This document discusses battery waste and its management. It notes that battery waste has become a major problem due to the large quantities generated and potential hazards. It then provides details on the types of batteries, including primary batteries that are single-use and secondary batteries that can be recharged. The document outlines regulations for battery waste management in India and describes the various processes involved in battery recycling, including collection, separation, smelting, and refining to recover the lead.

1. BATTERY WASTE AND IT’S MANAGEMENT
Dr. I. D. Mall
Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India
INTRODUCTION
Battery waste encompasses a broad and growing range of Batteries & cell devices.
Battery waste has become a problem of crisis proportions because of two primary
characteristics:
Battery Waste is generated in great quantities
Battery Waste can be hazardous
A battery is a portable power source, converting chemical energy into electricity. Within
the last few decades, there has been a phenomenal growth in the number and diversity of
products available. In industrialized countries, many homes will contain many pieces of
equipment which depend on batteries for power to operate.
Batteries are indispensable when electricity supplies are unpredictable.
Many computer networks use back-up battery systems, to avoid data loss in the
event of a power cut. Renewable energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar
power units, often use batteries to store excess electricity which can be used in the
absence of wind or sunshine.
Classification of batteries
The basic component of any battery is a cell (or a series of connected cells) in which
electrodes react with chemicals (the electrolyte) to produce electricity.
There are two general classes of batteries, Primary and Secondary.
Primary batteries: These are intended to be used only once. The chemicals they contain
undergo an irreversible reaction to produce electricity. When the reaction is complete, the
battery is ‘dead’ and cannot be used again. The most common types of primary batteries
are zinc-carbon and alkaline-manganese and small ‘button’ cells (usually mercuric oxide,
silver oxide or zinc-air). Primary batteries are those found in radios, torches, cameras.
Secondary Batteries
These can be recharged, using an external source of electricity to reverse the chemical
reaction. The most common type of secondary battery is the lead-acid type used in
vehicles. Smaller secondary batteries based on nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) are widely used
in, for example, power tools, mobile telephones and portable computers.
New battery chemistries, such as nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and Lithium ion (Li-ion),
perform extremely well in applications such as computers - but cannot deliver high
current levels. This means that they are not suitable for power tools. however, although

2. these newer systems are more expensive, they are beginning to displace the earlier
battery types
Types of Batteries
1)Lead-Acid/Automotive Batteries :
Lead batteries are this country’s principal source of power for automobiles, trucks,
motorcycles, boats, forklifts, golf cats, lawn and garden tractors, and wheelchairs. These
heavy, rectangular batteries contain sulfuric acid, which can burn skin on contact.
(2) Alkaline Batteries:
Alkaline batteries are standard household batteries. They are used in product from
walkmans and clocks, to smoke detectors and remote controls. Since -1994, most types
contain no added mercury or only contain trace amounts. These batteries are market “no
added mercury” or may by market with a green tree logo.
(3) Button Batteries:
These batteries are named for being small round and silver-colored. They are most
commonly found in watches and hearing aids. Many button batteries contain mercury of
silver oxide, both metal that are toxic to humans when inhaled or ingested.
(4) Nickel-Cadmium Rechargeable Batteries:
These batteries are marked “Rechargeable” and are found in many products including:
cell phones, cordless phones, laptops, power tools, camcorders and remote controlled
toys. NiCads contain cadmium, a metal that is toxic to humans when inhaled or ingested.
(5) Lithium Batteries :
These batteries are mainly used in computer, camcorders, laptop and cameras, lithium
ignites when in contact with water and has been notorious for causing serious fires.
Consumption Scenario:
The recent proliferation of battery powered products has led to a sharp increase in
the consumption of rechargeable batteries worldwide.
In France, around 26,000 tonnes per annum (TPA) of primary cells (excluding
2,500 tonnes of automotive lead-acid starter batteries) were sold in 1998,
comprising 720 million batteries.
Of these, more than 200 million were zinc-carbon, more than 400 million
alkaline-manganese and around 85 million button cells. Additionally, some 2,000
tonnes of rechargeable batteries were sold.
In Europe, the total Ni-Cd market in 1999 reached 240 million cells, weighing
more than 10,000 tonnes (see Table 1, page 2 for details of battery applications).

