Academic assignments 2018-20

1. Assignments
2018-20
Prakruti

2. Table of Contents
Rosicrucianism in Dr Faustus- Christopher Marlowe ......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Abstract:.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
What is Rosicrucianism?.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Christopher Marlowe (The Mysterious Playwright): ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Dr Faustus (Atheism at its best): .................................................................................................................................................................................10
Dr Faustus (Marlowe’s Rosicrucian text):.....................................................................................................................................................................12
Bibliography..................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
She Stoops To Conquer (The Mistakes Of A Night)...........................................................................................................................................................13
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
Oliver Goldsmith (the Anti-Sentimental playwright):....................................................................................................................................................14
She Stoops To Conquer (A play of social importance):..................................................................................................................................................15
The plot:....................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
The Mistakes Of A Night:............................................................................................................................................................................................17
Bibliography..................................................................................................................................................................................................................18
Wordsworth and Coleridge on the language of poetry.....................................................................................................................................................19
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
Lyrical Ballads and the first Preface:............................................................................................................................................................................19
Biographia Literaria:...................................................................................................................................................................................................21
The differing views:....................................................................................................................................................................................................23
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................24
Bibliography..................................................................................................................................................................................................................24
A comparative study of Nalini from the Fakeer of Jungheera by Henry Derozio and Binodini from Chokher Bali by Rabindranath Tagore .............................25

3. Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................25
Tagore and Derozio (the rebel and the Guru):..............................................................................................................................................................26
Fakeer of Jungheeera:................................................................................................................................................................................................27
Chokher Bali:.............................................................................................................................................................................................................28
Nalini and Binodini:....................................................................................................................................................................................................29
Bibliography..................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
Comparative Study of Kubla Khan’s “Damsel with dulcimer” and Christabel’s “Geraldine”.................................................................................................31
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................31
Samuel Taylor Coleridge- a brief introduction to his poetry:.........................................................................................................................................31
Kubla Khan:...............................................................................................................................................................................................................32
The Damsel with Dulcimer:.........................................................................................................................................................................................33
Christabel:.................................................................................................................................................................................................................33
Geraldine:.................................................................................................................................................................................................................34
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................34
Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
Archaism in Tennyson and Browning’s poems.................................................................................................................................................................36
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................36
What is Archaism?.....................................................................................................................................................................................................36
Alfred Lord Tennyson’s Poetry:...................................................................................................................................................................................36
Archaism in Tennyson’s Poetry:..................................................................................................................................................................................38
Robert Browning’s Poetry:..........................................................................................................................................................................................38
Archaism in Browning’sPoetry: ..................................................................................................................................................................................39
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................40

4. Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................40
‘Nature Writing’ and Henry David Thoreau’s “Walden”...................................................................................................................................................41
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................41
What is Nature Writing?.............................................................................................................................................................................................41
Walden- a brief introduction:.....................................................................................................................................................................................43
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................44
Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................44
Diaspora and Cultural Hybridity......................................................................................................................................................................................45
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................45
What is Cultural Hybridity?.........................................................................................................................................................................................45
Diaspora and Cultural Studies:....................................................................................................................................................................................46
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................48
Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................48
Margaret Drabble’s The Millstone & Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter: Feminism & Motherhood .........................................................................49
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................49
The Millstone (1965):.................................................................................................................................................................................................49
The Scarlet Letter & The motherhood of Hester Prynne: ..............................................................................................................................................50
Rosamund & Hester: Feminist Motherhood.................................................................................................................................................................50
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................51
Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................52
Method,Approach & Technique: From Anthony Edwards to Richards & Rogers................................................................................................................52
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................52
Method: Approach, Design and Procedure .................................................................................................................................................................53

5. Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................55
Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................55
The Theory of Suggestion in Modern Literature...............................................................................................................................................................56
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................56
Suggestion and Statement: How do they differ? ..........................................................................................................................................................56
The importantfunction of Suggestion:........................................................................................................................................................................57
Modern Literature and Suggestion:.............................................................................................................................................................................58
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................59
Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................60
Post Colonialism in the 21st
Century................................................................................................................................................................................61
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................61
The New ‘Empire’:.....................................................................................................................................................................................................61
The Americanization:.................................................................................................................................................................................................62
Post Colonialism vs. Globalization:..............................................................................................................................................................................62
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................63
Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................64
The Absurd in Wole Soyinka’s The Swamp Dwellers.........................................................................................................................................................64
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................64
Objective:..................................................................................................................................................................................................................65
The Swamp Dwellers (a brief introduction):.................................................................................................................................................................65
The Socio-Political Scenario:.......................................................................................................................................................................................67
The Swamp Dwellers as an Absurd Play:......................................................................................................................................................................68
Thematic Absurdity:...............................................................................................................................................................................................69

6. Absurd Characters:.................................................................................................................................................................................................70
Absurd Setting:......................................................................................................................................................................................................71
Absurd Plot:...........................................................................................................................................................................................................72
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................72
Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................72
Media and the Portrayal of Women: Introduction to Post Cyberfeminism.........................................................................................................................73
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................73
Objective:..................................................................................................................................................................................................................73
Cyberfeminism (The beginnings to the early 2000s): ....................................................................................................................................................74
Rethinking Cyberfeminism:.........................................................................................................................................................................................75
Post Cyberfeminism:..................................................................................................................................................................................................77
Conclusion:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................79
Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................80
Existentialism in Barnes’ The Sense Of An Ending: Camus and the Myth of Sisyphus..........................................................................................................81
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................81
Objective:..................................................................................................................................................................................................................82
About Camus’existential arguments and the Myth of Sisyphus:...................................................................................................................................82
Julian Barnes’ The Sense Of An Ending (a brief introduction): .......................................................................................................................................83
The Sense Of An Ending and Existentialism: Barnes and Camus’ Myth Of Sisyphus(Major Arguments): ..........................................................................84
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................................................................................................86
Works Cited..................................................................................................................................................................................................................86

7. Rosicrucianism in Dr Faustus- ChristopherMarlowe
Abstract:
Magic and the knowledge of the spiritualrealmissomethingmostof usare usuallycuriousabout.Itisa fact that throughouthistorythere have been
people andschoolspossessingsuchknowledge are consideredtohave existed,withoutanykindof strongproof of that. Thisobscurityandsecretiveness
makespeople curioustoknowwhethersuchpeople andschoolsactuallyexistedandwhethertheyreallypossessedsuchknowledge.The thirstfor
knowledge,especiallynecromancyisone of the majorthemesof Dr FaustusbyChristopherMarlowe.Interestinglyenough,one suchsecretsocietywas
consideredtohave beenexistedduringMarlowe’slifetime,namelyRosicrucianism.Hence itisnecessarytofindoutwhetherthere are anyassociationsor
influencesof Rosicrucianismfoundinone of hisbestknownworksornotand alsoif we readDr Faustusas a Rosicruciantextwhatresultswould itgive us.
What is Rosicrucianism?

