genetic variation in cancer
susceptibility genes in Greece
Knowledge
Distribution
National
Variation
Databases
Scientific
Consortia
International
Variation
Databases
• CIMBA
• BIC
• ENIGMA
• BCAC/OCAC
• ClinVar
• LOVD
Molecular
Diagnostics
Lab
Molecular
Diagnostics
Lab
~6,000 patients tested with NGS for
germline variation Molecular
Diagnosti
cs Lab
• 103 cancer related genes
• 6908 variations
• 3794 variants in non-coding
regions
• 3114 variants in coding regions
• 406 pathogenic variants
• 269 suspicious variants of
unknown clinical significance
(VUS)
Families tested per cancer type
Familial Breast/Ovarian
Cancer
34.51
%
Sporadic Breast Cancer
34.37
%
Colorectal Cancer
23.08
%
Various Cancers 8.05%
31.5% of highly selected BrCa patients carry LoF
alleles distributed in 28 genes
Molecular Diagnostics Lab
1,382 breast
cancer patients
were selected
•Early age at
diagnosis (<35years)
and/or
•Strong family
history (≥three cases
of breast, ovarian
and pancreatic
cancer)
Fostira et al. submitted
FFPE Tumor DNA Sequencing
Pathogenic variants in 8 FFPE tumor samples:
• BRCA1
o c.302-1G>C (VAF=31.3%)
o c.4936delG, p.Val1646Serfs*12 (VAF=9%)
o c.4987-1G>T (VAF=31%)
o c.2761C>T, p.Gln921* (VAF=37.6%)
o c.2923C>T, p.Gln975* (VAF=14%)
o c.4339C>T, p.Gln1447* (VAF=47%)
o c.5497G>A, p.Val1833Met (VAF=12.5%)
o c.5497G>A, p.Val1833Met (VAF=17%)
• BRCA2
o c.6952C>T, p.Arg2318* (VAF=40%)
9.9
%
Molecular
Diagnosti
cs Lab
Targeted
Therapy
Pathogenic
Variant
Identification
Construction
of a pipeline
for FFPE
tumor specific
data analysis
Next
Generation
Sequencing
81 tumor
samples from 76
ovarian cancer
patients
Public Resources for Tumor Sequencing Datasets
18 countries
d: Her2
e, f: Basal-like
c: Luminal
Mismatch
repair
deficiency
Unknown
aetiology
Unknown
aetiology
Homologous
recombination
deficiency
Putatively
APOBEC-
related
Age correlated
Age correlated
420
440
460
480
500
520
540
560
No BRCA1/2
deficiency
Germline
BRCA1/2
mutations
Somatic BRCA1/2
mutations
BRCA1/2
deficiency w/o
mutation
469
22
22
47
Identification of BRCA1/2 deficient breast
tumors
Cell 2018 173, 355-370.e14DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.039
853
Cell 2018 173, 355-370.e14DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.039
1 in 3 tumors with germline mutations had locus specific LOH
Bioinformatics
Medicine/
Clinic
Genetics/
Genomics
Molecular Diagnostics
Laboratory
D.Yannoukakos
I.Konstantopoulou
F.Fostira
P.Apostolou
A.Vagena
M.Papamentzelopoulou
A.Delimitsou
D.Kalfakakou
E.Giannakopoulou
V. Dellatola
I. Gavra
Cooperations - Funding
ΗeLLENIC COOPERATIVE ONCOLOGY GROUP
Panhellenic Association of Women with Breast Cancer “Alma Zois”
θΑΛΗΣ – Molecular Subtyping of Triple Negative Breast Cancer
AΡΙΣΤΕΙΑ Extreme Phenotypes in BReast-Ovarian CAncer: Whole exome
analysis in very early onset (17-35yrs) cases
COOPERATION II
"Detection of New Breast and ovarian Cancer predisposing Alleles using whole
genome next generation sequencing". Duration 2012-2015. Principal
Investigator: I. Ragoussis. (Total budget: 800.000, MDL: 300.000)
Participation in international consortia
Consortium of Investigators of Modifiers of BRCA1 and BRCA2 (CIMBA).