3. In Germany, up to 38,000 TPA of batteries were sold in 1997.
In Japan, the sales of Ni-Cd batteries has declined since 1994, as new battery
types have entered the market. In 1998, 1.5 billion portable rechargeable batteries
went on sale in Japan.
In Britain, more than 600 million batteries were sold during 1997 (see Table 2,
page 3 for details). The UK consumption of lead-acid batteries for use in vehicles
is around ten million pa. Although this is less than two per cent of the total
number of batteries sold, these units comprise more than 80 percent of the total
weight.
Uses of Lead
The principal consumption of lead is for lead-acid batteries which are used in vehicles,
and in emergency systems as well as in industrial batteries found in computers and fork
lift vehicles. Lead is also used in remote access power systems and load leveling systems
as well as in compounds in the glass and plastics industries and for radiation shielding.
Average end use patterns are illustrated in the chart:

4. State Total number of Lead
Acid battery recycling
Units
Andhra Pradesh 5
Chhatisgarh 1
Gujarat 7
Haryana 2
Jammu & Kashmir 6
Karnataka 11
Kerala 1
Madhya Pradesh 13
Maharashtra 20
Punjab 13
Rajasthan 19
Tamil Nadu 5
Uttar Pradesh 13
West Bengal 22
Demand for Lead
Lead acid continues to be the most cost effective ‘couple’ and is likely to remain
so for sometime.
It is believed that 70-75% of all lead used in the country is for Lead Acid Storage
Batteries.
The balance 25-30% in other applications e.g. cable scathing, gasoline, solder
alloys, radiation shielding, glassware industry, etc.
Some estimates state that 75-80% of all lead used is for batteries.
Hazards of Batteries
Batteries burned in waste combustion facilities can release mercury or cadmium to the air
and water, ultimately entering the food chain and posing health threats to people and the
environment.
Description of Battery Categories:

5. Alkaline batteries (AAA, AA, C, D and 9 volt): since 1994, most types contain no added
mercury, and, if they do contain mercury, only contain trace amounts that are not
hazardous. These batteries maybe marked "no added mercury" or have a green tree logo.
Nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries (NiCads) exist in many sizes and shapes and are
marked RECHARGEABLE. Some may be built into rechargeable appliances. NiCads
contain cadmium, a metal that is toxic to humans when inhaled or ingested.
Button batteries (small, round, silver-colored, used in watches and hearing aids).
Many button batteries contain mercury, a metal that is toxic to humans when
inhaled or ingested.
Lithium batteries (AA, C, 9 volt and coin; mainly used in computers and
cameras). Lithium is reactive with water, and has caused serious fires Health
Hazards
Mental Retardation
Seizures
Convulsions
Coma
In some cases even death
Low Level exposure may result in to
Fatigue
Impaired Central Nervous System Functions & Hearing
Ghaziabad battles noxious fumes from burnt batteries:
Poisonous smoke from the burning of a dump of batteries in Ghaziabad spread on
January 8, 2007. One woman succumbed due to the smoke, others complained of nausea,
headache, coughing and vomiting. Fifty were admitted to a hospital in Delhi. A few
others were taken to private nursing homes.
About 150,000 tonnes of batteries are discarded from automobiles, telecom equipment,
railways and other sources. In order to regulate collection of old/used batteries and their
recycling, the government promulgated Lead-Acid Batteries (Management and Handling)
Rules in 2001 under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001
A rule notified in exercise of powers conferred under Section 6, 8 and 25 of the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986) with the objective to regulate
the Management and Handling of Batteries in India
Applicability :Apply to every manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner, assembler, dealer,
recycler, auctioneer, consumer and bulk consumer involved in manufacture, processing,
sale, purchase and use of batteries or components thereof.
Responsibilities: Various responsibilities to every manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner,
assembler, dealer, recycler, and auctioneer involved in manufacture, processing, sale,
purchase and use of batteries or components thereof are as follows
Responsibilities of manufacturer, importer, assembler and re-conditioner