8. “Rosicrucianismisaspiritual andcultural movementwhicharose inEurope in the early17th centuryafterthe publicationof several texts.”(wikipedia).
However,the secretsociety’sactual originhasseveral storieswovenaroundit.Three manifestos,onwhichthe orderissupposedtobe based,were
publishedinGermanybetween1607 and 1616, whereinthe popularbelief of the order’soriginsisnarrated.“The manifestos,FamaFraternitatisRC(The
Fame of the Brotherhoodof RC) [1640], The ConfessioFraternitatisRC(The Confessionof the Brotherhood of RC) [1615] and the Chymische Hochzeit
Christiani Rosencreutz(The Chymical Weddingof ChristianRosencreutz)[1616],presentedthe legendof aGermandoctor and mysticphilosopher,referred
to initiallyasFraterCRC and lateridentifiedasChristianRosenkreutz(orRosenkreuz),aname meaning“RosesCross”.“Rosenkreutzwasallegedtohave
livedfrom1378 to 1484, learnedalchemyandesotericwisdominthe Middle Eastundervariousmastersand,onreturningtoGermany,foundedasecret
orderknownas the Fraternityof the Rose Cross.” (Mastin). “He erecteda sanctuary(1409), where he wasentombedafterhisdeathin1484.
The allegeddiscoveryof the tomb 120 yearslater became the occasionforthe publicannouncementof the order’sexistence.” (Melton)
“It didnot take longbefore people beganwonderingif thisnewsecretsocietyposedathreat toChristianityandthe Church.”(Lloyd).The reasonforpeople
to getthreatenedwasthe factthat religioninthose timeshadastrong holdonthe livesof people.Somuchsothat Biblical narrativeswere consideredas
the ultimate source of knowledge.Undersuchconditionsthe existence of asecretorderpossessingknowledge whichwouldreformmankindwould
obviouslyappearthreatening.However,several incidentsof scholarsandresearchersquestioningthe prevalentbigotryof the religiousauthoritieswere
noted.Andtherefore, “controversies have arisenonwhethertheywere ahoax,whetherthe "Orderof the RosyCross"existedasdescribedinthe
manifestos,orwhetherthe whole thingwasa metaphordisguisingamovementthat reallyexisted,butinadifferentform.”(wikipedia).
“Rosicrucianteachingsare a combinationof occultismandotherreligiousbeliefsandpractices,including Hermeticism,Jewishmysticism,and
ChristianGnosticism.The central featureof Rosicrucianismisthe belief thatitsmemberspossesssecretwisdomthatwashandeddowntothemfrom
ancienttimes.”(Melton).“Rosicrucianismwasattractive tomanythinkersthroughoutEurope,possiblyincludingthe Englishphilosopherand
scientistFrancisBacon.Itdeclineddramaticallyinthe 18th century,however,avictimof the skepticismandrationalismof the Enlightenment,thoughsome
RosicrucianideassurvivedinspeculativeFreemasonry.”(Melton)

9. Christopher Marlowe (The MysteriousPlaywright):
Born in1564, ChristopherMarlowe’sliterarycareerlastedlessthansix years.Criticssaythatif he hadlivedlongerhe wouldhave become agreater
playwrightthanShakespeare.One of the UniversityWits,Marlowe earnedhisBachelorof Artsdegree in1584 fromCorpusChristi College, Cambridge.
Howeverin1587, the universityhesitatedtogranthim the master’sdegree because of itsdoubtsregarding Marlowe’s“frequentabsences and its
speculationthathe hadconvertedtoRomanCatholicismandwouldsoonattendcollege elsewhere!”(Editors) However,these doubtsweresettledbythe
PrivyCouncil,statingthatMarlowe wasnowworking ‘onthe mattersconcerningthe benefitof hiscountry’.“The nature of Marlowe'sservice toEngland
was notspecifiedbythe council,butthe lettersenttoCambridge hasprovokedabundantspeculation,notablythe theorythatMarlowe hadbecome a
secretagentworkingforSir FrancisWalsingham'sintelligence service.Nodirectevidence supportsthistheory,butthe council'sletterclearlysuggeststhat
Marlowe wasservingthe governmentinsome secretcapacity. SurvivingCambridge recordsfromthe periodshowthatMarlowe hadseveral lengthy
absencesfromthe university,muchlongerthanallowedbythe school'sregulations.Andextantdiningroomaccountsindicate thathe spentlavishlyon
foodand drinkwhile there,greateramountsthanhe couldhave affordedonhisknownscholarshipincome.Bothof these could pointtoa secondarysource

10. of income,suchassecretgovernmentwork. Butwithscanthard evidence andrampantspeculation,the mysterysurroundingMarlowe'sservice tothe
queenislikelytoremainactive.”(Editors) Evenafterbecomingaplaywright,Marlowe’scharacterremainedquestionable because of accusationsof him
beinganAtheist.“Marlowe wonadangerousreputationfor“atheism,”butthiscould,inElizabethI’stime,indicatemerelyunorthodoxreligious opinions.”
(Leech)
“On May 30, however,Marlowe waskilledbyIngramFrizer.FrizerwaswithNicholasSkeresandRobertPoley,andall three men weretiedtoone orother
of the Walsinghams--eitherSirFrancisWalsingham(the man whoevidentlyrecruitedMarlowe himself intosecretserviceonbehalf of the queen)ora
relative alsointhe spybusiness.Allegedly,afterspendingthe daytogetherwithMarlowe inalodginghouse,afightbroke outbetweenMarlowe andFrizer
overthe bill,andMarlowe wasstabbedinthe foreheadandkilled.Conspiracytheorieshave aboundedsince,withMarlowe'satheismand allegedspy
activitiesatthe heartof the murderplots,butthe real reasonfor Marlowe'sdeathisstill debated.”(Editors)
Dr Faustus(Atheism at its best):
Marlowe’sallegedatheismisreflectedinthisparticularwork.DrFaustusisknowntill date forits sarcasticattacks onreligioushypocrisyof histime.The
followinglinesfromthe play wouldsuffice tojustifythisstatement:

11. “The rewardof sinis death?That’shard.
Si peccasse negamus,fallimur,etnullaestinnobisveritas.
If we saythat we have no sin,
we deceive ourselves,andthere’snotruthinus.
Why thenbe like we mustsin,
and so consequentlydie.
Ay,we must die aneverlastingdeath.
What doctrine call youthis?Che sarà, sarà:
What will be,shall be!Divinity,adieu!
These metaphysicsof magicians,
and necromanticbooksare heavenly.”
“In hisopeningsoliloquyinActI scene 1, forexample,he turnshisattentiontoBiblical theology,andwritesitoff asmeaninglessandfatalistic before
turningto hismagicbookswithgreat excitementandhope.”(Accessteacher) Some mightsaythatthisstatementbyFaustus,isnotone of religious
commentarybutisa reflectionof Faustus’self prideof beingsoknowledgeable.Whateverthe case,whatMarlowe mayhave wantedtoinferisthata
rational wouldneveradhere toreligiousteachingsandpreachings,since itsbasiccharacteristicistoargue and questioneverystatementorsayingwith
reason.Anotherimportantpointtorememberwhilediscussingthe role of religionandtheologyinDrFaustusisthe socio-religiousconflictsprevalent
duringthe time of the play’swriting.The constantideological fightsbetweenCatholicsandProtestants,mighthave caughtthe attentionof the playwright
whohimself workedforthe government.“Anti-Catholicliterature washugelypopularin Elizabethantimes.The unnecessarypompandceremonyof
Catholicinstitutionswassatirised, like inAct3 Scene 1 whenFaustusmockthe Pope aswas widercorruptionwithinthe CatholicChurch.The power
struggleswithinthe Churchandthe Catholicnations,specificallythe HolyRomanEmpire,were acentral force forEuropeanpolitics”(Jacques) Faustusis
consideredasMarlowe’smouthpiece.He islookingforsomethingmore substantial thanthe usual academicallyreligioustextsandtheirpreachings.Thisis
whyhe laughsafterreadingone of the LatinphrasesfromJerome’sBible.Faustus’characterassomeone tryingtopursue somethingdifferentthanthe
traditional wayof thingsiswhatbringshimcloserto Marlowe’sownpersonalityandexperiences.“AbandoningGodandturningtothe path of sinwouldbe
seenasa shockingandunforgiveable crime,aswouldexperimentingwithblackmagicandforbiddenknowledge.”(Jacques)

12. Dr Faustus (Marlowe’s Rosicrucian text):
AtheismisfardifferentfromRosicrucianism.Andyet,if we canconsiderFaustus’sconstantresentmentof Catholicbeliefsandtraditions,we mightbe able
to findinhisactions,a hintof Rosicrucianideas.Asmentionedearlier,the RosicrucianmanifestostalkaboutadoctorRosenkreutzwhoafterlearning
variousesotericideasfromMiddle Eastestablishedthe secretsocietyforreformingthe world.Apartfromthe obvioussimilarityof the protagonist’s
profession, Faustus’ ambitionsaftergainingthe knowledge of necromancy,suchasreformingGermany,wasalsosomethingwhichRosenkreutzsetout to
do.Some mightobjectto thisobservationsayingthatFaustus’motiveswere selfishwhereasthe onesof Rosenkreutzwere more of service.Thatcanbe
true as well.But,whateverthe motive,theiraimwasthe same,i.e.reformation.Anotherobservationisthatof Faustus’sname whichmeansauspiciousor
lucky.A name usedbyearlyChristiansaints.The playmightbe consideredasatire onthisas well.AnywayswhenMarlowe wasarrestedunderaccusations
of beinganatheist,one of the testimonieswasThomasKyd,Marlowe’sone time roompartner,whomentionedthatalot manybooksand paperssaying
that there wasno God were lyingon Marlowe’sdesk!Whatthese textswere,noone knows.The factthat remainsis,Marlowe’slife anddeath,aswell as
the existence of Rosicrucianism,are equallyenigmatic.But,the latter’sinfluence isquiteevident.
Bibliography
Accessteacher. Whataresomeatheistic quotesfromDrfaustus? 9 January2013. web.26 October2018. <https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-
some-atheist-quotes-from-doctor-faustus-334756>.

13. Editors,Biography.com. ChristopherMarloweBiography.27April 2017. web.25 October2018. <https://www.biography.com/people/christopher-marlowe-
9399572>.
Jacques,Adam. Religionin DoctorFaustus.23 March 2011. web.27 October2018. <https://prezi.com/_y_medg543ln/religion-in-doctor-faustus/>.
Leech,Clifford. ChristopherMarloweEnglishwriter.n.d.web.25 October2018. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christopher-Marlowe#accordion-
article-history>.
Lloyd,Ellen. Rosicrucians:FactsAndHistory AboutTheMysteriousSecretSociety.20 October2016. web.24 October2018.
<http://www.ancientpages.com/2016/10/20/rosicrucians-facts-and-history-about-the-mysterious-secret-society/>.
Mastin,Luke. Related Beliefs- Rosicrucianism.2009. web.24 October2018. <http://www.witchcraftandwitches.com/related_rosicrucianism.html>.
Melton,J Gordon. Rosicrucian.n.d.web.25 October2018. <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rosicrucians>.
wikipedia. Rosicrucianism.4September2018. web.24 October2018. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosicrucianism>.
SheStoopsTo Conquer(TheMistakesOf A Night)
Abstract:
Firstpublishedin1771 and performedin1773, Goldsmith’sShe StoopsToConquerisconsidered till date asthe reflectionof the Restorationsocietyand
alsoas the playwright’sone of the bestplays.The playisalso rememberedasone of the bestexamplesof Anti-Sentimental Comedy.The shiftingmorality
and itsconsequences,the variousclassintrigues,disguise anditsnecessity,etcare some of the elements,the worldof Goldsmith’splayismade of.After
readingthe subtitle of thisplay,the questionwhichremainsis,howfardoesitappearapt for the playand alsohowfar can the playadhere toitssub title.
Are the incidentsreallythe mistakesof anight?Or are theymistakesresultantof the varoioussocial evilsof the time?Theseare the questionsIhave tried
to deal withinthispaper.