Coordinated by Dr Georgia Chenevix-Trench, Queensland Institute of
Medical Research, Brisbane, Australia.
Breast Cancer Association Consortium. Coordinated by Prof. Doug Easton,
Cambridge University, UK.
Evidence-based Network for the Interpretation of Germline Mutant Alleles –
ENIGMA. Coordinated by Prof. A. Monteiro, Univ. S. Florida, Tampa, USA.
http://enigmaconsortium.org/
Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium – OCAC. Coordinated by Prof. Paul
Pharoah, Cambridge University
Collaborative Oncological Gene-environment Study – COGS. Coordinated by
Prof. Per Hall, Karolinska Institute, Sweden http://cogseu.org
Collaborative genomics for human health and cooperation in the
Mediterranean region. Coordinated by Prof. Mary-Claire King, University
of Washington, Seattle
THANK YOU
Cell 2018 173, 355-370.e14DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.039
Carrier frequency of pathogenic variants in genes enriched in
cancers
Cell 2018 173, 355-370.e14DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.039
RNA expression protein expression
Cell 2018 173, 355-370.e14DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.039
Observing Truncating Variants Does Not Guarantee Low Gene
Expression in the Carrier

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Bioinformatics as a tool for understanding clinically significant variations in cancer

  • 1. Bioinformatics as a tool for understanding clinically significant variations in cancer Kalfakakou Despoina, Bioinformatician, PhD candidate Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory @ NCSR “Demokritos” Γενετική Κληρονομικών Καρκίνων στην εποχή της πολλαπλής παράλληλης αλληλούχισης και της στοχεύουσας θεραπείας Σάββατο 23 Ιουνίου 2018
  • 2.
  • 3. ∙A Code passed from cell to cell ∙~3.2 bn “letters” in total ∙Encodes about 22,000 proteins Inspired by: http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2011/07/14/cracking-the-cancer-code-the-international-cancer-genome- consortium/
  • 5. Read the code • WGS or WES or Targeted Sequencing • NGS primary and secondary data analysis Place the code snippets • Variant calling Identify the bug • Variant annotation and interpretation • Variant filtering Fix the bug • Incorporation of findings in clinical practice Bioinformatics Debugging
  • 6. Massive Parallel Sequencing First Tumor Sequenced >20,000 Tumor Genomes Sequenced Wetterstrand KA. DNA Sequencing Costs: Data from the NHGRI Genome Sequencing Program (GSP)
  • 7. Add a Slide Title - 3
  • 8. Add a Slide Title - 3 For each person the file containing all of their raw data from a WGS experiment is ~240GB
  • 9. NGSDataAnalysisOverview G.R. Oliver et al., Bioinformatics for Clinical Next Generation Sequencing Clin Chem (2014)
  • 10. In Silico tools for variant effect evaluation
  • 11. In Silico tools for splicing defect prediction
  • 12. Human Variation Resources Common Variation Databases dbSNP Ensembl Variation ExAC gnomAD 1000G Databases Reporting Clinical Significance ClinVar LOVD HGMD DMuDB CIViC Gene Specific Databases BRCA Exchange IARC TP53 InSiGHT DB BIC
  • 13. Molecular Diagnostics Lab Documentation of genetic variation in cancer susceptibility genes in Greece
  • 17. ~6,000 patients tested with NGS for germline variation Molecular Diagnosti cs Lab • 103 cancer related genes • 6908 variations • 3794 variants in non-coding regions • 3114 variants in coding regions • 406 pathogenic variants • 269 suspicious variants of unknown clinical significance (VUS) Families tested per cancer type Familial Breast/Ovarian Cancer 34.51 % Sporadic Breast Cancer 34.37 % Colorectal Cancer 23.08 % Various Cancers 8.05%
  • 18. 31.5% of highly selected BrCa patients carry LoF alleles distributed in 28 genes Molecular Diagnostics Lab 1,382 breast cancer patients were selected •Early age at diagnosis (<35years) and/or •Strong family history (≥three cases of breast, ovarian and pancreatic cancer) Fostira et al. submitted
  • 19. FFPE Tumor DNA Sequencing Pathogenic variants in 8 FFPE tumor samples: • BRCA1 o c.302-1G>C (VAF=31.3%) o c.4936delG, p.Val1646Serfs*12 (VAF=9%) o c.4987-1G>T (VAF=31%) o c.2761C>T, p.Gln921* (VAF=37.6%) o c.2923C>T, p.Gln975* (VAF=14%) o c.4339C>T, p.Gln1447* (VAF=47%) o c.5497G>A, p.Val1833Met (VAF=12.5%) o c.5497G>A, p.Val1833Met (VAF=17%) • BRCA2 o c.6952C>T, p.Arg2318* (VAF=40%) 9.9 % Molecular Diagnosti cs Lab Targeted Therapy Pathogenic Variant Identification Construction of a pipeline for FFPE tumor specific data analysis Next Generation Sequencing 81 tumor samples from 76 ovarian cancer patients
  • 20. Public Resources for Tumor Sequencing Datasets
  • 22.