6. To ensure that the used batteries are collected back as per the Schedule against
new batteries sold excluding those sold to original equipment manufacturer and
bulk consumer(s);
To file a half-yearly return of their sales and buy-back to the State Board in Form-
I latest by 30th June and 31st December of every year;
To ensure that used batteries collected are sent only to the registered recyclers;
To ensure that no damage to the environment occurs during transportation;
To buy recycled lead only from registered recyclers.
In case of importers, importer shall get himself registered with the Ministry of
Environment & Forests or an agency designated by it by submitted details in
Form-II.
Customs clearance of imports of new lead acid batteries - Customs clearance of
imports shall be contingent upon:-
(i)Valid registration with the Reserve Bank of India (with Importer's Code
Number);
(ii)One time registration with the Ministry of Environment & Forests or an
agency designated by it in Form-II]
(iii)Undertaking in Form-III; and(iv)A copy of the latest half-yearly return in
Form-IV
Responsibilities of dealers
To ensure that the used batteries are collected back as per the Schedule against
new batteries sold
To give appropriate discount on every used battery returned by the consumer;
To ensure that used batteries collected back are of similar type and specifications
as that of the new batteries sold;
To file half-yearly returns of the sale of new batteries and buy-back of old
batteries of the manufacturer in Form-V by 31st May and 30th November of
every year;
To ensure safe transportation of collected batteries to the designated collection
centers or to the registered recyclers; and
To ensure that no damage is cause to the environment during storage and
transportation of used batteries.
Responsibilities of Recycler
Apply for registration to the Ministry of Environment & Forests or an agency designated
by it if not applied already, by submitting information in Form-VI; Ensure strict
compliance of the terms and conditions or registration, however, those already registered
with the Ministry of Environment & Forests or an agency designated by it for
reprocessing used batteries would be bound by the terms and conditions of such
registration; Submit annual returns as per Form-VII to the State Board; Make available
all records to the State Board for inspection; Mark 'Recycled' on lead recovered by
reprocessing; and
6. Create public awareness through advertisement, publications, posters or others with
regard to the following:

7. (a) hazardous of lead; and
(b) obligation of consumers to return used batteries only to the registered dealers or
deliver at the designated collection centers
Responsibilities of auctioneer
1. To ensure that used batteries are auctioned to the registered recyclers only;
2. To file half-yearly returns of their auctions to the State Boards in Form-IX; and
3. To maintain a record of such auctions and made these records available to the
State Board for inspection.
Why Recycling
Use of Lead is ever increasing worldwide. The natural resources are limited.
Recycling helps reducing burden on natural resources. Ever increasing Lead
prices and demand are a boon to Battery Recycling.
The Lead metal received after Refining process, is guaranteed to have a minimum
purity level of 99.97%.
There two main categories of recycling route that can achieve a greater than 50%
recycling rate, the hydrometallurgical process route, where metals are recovered
via chemical methods, and the pyrometallurgical process route, where a furnace is
used to recover the metals
Importance of Recovery & Recycling (Pros)
No indigenous Lead deposits
Meet the increasing demand

8. Reduce environmental impact from Natural Resource extraction
Resource recovery & conservation
Economics &
Employment
Environmental Impacts of Recycling (Cons)
• Electrolyte disposal
• Occupational hygiene
• Atmospheric pollution
• Furnace residues
• Population Exposure
Pollutions from Lead Acid Battery Processing:
Air Pollution:
• Smoke/Dust Emission from Chimney
• Fugitive Emission at Shop floor
Solid Wastes:
• Slag from Furnace of Primary smelting
• Scum from Secondary smelting
• Plastic containers
Liquid Wastes:
• Waste acid
• Scrubber wastewater
Benefits of Environmentally Sound Recycling
• Environment is better protected
• Lead exposure is reduced
• Reduces reliance on imports
• Avoids severe social hardship
• Resource recovery
Process Routes for Battery Recycling
Storage of Scrap of Batteries
Cutting of Batteries
Battery Breaking and Separating
Charge Material
Second Lead Smelting
Refining and alloying
Casting
Drossing

9. Battery Cutting
Batteries are fed from one end for cutting. The cut batteries are emptied for separating PP
case and Lead concentrate. The fumes generated during the operation are vented through
an exhaust made of acid proof material. The Waste Acid poured off inside the chamber is
taken to a Neutralization tank.
Scrap Lead-Acid Battery Storage Area:
Scrap lead-acid batteries are usually received in palletised containers for crushing and
separating operations. Lead-bearing scrap should be covered during transfer and stored in
an enclosed, ventilated area with a proper acid proof flooring and drainage to avoid
seepage of acid and fine lead content in the soil.