14. Oliver Goldsmith (the Anti-Sentimental playwright):
Born in1730, OliverGoldsmithisrememberedmainlyforhisoutstandingnovelThe VicarOf Wakefieldandthe playShe StoopsToConquer.Hisjourneyto
fame as a literarypersonalitywasone of rags to riches.Beginninghiscareerasa hack writerinLondon,Goldsmithsoonbefriendedthe literaryluminaries
such as Dr Johnson,SirJoshuaReynolds,JamesBoswell,EdmundBurke,etc.Infact,by the time The Vicar of Wakefieldwaspublished,he hadalready
earnedacclaimwithhispoemThe DesertedVillage. However,he wasoftenconsideredasaman of inconsistentpersonality.“Hiscontemporarieswere as
one intheirhighregard forGoldsmiththe writer,buttheywere of differentmindsconcerningthe manhimself. The graceful fluencywithwordsthathe
commandedasa writerdesertedhimtotallywhenhe wasinsociety—hisconversational mishapswere memorablethings.Instanceswere alsocitedof his
incrediblevanity,of hisconstantdesire tobe conspicuous incompany,andof hisenvyof others’achievements.ItwasJohnsonwhosummedupthe
commonsentiment.“Noman,”he declared,“wasmore foolishwhenhe hadnota penin hishand,or more wise whenhe had.””(Britannica) Nevertheless,
hiscontribution toliterature wasneverleftunnoticed.Evenafterhisearlydeathin1774, he was rememberedasaprominentpoet,essayistanddramatist.
“Goldsmith’ssuccessasa writerlaypartlyin the charm of personalityemanatedbyhisstyle—hisaffectionforhis characters,hismischievousirony,andhis
spontaneousinterchange of gaietyandsadness.Inhisnovel andplaysGoldsmithhelpedtohumanize hisera’sliteraryimagination,withoutgrowingsickly

15. or mawkish. ”(Britannica) The reasonforconsideringhimanAnti-Sentimental playwrightisthishumanizingqualitywhichhe possessed.Ratherthan
viewingthe situationsonthe binariesof moral orimmoral,justasthe prevalentwritersof histime did,Goldsmithchose toviewthemfromanindividual’s
perspective.Neitherof hisworkseverpopularizedthe moral sentiments,nordidtheyevertryto teachanythingtothe people.Rathertheytrytoput forth
the contradictions,withwhichthe Restorationorthe Georgianpeople were living.He triedtohighlightthe viceswhichresultedfromalife full of
appearances.“DavidThomasin hiswork Four Georgian and Pre-Revolutionary Playscommentsonthe hypocriticalnature of Georgianera– “Underneath
the veneerof polite manners, gentilityandsentimentalattitudesin literature,there wasahardstreakof selfishnessandbrutalityjustbelowthe surface of
GeorgianSociety”(Sho) The ideawhichthe playslike She StoopsToConquertriedtoconvey.
She StoopsTo Conquer (A playof socialimportance):

16. The plot:
“The playopenswithtwogentlemenfromLondonlookingforthe home of Mr. Hardcastle.Theyare trickedintothinkingthatthe home isan innand
conduct themselvesaccordingly.One of the youngmenisthere towooyoungKate Hardcastle.Kate pretendstobe a barmaiduntil the herodeclareshis
love forher.The Londonersbehave boorishlytoall concerned,andthe nonstopfrolicescalatesrapidly. SheStoopstoConquercontainsvital energy,many
farcical elements,andamusingirony.Goldsmith’smajortheme isexploringthe folliesof blindnessthatall humanscommit.Afterpokingfunatall the
characters,the playwrightendsthe comedyonanote of discovery.The hero,forexample,findshimself anddiscoversthe meaningof true love,marrying
the perfectwomanforhim.”(Kellman)

17. As mentionedearlier,thisplaybyOliverGoldsmithisthe reflectionof the Restorationsocietyanditsvices.Let’shave a lookatthe issuesittriesto discuss:
1) Marriage politics
2) Appearances
3) Genderplay
4) Classconflicts
5) The nature andimportance of love inrelationships
6) Comedyof Manners
The veryprologue of the playdeclaresthe workas a “laughingcomedy”insteadof the moral one statingthatthe muse of comedyhasbeensickall thistime
and nowappearsdying.Hence,the ideaof the playas a mediumtomake it alive againandGoldsmithasa doctor tocure it fromsentimentalideas.
“Goldsmith’sviewsoncomedywere differentfromprevailingtaste.He hadtakenaimat the whole genre.Ina piece publishedearlyin1773 entitled“Essay
on the Theatre:Or, A ComparisonBetweenSentimental andLaughingComedy,”he hadbemoanedthe prevailingtaste of audiences for“sentimental
comedy,”whichhe calledabastard formof tragedy.Initsplace,Goldsmithproposedanewcomicgenre tobe called“laughing comedy.”The newformof
comedy,ashis twoplaysaptlydemonstrated,eliminatedmoralizing,false appealstosentimentality,and extraneoussonganddance andconcentrated
insteadonmirth,the exposure of humanfollies,andusingcharactersfromthe middle andlowerclassesanddialogue thatwas easyandnatural.The
general aimwaslaughter.”(Kellman) “If playwrightsonlyallowedwholesome charactersonstage,whoutteredemotional platitudes,audienceswouldbe
weepy,unamusedandnone the wiser.Goldsmithusedthe Constance/Hastingssubplottoexposeall the clichésof sentimentalcomedy.Atthe same time
he provokedthoughtsaboutpersonal liberty,women’sagencyandparental responsibilitythatrevitalisedatiredstoryline.Thereislaughter,butthere are
alsobruisedemotions,sadpartingsandanxietyforthe audience tocontendwith.”(Maybank)
The Mistakes Of A Night:
Whenthe playwas firstperformedin1773, at CoventGardenTheatre,“the managerGeorge Colmanwhohadanticipatedfailureforthe playwas
‘conquered’bythe immediate successof the comedy.ThusColmanalsomade ‘mistakesof the night’.” (MWESTWOOD)
As itis statedinthe above section,Goldsmith’sfocuswasonhumanfolliesandthe humourwhicharose fromit.The subtitle justifiesthisidea.Itisthe
mistake of Tony,whodeceivesMarlowe andHastingsintobelievingthatthe Hardcastle house isaninn whichconsequentlybecomesthe reasonforso
manyconfusions.Itisthe mistake of Marlowe andHastingsto easilytrustTonyand presentsucha boorishbehaviourinfront of the Hardcastle family.All
thishappensat nightand therefore “The MistakesOf A night”.