  • 23. d: Her2 e, f: Basal-like c: Luminal
  • 26. Cell 2018 173, 355-370.e14DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.039 853
  • 27. Cell 2018 173, 355-370.e14DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.039 1 in 3 tumors with germline mutations had locus specific LOH
  • 29. Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory D.Yannoukakos I.Konstantopoulou F.Fostira P.Apostolou A.Vagena M.Papamentzelopoulou A.Delimitsou D.Kalfakakou E.Giannakopoulou V. Dellatola I. Gavra Cooperations - Funding ΗeLLENIC COOPERATIVE ONCOLOGY GROUP Panhellenic Association of Women with Breast Cancer “Alma Zois” θΑΛΗΣ – Molecular Subtyping of Triple Negative Breast Cancer AΡΙΣΤΕΙΑ Extreme Phenotypes in BReast-Ovarian CAncer: Whole exome analysis in very early onset (17-35yrs) cases COOPERATION II "Detection of New Breast and ovarian Cancer predisposing Alleles using whole genome next generation sequencing". Duration 2012-2015. Principal Investigator: I. Ragoussis. (Total budget: 800.000, MDL: 300.000) Participation in international consortia Consortium of Investigators of Modifiers of BRCA1 and BRCA2 (CIMBA). Coordinated by Dr Georgia Chenevix-Trench, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Australia. Breast Cancer Association Consortium. Coordinated by Prof. Doug Easton, Cambridge University, UK. Evidence-based Network for the Interpretation of Germline Mutant Alleles – ENIGMA. Coordinated by Prof. A. Monteiro, Univ. S. Florida, Tampa, USA. http://enigmaconsortium.org/ Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium – OCAC. Coordinated by Prof. Paul Pharoah, Cambridge University Collaborative Oncological Gene-environment Study – COGS. Coordinated by Prof. Per Hall, Karolinska Institute, Sweden http://cogseu.org Collaborative genomics for human health and cooperation in the Mediterranean region. Coordinated by Prof. Mary-Claire King, University of Washington, Seattle
  • 31. Cell 2018 173, 355-370.e14DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.039 Carrier frequency of pathogenic variants in genes enriched in cancers
  • 32. Cell 2018 173, 355-370.e14DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.039 RNA expression protein expression
  • 33. Cell 2018 173, 355-370.e14DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.039 Observing Truncating Variants Does Not Guarantee Low Gene Expression in the Carrier

Editor's Notes