10. Battery Breaking and Separating
Metal and nonmetal contaminants from battery scrap are partially removed from lead-
bearing scrap. This is done by battery breaking / crushing and separating processes.
Battery breaking is the draining and crushing of batteries, followed by mechanized or
manual separation of the lead from nonmetallic materials. Lead plates, posts, and inter-
cell connectors are collected and stored in a pile for subsequent charging to the furnace.
After breaking the battery, the lead-bearing material is separated from the case material.
This process is either manually done or is automated. If a crusher is used to break
batteries, it is recommended to use the sink/float process for separation
Charge material
The stored lead scrap and the lead bearing material from batteries are blended to
the proper metallurgical requirements so it can be charged to the furnace.
Material is primarily transported through the use of mobile equipment (forklifts,
front-end loaders). Some common mechanical conveyance methods used in
secondary lead smelters are Belt Conveyors, Screw Conveyors and Bucket
Elevators.
Battery lead concentrate can be used with other scrap as feed materials for the
smelting and refining processes. These materials may include: battery
manufacturing plant scrap, lead dross, metallic lead sheets and cable shielding.
Secondary Lead Smelting:
Smelting involves the reduction of lead-bearing scrap into metallic lead in a furnace. The
following furnaces are the most effective types of smelting furnaces used in the industry:
• Rotary Furnace
• Blast Furnace
• Reverberatory Furnace
Rotary furnace:
Rotary furnaces are known for low consumption of fuel, less heat loss and high recovery
at a high temperature. Rotary furnaces are capable to process very low lead content scrap
and residue. The lead bullion produced from rotary furnace is refined to produce soft,
pure lead ingots.

11. Well-designed, properly aligned and balanced Rotary furnace driving arrangement is
provided with the help of Girth Gear of Roller drive. World class gearboxes and electric
motors are provided for long lasting and non-stop operations. High-grade material is used
in the Rollers and Rotary Tiers for long life and better performance.
Blast Furnace
Charge is fed to the furnace with the help of feed conveyor, bucket elevators and hoists.

12. The molten metal and the dross are removed from the blast furnace by tapping
operation into moulds or ladles. Normally the furnace metal is directly cast into
ingots and these ingots are allowed to solidify. If required the metal is tapped
directly into a holding kettle which keeps the metal molten for refining.
Local exhaust ventilation is provided for lead fumes and dust emissions at the
lead and slag tap, launders, moulds, ladles, and refining kettles. This exhaust is
taken to bag-house.
Reverberatory furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces are normally useful for processing high lead content scrap while
rotary furnaces are usually used to process low lead content scrap and residue.
Typical Furnace Charging systems

13. Smelting:
The Lead material received from battery breaking / cutting operations contains lead oxide
/ carbonate and small amount of sulphates. This material and the dross received from
previous processes or from other furnaces are fed into the furnace together with coke or
other carbon rich reducing agent and the mixture is smelted. The lead compounds are
reduced to yield Lead metal. This crude metal is refined to get purity upto 99.97%.
Refining and Alloying
Typically, metal from the smelting furnace is melted in an indirect-fired kettle or pot. By
using appropriate process methods, upto 99.97% refined lead is obtained. Trace elements
are combined to produce the desired alloy. Our design takes care of the possible fume
emissions to safeguard the working environment. Some lead emissions can occur from
poorly controlled refining, casting, and drossing operations. Exhaust ventilated enclosure
is provided for refining kettles.
Casting:
Mechanical and Manual Ingot casting mechanism is provided for ease of operation and
high-grade safety to the operators. Generally manual-casting system is provided with
smaller refining and alloying kettles. Molten, refined, or alloyed lead is pumped via
heated pipes from kettles to a casting mechanism, which directs a measured amount of
lead into steel or cast iron moulds

14. Drossing
During drossing operations, dross is skimmed to the rim of the kettle and
manually shoveled or spooned into a container. Dross consists of Lead oxide and
oxides of other metal impurities like copper, iron, aluminium, antimony, tin etc.
Pouring, cooling of lead castings, drossing of lead oxides from the reservoir and
casting surfaces and other related activities emit some lead and dust fumes.
Exhaust ventilation for the castings and moulds is provided while pouring molten
lead.
. Lead Acid Batteries - Pollution Control