18. Kate’smistake of stoopingherself fromaladytoa barmaidalsoresultsinsomany conflicts.Hertransformationalsohappensatnight.Howeverthiscannot
be considered amistake if we considerherfeelingstowardsMarlowe andconsideringthatwouldleadustounderstandthe motivesof herprank.
The mistake of the lovers, HastingsandConstance toelope atnightin orderto escape the responsibilityforclarificationsleadtothe entangledrelationsand
the constant conflicts.
Marlowe’smistake wastoneverbeingable torecognize Kate.One of the majorreasonscanbe the fact that theirmeetingwas atnight.
The biggestmistake committedwasbyTony,whoevenafterrealizingthe consequencesof his prankhidesthe realityfromall the othercharacters.His
motivesare motreallyclarifiedinthe course of the playbutone thingbecomesevidentthathe findspleasurewhiledeceivingpeople.
Afterlistingoutthe majormistakes,the questionwhichremainsis, are these mistakessupposedtobe expectedfromthe respectivecharactersornot? In
my opinion,consideringthe nature of these characters one mightexpectthemtocommit them.If we lookatthe conditionsandsituationsin whichthey
findthemselvescan be consideredasthe drivingforce forthe happenings.
Interestingly,itissaidthatGoldsmithchangedthe title of the playfromThe MistakesOf A NighttoShe StoopsTo Conquer at the lastminute before itsfirst
staging.The reasonwas justthat it soundedmore intriguing.AnotherwasthatGoldsmithdidn’twanthisplay’sname toappearlike Shakespeare’s
MidsummerNight’sDream.
Bibliography
Britannica,Editorsof Encyclopedia. OliverGoldsmithAnglo Irishauthor.29 March 2018. web.28 October2018.
<https://www.britannica.com/biography/Oliver-Goldsmith-Anglo-Irish-author>.
Kellman,StevenG. SheStoopsTo Conquer-Summary.2009. web.29 October2018. <https://www.enotes.com/topics/she-stoops-conquer>.
Maybank,Diane. AnIntroductionto SheStoopsTo Conquer.21 June 2018. web.29 October2018. <https://www.bl.uk/restoration-18th-century-
literature/articles/an-introduction-to-she-stoops-to-conquer>.
MWESTWOOD. How tojustify the title "SheStoopsTo Conquer"anditssubtitle "The MistakesOf A Night"?11 April 2014. web.29 October2018.
<https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-justify-title-she-stoops-conquer-also-its-sub-468127>.

19. Sho. She StoopsTo ConquerAsA RestorationComedy.n.d.web.28 October2018. <https://www.scribd.com/document/370103709/SHE-STOOPS-TO-
CONQUER-AS-A-RESTORATION-COMEDY>.
Wordsworth and Coleridgeon thelanguage of poetry
Abstract:
1798 markedthe beginningof anewperspectivetowardsliteraryexperience andcomposition.The RomanticRevival beginningwithWordsworthand
Coleridge presentednewideasandperspectivesaboutthe nature of poetryandthe waysof poeticcompositions.Fromthe subjectmattertothe language
everythingwasnew.Twocritical worksPreface toLyrical Ballads(1801) andBiographiaLiteraria(1817) servedas manifestosof thisliterarymovementand
practice as theynot onlyare a defence againstthe popularcriticismsof thisschool of poetry,butare alsothe workswith the theoriesandpractice of this
movement.Andyetdistinctionsappearwithinthe viewsof the Romanticpoetsaswell.Thispaperaimsatidentifyingthose distinctionswith special
reference toboththese worksandtheirauthors.
Lyrical Balladsand the firstPreface:

20. Publishedanonymouslyin1798, Lyrical Ballads,asmentionedearlier,presentedanewtype of type of poetry.“Inthe eighteenthcentury,poetryexisted
withinahierarchy.Epicsand tragedieswere atthe pinnacle;comedy,satire andpastoral poetrywere inthe middle;andshortfolksy balladswere atthe
bottom.To be consideredapoemof literarymerit,apoemhad to adhere tocertainexpectations:Itusedelevateddiction;dealtwithcharactersinthe
upperclasses;andusedelaborate figuresof speech,suchasexcessive personificationof abstractconcepts.WordsworthandColeridge broke withthese
conventionsbyusing‘incidentsandsituationsfromcommonlife’and‘language reallyusedbymen.’Inthistheyincorporated the Romantictenetsof the
appreciationof commonmanand nature intotheirpoetry.”(RMHOPE)
The firsteditionincluded, “Coleridge’s“Rime of the AncientMariner”andWordsworth’s“TinternAbbey,”aswell asmanycontroversial common-language
poemsbyWordsworth,suchas “The IdiotBoy”. The “Preface”to the secondedition(1800) containsWordsworth’sfamousdefinitionof poetry asthe
‘spontaneousoverflowof powerful feelings’ andhistheorythatpoetryshouldbe writtenin‘the language reallyusedbymen’.”(Britannica) The second
point,one aboutthe language of poetry,iswhatWordsworthtriesto explainatlength.Andhisexplanationiswhathaslead tomuch critical speculations
since the time of the Preface’spublication.
“Wordsworthand Coleridgesetouttooverturnwhattheyconsideredthe priggish,learned,andhighlysculptedformsof 18th-centuryEnglishpoetryandto
make poetryaccessible tothe average personviaverse writtenincommon, everydaylanguage.Theyemphasizethe vitalityof the livingvoice usedbythe
poor to expresstheirreality.Thislanguagealsohelpsassertthe universalityof humanemotions.Eventhe title of the collectionrecallsrusticformsof art –

21. the word "lyrical"linksthe poemswiththe ancient rusticbardsandlendsanair of spontaneity,while "ballads"are anoral mode of storytellingusedbythe
commonpeople.”(Contributors)
The beginningof the Preface statesthisideaclearly:
‘The majorityof the followingpoemsare tobe consideredasexperiments.Theywere writtenchieflywithaviewto ascertainhowfarthe language of
conversationinthe middle andlowerclassesof societyisadaptedtothe purpose of poeticpleasure.’
Wordsworth’sconstantinsistence onthe use of rusticlanguage forpoetryandhis popularstatementthatpoetryshould be writteninthe language really
usedbymen, are some of themargumentsonwhichColeridge disagreesandinhisBiographiaLiterariapublishedsomeyearslater.
Biographia Literaria:

22. The full title of thiswork,publishedintwovolumeswith23chapters isBiographiaLiterariaOrBiographical Sketchesof My LiteraryLife andOpinions. The
workwas writtenwithanintentiontoproduce aPreface forColeridge’spoetrycollectiontitledSibyllineLeaves.However,itextendedtobecome aworkof
Coleridge’sphilosophicalandcritical theories.Italsocontainedthe influencesof variouscriticssuchasImmanuel Kant,onColeridge’stheoryof literary
analysis.The workisalsoremarkable,asmentionedearlier, foritsvariousviewson agreementanddisagreementwithWordsworth’stheoryof poetry.To
put thisinhiswords; “I thinkitto be expedienttodeclare once andforall the pointsIcoincide withthe opinionswiththe opinionssupportedinthat
preface,andinwhat pointsIaltogetherdiffer.”-BiographiaLiteraria[chapter14]
“Givinghiscritical assessmentof the language of prose andpoetryasreflectedinWordsworth’stheoryof PoeticDiction,Coleridge objectstothe ambiguity
inthe use of the word real.Wordsworthmaintainsthatthe language of poetryisselectionof the real language of men.Coleridgearguesthateveryone’s
language variesaccordingtothe extentof hisknowledge,the activitiesof hisfacultiesandthe depthandquicknessof his feelings.Everyman’slanguage has
itsindividual characteristicsthe commonpropertiesof the classtowhichhe belongsandthe wordsand phrasesof universal use.He pointsoutthatthe
language usedinthe poemsof Wordsworthdiffersgreatlyfromthe language of acommonpeasant.Coleridge opinesthatforthe wordreal;we should
substitute the word‘ordinary’.He alsoobjectstoWordsworth’sadditionof the words“ina state of excitement”,foremotional excitementmayresultina
more concentratedexpression,butitcannotcreate a noble andrichervocabulary.Moreover,acommonuncultivatedmind,overpoweredbyastrong

23. passioncan utterbrokenwordsor repeatthe setsof wordsand phrasesknowntohimalready.It wouldbe verydifficultfora poetto make suchlanguage
fitfor poetry. ColeridgealsofindsfaultwithWordsworth’sconvictionthatthe bestpart of the humanlanguage isderivedfromthe objectsintowhichthe
rusticdailycommunicate.He arguesthatrustic life isnarrowandthe rustic isactuallyacquittedwithonlyafewthings of life.Therefore,the wordsandthe
combinationsof wordsderivedfromthe veryfewobjectswithwhichthe rusticare familiar,cannotbe consideredtoformthe bestpartof human
language.”(admin)
The differing views:
PoetryforColeridge wasmore of a philosophical concept,the workingprocessof the creative mind,insteadof Wordsworth’sspontaneousflowof powerful
feelingsrecollectedin tranquillity.A poem,consequently,forColeridge,wasthe endresultof the creative process,aformof expression.
It will be anobviousconclusion,consideringthe above statements,thatthe poets’parametersforthe language wouldbe different,since the understanding
isdifferent.However,belongingtothe same literarymovement,theirfocuswasthe same,i.e.simplicity.EventhoughColeridge defendedanelevated
language,hispoemsare notso ornamental thattheybecome difficulttounderstand.Afterreadingbothworks,one mightfind Coleridge more convincing,
consideringthe amountof loopholesWordsworth’sPreface leftunsolved.Andyetif we lookatColeridge’sessay,we findthisoverpoweringof
philosophical speculationsinsteadof the aestheticone,whichisthe mainparameterforanyliterarycompositionanditsanalysis.Wordsworth’soverflowof
powerful feelings,wasbecause of the Romanticemphasisonaestheticdelight.
Let’snot forgetthatColeridge’smajorcontentionswere againstthe practice of Wordswoth;he himself didn’tfollowthe parameterssetbyhim.Andthis
intensifieswhenhe triestoanalyze Wordsworth’sstatementaboutthe language of poetrybeingthe one reallyusedbymen.
The major problemwaswiththe use of the word ‘real’.Consideringthe contextinwhichWordsworthusedthe word,hisintentionseemstobe of proving
that the language usedbythe people of the countryside,whichisunaffectedbythe variousfake refinementsof the citylife.Butstatingthatonlythe
countrylanguage isreal is quite controversial.Aren’tthe people inthe cityalsosubjecttovariouskindsof feelingsandemotions?- isthe questionwhich
Coleridge poses.Infact,inhisopinion,the citypeople,since theyare more educated,are able tothinkdeeperandmore rationallythanthe countrymen,
whospendhalf of theirtime infields.The leisure of the citylife alsoprovidesthe same kindof space forintellectual thinking,asthe one found while
workinginfields.Thisiswhathe states:
“No twomenof the same classor of differentclassesspeakalike,althoughboth use wordsandphrasescommontothemall,because inthe one case their
naturesare differentandonthe othertheir classesare different.”
“Everyman’slanguage’variesaccordingtothe extentof hisknowledge,the activityof hisfaculties,andthe depthorquicknessof hisfeelings.”

24. Conclusion:
Conclusively,we mightsaythatboth the poets’viewsaboutthe subjectmatterandlanguage are equallydebatable.Andalsothat,ultimatelythe final
decisionrestswiththe writerorpoetwhatkindof language s/he wantstouse.
Bibliography
admin. Essays.27 December2017. web.31 October2018. <http://hamandista.com/essays/coleridges-criticism-wordsworths-theory-poetry-poetic-
diction/>.
Britannica,Editorsof Encyclopedia. LyricalBallads:Work by WordsworthandColeridge.2April 2014. web.30 October2018.
<https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lyrical-Ballads>.
Contributors,Wikipedia. LyricalBallads.Vers.861811996. 30 September2018. web.30 October2018. <
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lyrical_Ballads&oldid=861811996>.
RMHOPE. What is a Lyrical Ballad? 2 September2012. web.30 October2018. <https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-lyrical-ballad-357148>.

25. A comparativestudy of NalinifromtheFakeer of Jungheera byHenryDerozioandBinodinifromChokherBalibyRabindranath
Tagore
Abstract:
Talkingaboutthe freedomof widows,whohave beensufferingthe mostsince the writers’times,Tagore andDeroziohave dealt withthe issueintheirown
unique ways.Onone handwhere Derozio’sNalini,becomesavictimof the traditionof Sati,Tagore’sBinodini becomesavictimof entangledrelations,
deceit,andmarriage politics.Apartfrombeingjustcomplicatedlovestories,astheyappearonfirsthand reading,these textsdeal withcomplexissuessuch
as inter-caste marriages,the socioreligiousorthodoxyof Bengal of theirtime,andabove all,the conditionof women.