  1. Με ποιον τρόπο διαχειριζόμαστε τον κώδικα? Αρχικά θα πρέπει να τον διαβάσουμε. Αυτό το στάδιο αντιστοιχεί στην αλληλούχιση και στα πρώτα στάδια της ανάλυσης των δεδομένωνNGS Στη συνέχεια θα πρέπει να αναγνωρίσουμε τα σημεία του κώδικα όπου ενδεχομένως υπάρχουν λάθη. Το 3ο στάδιο είναι το πιο σημαντικό. Θα πρέπει να εμπλουτίσουμε τις παραλλαγές με όσο περισσότερες πληροφορίες γινεται, ώστε να μπορέσουμε να τις ερμηνεύσουμε σωστά και τελικά να φιλτράρουμε τις παραλλαγές για να καταλήξουμε στις ενδεχομένως κλινικά σημαντικές με όσο μεγαλύτερη ακρίβεια γίνεται. Τέλος, ένας προγραμματιστής θα διόρθωνε τα λάθη στον κώδικά του. Τελικός σκοπός είναι όμως η ενσωμάτωση των ευρημάτων στην κλινική πράξη. Σε αυτά τα 3 στάδια βοηθάει η Βιοπληροφορική
  2. Πώς προέκυψε όμως η ανάγκη για βιοπληροφορική? Στο διάγραμμα αυτό φαίνεται η πτώση του κόστους αλληλούχισης ενός γονιδιώματος σε συνάρτηση με τον χρόνο. Έτσι, ενώ το 2001 χρειαζόμασταν 100Μ για να διαβάσουμε ένα γονιδίωμα, το 2007 μετά την εισαγωγή του NGS υπάρχει μία δραματική πτώση και σήμερα έχουμε φτάσει να κάνουμε λόγο για το γονιδίωμα των 1000 δολλαρίων. Αυτή η πτώση στο κόστος έχει φυσικά αντίκτυπο και στο μέγεθος των δεδομένων που παράγονται. Όσον αφορά το ανθρώπινο γονιδίωμα, Το 2001 έχουμε το 1ο ντραφτ του Human Genome Project, το 2010 βγήκαν τα πρώτα αποτελέσματα του 1000G (179 genomes + 700 exomes), ενώ το 2022 αναμένεται να ολοκληρωθεί η το 1Μ πρότζεκτ Ο ΄πρώτος όγκος αλληλουχήθηκε το 2008, ενώ σήμερα έχουν αλληλουχηθεί περισσότεροι από 20000 όγκοι.
  3. Τα ακατέργαστα δεδομένα από την αλληλούχιση του γονιδιώματος ενός ανθρώπου είναι ~240GB
  4. Δε θα μπω σε τεχνικές λεπτομέρειες Τα στάδια ανάλυσης των δεδομένων που παράγονται από το NGS είναι 3. Στην αρχική ανάλυση, γίνεται η αναγνώριση των βάσεων από τον sequencer και η σύνδεσή τους σε νουκλεοτιδικές ακολουθίες Στο δεύτερο στάδιο της ανάλυσης γίνεται η αντιστοίχιση των ακολουθιών στο γονιδίωμα αναφοράς και η σύγκρισή τους μαζί του ώστε να αναγνωριστούν οι παραλλαγές Στο τρίτο στάδιο οι παραλλαγές εμπλουτίζονται με πληροφορίες ώστε να μπορέσουμε να τις ιεραρχίσουμε και να τις φιλτράρουμε Ο σκοπός αυτής της ανάλυσης φυσικά είναι να καταλήξουμε στις πιθανώς κλινικά σημαντικές παραλλαγές
  5. Στα τελευταία στάδια της ανάλυσης μπορούν να βοηθήσουν διάφορα in silico εργαλεία, που μας δινουν κάποιες ενδείξεις που μας λειτουργούν συμπληρωματικά στο να μπορέσουμε να καταλήξουμε σε ένα συμπέρασμα για τις παραλλαγές που εξετάζουμε. Έτσι, τα εργαλεία που παρουσιάζονται εδώ κάνουν predict κατά πόσο επηρεάζεται η λειτουργία του γονιδίου – Ουσιαστικά ελέγχουν αν η περιοχή είναι συντηρημένη σε διάφορα είδη οργανισμών. Όσο πιο συντηρημένη είναι η περιοχή που εντοπίζεται η παραλλαγή, είναι πιο πιθανό παθογόνος
  6. Τα εργαλεία αυτά εκτιμούν κατά πόσο μία παραλλαγή επηρεάζει τα ήδη υπάρχοντα splicing signals ή δημιουργεί νέα με αποτέλεσμα να προκαλείται μη φυσιολογικό μάτισμα Επομένως με αυτά τα εργαλεία μπορούμε να μελετήσουμε και φαινομενικά «αθώες» παραλλαγές, όπως είναι η συνώνυμες
  7. Clinical Interpretations of variants in cancer Diagnostic Mutation Database Επιπλέον, υπάρχουν διάφορες βάσεις δεδομένων που έχουν κάνει μια προσπάθεια να συλλέξουν όσες περισσότερες πληροφορίες γίνεται για τις διάφορες παραλλαγές που έχουν ήδη βρεθεί. Έτσι έχουμε βάσεις που καταγράφουν τις κοινές παραλλαγές και μας δίνουν τη συχνότητα με την οποία έχουν βρεθεί στον πληθυσμό, όπως … Βάσεις, που καταγράφουν την κλινική σημασία που έχουν οι εκάστοτε παραλλαγές, όπως Ακόμα έχουμε και βάσεις που είναι εξειδικεύμενες σε συγκεκριμένα γονίδια για περισσότερη λεπτομέρεια
  8. Θέλω να σας αναφέρω την προσπάθεια που έχουμε ξεκινήσει στο εργαστήριο. Δεδομένου, λοιπόν, ότι ο Ελληνικός πληθυσμός είναι υποεκπροσωπούμενος στις διεθνείς μελέτες πληθυσμών και με την παραδοχή ότι τα δεδομένα που είναι εξειδικευμένα σε συγκεκριμένες περιοχές και πληθυσμούς μπορούν να μας δώσουν περισσότερη λεπτομέρεια και πληροφορίες που διαφορετικά θα χάνονταν, σκεφτήκαμε να φτιάξουμε μία βάση δεδομένων η οποία θα καταγράφει τη γενετική ποικιλομορφία των γονιδίων προδιάθεσης στον καρκίνο που έχουμε συλλέξει αυτά τα 20 σχεδόν χρόνια που διεξάγουμε αυτές τις αναλύσεις. Η βάση ονομάζεται CanVaS (από το Cancer Variation) και ο στόχος είναι να ανέβει στο διαδίκτυο μέσα στην επόμενη χρονιά.
  9. Επιπλέον, η βάση CanVaS θα διευκολύνει την κατανομή της πληροφορίας, καθώς θα συμπράττει και θα τροφοδοτεί ανά τακτά χρονικά διαστήματα τις καθιερωμένες διεθνείς βάσεις δεδομένων αλλά και τις διεθνείς ερευνητικές κοινοπραξίες που δραστηριοποιούνται στον χώρο του κληρονομικού καρκίνου.
  10. Στο εργαστήριο μοριακής διαγνωστικής έχουμε αναλύσει με NGS περισσότερους από 3000 ασθενείς από το 2014 για γαμετικές μεταλλάξεις. Οι περισσότεροι ήταν ασθενείς με καρκίνο του μαστού, των ωοθηκών και του παχέως εντέρου. Από αυτές τις αναλύσεις έχουν βρεθεί περίπου 7000 παραλλαγές σε 103 γονίδια που έχουν χαρακτηριστεί ως γονίδια προδιάθεσης στον καρκίνο και έχουμε καταλήξει σε περίπου 400 παθογόνους μεταλλάξεις και 269 παραλλαγές αγνώστου κλινικής σημασίας. Οι περισσότερες παθογόνοι μεταλλάξεις βρίσκονται στα γονίδια … που σχετίζονται με τον καρκίνο μαστού και ωοθηκών και αποτελούν τα πιο καλά μελετημένα γονίδια μέχρι σήμερα, ενώ οι περισσότερες παραλλαγές αγνώστου κλινικής σημασίας βρίσκονται στα … που έχουν συσχετιστεί με κίνδυνο ανάπτυξης καρκίνου του μαστού αλλά δεν είναι ακόμα τόσο καλά χαρακτηρισμένα όσο τα … BRCA1/2 are the more well studied genes, everyone knows about them. Mutations in these 2 genes predispose mainly for breast and ovarian cancer. But there are 100 more genes in our database that are not so well studied and of course there are the variants of unknown significance in all these genes that need to be characterized.