26. Tagore and Derozio (the rebel and the Guru):
Expelledfromhispostasa professor,foraskingthe questionWHY,HenryDeroziobecame the initiatorof the Renaissance inBengal andultimatelyIndia.He
beganhiscareeras a poet,at the age of 14. By the age of 22, Deroziostartedquestioningthe evil traditionsof the Hindusocietyanddemanded
reformation.Laterappointedasafacultyat the PresidencyCollege,Derozio’sstudentswerealsoinfluencedbyhisteachings andlearnedtoadvocate
rationalityandscientifictemperata time whenpeople blindlyfollowedtraditionsanddidn’tevenrealizethe social evilsemergingoutof them.He was
accusedof ‘injuring’students’morals,provokingthemtooppose traditions,andturningthem‘atheists’.Derozio’sideasare clearlyreflectedinhisworks
whetheritisFakirof JungheeraorThe Harp of India.We can considerhimthe firstnotable modernistof the IndianRenaissance.
BuildinguponDerozio’sfoundations,RabindranathTagore ispopularforhisworksfull of humane characters,realisticsettingsandportrayal of
psychological conflictsarisingoutof the socio-religiousconditionsof histimes.IncontrasttoDerozio,Tagore’sEnglishappearsmore Indianizedforobvious
reasons.The nationalisticfeelingisalsoconsequentlyhigher.However,the hope thatthe reformationwouldbringpositive resultsremainsthe same.
FortunatelyforTagore,the political upheavalsof the countryprovidedagreathelp.Bythe time he startedwriting,various evilssuchasSati were abolished,

27. and thusthere wasno needforto popularize ChristianEnlightenmentwhichinDerozio’scase wasthe onlytool.Thus,Tagore’sworksremainIndianat core
and revolutionaryatthe same time.One can considerthisasa reasonfor people tocall himGurudev.
Fakeer of Jungheeera:
The tragic love storyof the widowNalini andthe Fakeeriswhatformsthe base forDerozioto talkabouthisviewsonthe prevalentsocioreligious
hypocrisy.He advocatesthe needforequalityamongpeople byportrayingthe twoloversbelongingtotwo differentreligions.Marriedtoa man mucholder
than her,Nalini becomesaSati at a veryyoungage.It isher lover,the Fakeer,whosavesherfromthe funeral pyre.Their happinessof beingtogether,
however,istime bound.Inthe lastof hisloots,afterwhichhe promisesNalini toleave the profession,the Fakeerbattleswithhisbeloved’sfather,losinghis
life inthe process.Leftall alone,Nalini grievesoverherlover’sdeathandisfoundlyingdead,nexttoherFakeer,the nextmorning.
The poemdividedintotwocantosisconsideredamasterpiece of Derozio’sshortliterarycareer.Oftenconsideredasbeinginfluencedbythe Romantic
poet,Lord Byron,Derozio’sworkisfull of Christianallegoryandnatural descriptions.Nature isusedasamediumtoexpressthe variousmoodsof the

28. poem.Forexample,the wind’smovementbecomesastormwhenthe Fakeerdecidestoleaveforthe lastbattle.Wordslike ‘Elysian’,‘Phoenix’,etcaswell
as the variousreferencestothe angelslikeSeraphimetccanbe consideredasinfluence of the ChristianEnlightenmentidealsprevalentduringthose times.
Chokher Bali:
The meaningof the title ChokherBali,“A grainof sand”or “An irritantto the eye”,explainsitself throughthe plotline of the novel.The complicated
relationshipssurroundingtwofriends,leadtothemtobecome irritantsof eachother’seyes.The protagonisthere,isBinodini,agirl widowedata very
youngage.She decidestotake revenge againstMahendra(Mohin),whorefusedtomarryheras she was “not of a marriageable age”andwasconsequently
widowedatanearlyage and deprivedof all the love andawealthy,comfortable life.Almostthe same fate isthatof Mahendra’sfriendBihari wholoves
Ashalatabutcouldn’tmarry herbecause of Mahendra’smarriage to her.Binodini getsjealousof Ashalatawhoshe believesdoesn’tdeservethe love and
wealthylife she’sreceivingfromMahendra.Andyetshe pretendstobe herfriendasshe plansto attract Mahendratowardsher. ChokherBali isthe name

29. playfullygivenbyAshalatatotheirfriendship.ItisAshalata’slove forherhusbandandtrustoverBinodini whichleadshertobecome avictimof betrayal
and deceit.Mahendra,the maninquestion,isanimmture andself-obsessedpersonandneitherrcaresforAshanor forBinod.Binodini’seffortsfor
receivinglove fromBihari alsoremainsfutile ashe swearstoleada life of celibacyandalsobecause widowremarriage was notallowedduringthe time in
whichthe novel isset.However,the endof the novel,leavesBihari,whocontinuestostayon the pathof celibacywhenhe realizesthe reasonbehind
Binodini notmarryinghim,withBinodini’smemento, alockof herhair andBinodini witha‘scar’ onher arm and ‘the piouslife of awidowinsolitude’.
Nalini and Binodini:
WhetheritisNalini orBinodini,widowhoodmade avictimoutof both of them.Nomatter howstrongBinodini’scharacterappearswithhereffortstobreak
downthe marriedlife of the manwho leftherinsucha state,she isstill leftwithnothingbutsolitude.Nalini’svictimizationisstrongersince she doesn’t
evenhave the freedomtomake effortswhichBinodinipossesses.Whenshe escapesfromthe funeral pyre of herdeadhusband,she issolelyonthe mercy
of the Fakeer,who’sownlife isfullof unsurity.The selfishmotivewithwhichBinondini canact isnot a libertygiventoNalini.The factthatwidows,whether
theybelongedtothe time of Derozioorof Tagore sufferedthe same fate,iswhatthe comparative studyof boththese workswouldconclude.A woman
once widowediseithermade aSati,as in the case of Nalini,orisexpectedtolive alife of penance,asif itisherfault that herhusbanddied,asinthe case of
Binodini.One more inference whichcanbe made isthat of the theme of “Man as protectorand provider”.Onone handwhere FakeerbecomesaProtector
and ProviderforNalini,neitherof the maninChokherBali helpsBinodini onthose grounds,insteadtheyare more seenasenemiesastheyleave heralone
whenshe needsthemthe most.Inthissense bothBihari andMohinappear self centered.A feministapproachwouldalsolike tolookatthe relationshipof
the otherwomencharacterswiththe protagonists.Thisapproachwouldlendinterestingresults.Itisquite intriguingtonote thatwhentalkingabout
widows,boththe writerschose toaddmarriedwomenastheircounterpartsandnot otherwidows.InNalini’scase the womencome asvoicesof the
societyanddefendthe tradtionof Sati insteadof comfortingNalini if nothelpingherescape the traditiionall together.Binodini isinsomewhatabetter
conditionsince she isable todeal withthe womencharactersaccordingto herneed.Forexample,Ashalataeasilygellsupwithherwhenshe’sherfriend
but then,whenBinodini succeedsinattractingMohintowardsher,she alsosuffersalmostthe same amountof victimizationasherfriend.She isalsoleft
withan unfaithful husbandandthe societal criticismwhichresultsfromit.Inaway,Tagore has givenBinodinithe liberty toatleastmake efforts,onher
ownand withoutanyone andespeciallyaman’shelp,tocome outof the situationwhichDeroziocouldn’tevenimagine Nalini wouldbe able todo.
Anyways,the otherimportantaspectisthatneitherof the writerscouldbringupthe idea of how wouldawidow’slifewouldbe apartfromthe man-
womenrelationships.Neitherof the protagonistscome outof the house holdconflictsandthe relatiionshippoliticsandintrigues.Theyjustappearasif
theydon’thave a life outside the struggleforgettinglove andsupportfromsomeone.Neitherof themcaneventhinkof creatingtheirownindividual
identity.But,giventhe context,eitherof themare notevenexpectedtodoso. The language alsoplaysa vital role.If we lookatthe wayDerozio portrays
Nalini,we cannotice howthe amountof idealizationof womenprevalentinliteratureof those timesisreflectedinhiswork.Similarly,the firstreadingof
ChokherBali wouldrenderBinodini asanenchantress,abeautifulwoman,easyforaman like Mohintoget attractedto. Interestinglyenougheventhe