  11. Και φυσικά, μιας και έχουμε τόσα πολλά δεδομένα, έχουμε την δυνατότητα να μελετάμε υποομάδες ασθενών. Σε μία τελευταία μελέτη του εργαστηρίου, όπου μελετήθηκαν 1400 ασθενείς με καρκίνο του μαστού με πολύ αυστηρά κριτήρια επιλογής … Διαπιστώθηκε πως το 1/3 φέρει παθογόνο μετάλλαξη σε κάποιο γονίδιο προδιάθεσης στον καρκίνο, με τα περισσότερα φυσικά να βρίσκονται στα ΒΡ1,2 και να ακολουθούν σε συχνότητα τα ...
  12. Επιπλέον, τους τελευταίους μήνες έχει ξεκινήσει μια πιλοτική μελέτη στο εργαστήριο με την χρηματοδότηση της ΑΖ. Σε αυτή τη μελέτη εξετάζουμε όγκους ασθενών με καρκίνο των ωοθηκών για μεταλλάξεις στα γονίδια … Ο τελικός στόχος είναι για μια γυναίκα της οποίας ο όγκος φέρει μετάλλαξη σε ένα από τα δύο γονίδια να πάρει στοχευμένη θεραπεία. Μέχρι τώρα έχουμε ελέγξει 76 ασθενείς και σχεδόν το 10% μπορεί να επωφεληθεί από στοχευμένη θεραπεία
  13. Μιας και μιλήσαμε για όγκους, θέλω να αναφερθώ σε δύο μεγάλες πηγές συνόλων δεδομένων προερχόμενα από νεοπλασματικό ιστό. Το ICGC είναι μια επιστημονική κοινοπραξία στην οποία συμμετέχουν 18 χώρες και συντονίζεται από το Ontario Institute of Cancer Research. Ενώ το TCGA είναι ένα project του NIH. Τι δεδομένα παρέχουν? Για κάθε δότη, έχουν αναλύσει το αίμα και τον όγκο με WES ή WGS, και έχουν εξετάσει τον όγκο με WTS, SNP genotyping, DNA methylation profiling κα. Αυτό που δίνουν είναι τα ακατέργαστα αρχεία και υπάρχουν δεδομένα στα οποία η πρόσβαση είναι ανοιχτή κι άλλα στα οποία είναι ελεγχόμενη.
  14. Στο ICGC συμμετέχουν 18 χώρες και μπορούμε να βρούμε δεδομένα από ~25000 δότες με πρωτοπαθή όγκο σε 22 διαφορετικά όργανα.
  15. Ενώ στο TCGA υπάρχουν δεδομένα από ~33000 δότες που έχουν εμφανίσει πρωτοπαθή όγκο σε 61 διαφορετικά όργανα
  16. Μέχρι το 2000 ένας όλοι οι όγκοι στον μαστό αντιμετωπίζονταν το ίδιο. Το 2000 μελετήθηκε πρώτη φορά η έκφραση των γονιδίων στα καρκινικά κύτταρα όγκων στον μαστό κι έτσι πλέον έχουμε τους διάφορους υπότυπους βάσει του μοριακού προφίλ.
  17. Προφανώς έγιναν πάρα πολλές παρατηρήσεις, Αλλά ένα εύρημα που είναι πραγματικά εντυπωσιακό είναι πως σε αντίθεση με ότι γνωρίζουμε για το two hit hypothesis μόλις το 34% των όγκων που φέρουν γαμετικές μεταλλάξεις εμφανίζουν απώλεια ετεροζυγωτίας στον συγκεκριμένο γενετικό τόπο Παρ’ολο που η συγκεκριμένη μελέτη είναι η μεγαλύτερη που έχει πραγματοποιηθεί μέχρι σήμερα, αξίζει να τονίσουμε πως μιλάμε για τόσο σπάνιες μεταλλάξεις που ακόμα και αυτό το μέγεθος των 10000 ασθενών είναι πολύ μικρό για να εξαχθούν ασφαλή αποτελέσματα
  18. PALB2: καρκίνος στομάχου BUB1B: Καρκίνος του πνεύμονα και γλοιοβλάστωμα