30. secondarywomencharactersof the work suchas Ashalataare fair,innocentandsoon and so forth,basically,typicalpicturesof womenmanhave intheir
intheirminds.Itis notnewfor the canonical writersof a paricularera to portraytheir‘heroines’asidealsof beautyandinnocence.
Bibliography
Ainy. A commemorativepostagestamp ontheBirthBicentenary of Henry LouisVivianDerozio. 3 June 2016. web.23 October2018.
<http://www.istampgallery.com/henry-louis-vivian-derozio/>.
Majumdar,Bishakha. WhatmadeRabindranathTagoresay that'Iregret theendingof thestory' forhis classic novel'ChokherBali'? 21 January 2018. web.
23 October2018. <https://www.quora.com/What-made-Rabindranath-Tagore-say-that-I-regret-the-ending-of-the-story-for-his-classic-novel-
Chokher-Bali#>.
Seema. RabindranthTagore'sNormDefyingNovel:ChokherBali.6 June 2017. web.23 October2018. <https://owlcation.com/humanities/Rabindranath-
Tagores-Great-Fiction-work-Chokher-Bali>.

31. ComparativeStudyof Kubla Khan’s“Damselwithdulcimer” and Christabel’s“Geraldine”
Abstract:
A fascination formysterious,supernatural,andunknownworldisone of the central themesof Romanticpoetry.WhetheritisColeridgeorKeats,Romantic
poetshave dealtwiththistheme intheirowndistinctway.Notonlydothese elementsprovide the readerasense of wonder, buttheyalsoreflectthe
psychological frameworkof the poet.Itisinteresting tonote howfemale charactersbecome apart of thismystery.The aimof thisassignmenttherefore is
to studythe two mysteriousfemale charactersof Coleridge’sChristabelandKublaKhan.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge- a brief introduction to hispoetry:
“Thoughnot the firstof Coleridge’s publishedworks,LyricalBalladsestablishedColeridgeamongthe foremostpoeticvoicesin18thcenturyEngland.
Coleridge oftenusesamatter-of-fact,conversationalstyle inhispoetry,apractice inkeepingwiththe Romanticidealthatpoetryshouldbe aboutandfor
the average reader.Many of hispoemsare infact lyrical conversationsbetweenColeridge andsome unseen,silentlistener.Coleridge alsoemphasizedthe
supernatural andthe powerof the natural worldin hisworks."KublaKhan"describesthe buildingof a"statelypleasure dome"thatitself isformedbythe
bizarre natural (supernatural?)phenomenaof icycavesundera sunlitsky."Rime of the AncientMariner"combineselementsof the natural world(suchas
the Albatross) withthe supernatural (suchasthe strange seacreatures) todescribe the connectionbetweenthe seenandunseenworlds,aswellashuman
beings'interconnectionwithboth.Nature iscelebratedoutrightinotherpoems,suchasColeridge's "Sonnet:Tothe RiverOtter,"andformsthe basisof
thoughtful meditationin"FrostatMidnight.”Mostof Coleridge'spoetryislyric;thatis,ithas a song-likequalityandisquite suitedtoreading(oreven
singing) aloud.Coleridge fusedthispopular writingstylewithhisownexperimental poeticforms,aswhenhe basedthe scheme of "Christabel"noton
rhyme,buton the patternof accentedandunaccentedsyllables.” (Gordon)

32. Kubla Khan:
“Alongwith“The Rime of the AncientMariner,”“KublaKhan”isone of Coleridge’smostfamousandenduringpoems.The storyof itscompositionisalso
one of the mostfamousinthe historyof Englishpoetry.Asthe poetexplainsinthe shortpreface tothispoem,he hadfallenasleepaftertaking“an
anodyne”prescribed“inconsequenceof aslightdisposition”(thisisaeuphemismforopium,towhichColeridge wasknownto be addicted).Beforefalling
asleep,he hadbeenreadingastoryin whichKublaKhancommandedthe buildingof anewpalace;Coleridge claimsthatwhilehe slept,he hadafantastic
visionandcomposedsimultaneously—while sleeping—sometwoorthree hundredlinesof poetry,“if thatindeedcanbe calledcompositioninwhichall the
imagesrose upbefore himasthings, witha parallel productionof the correspondentexpressions,withoutanysensationorconsciouseffort.”
Wakingafterabout three hours,the poetseizedapenandbeganwritingfuriously;however,aftercopyingdownthe firstthree stanzasof hisdreamt
poem—the firstthree stanzasof the currentpoemaswe knowit—he wasinterruptedbya“persononbusinessfromPorlock,”whodetainedhimforan
hour.Afterthisinterruption,he wasunable torecall the restof the visionorthe poetryhe had composedin hisopiumdream.Itisthoughtthat the final
stanza of the poem,thematizingthe ideaof the lostvisionthroughthe figure of the “damsel withadulcimer”andthe milkof Paradise,waswrittenpost-
interruption.The mysteriouspersonfromPorlockisone of the mostnotoriousandenigmaticfiguresinColeridge’sbiography;noone knowswhohe wasor
whyhe disturbedthe poetorwhat he wantedor, indeed,whetheranyof Coleridge’sstoryisactuallytrue.Butthe personfromPorlockhasbecome a
metaphorforthe maliciousinterruptionsthe worldthrowsinthe wayof inspirationandgenius,and“KublaKhan,”strange andambiguous asitis,has
become whatisperhapsthe definitive statementonthe obstructionandthwartingof the visionarygenius.
Regrettably,the storyof the poem’scomposition,whilethematicallyrichinandof itself,oftenovershadowsthe poemproper,whichis one of Coleridge’s
mosthauntingand beautiful.The firstthree stanzasare productsof pure imagination:The pleasure-domeof KublaKhanisnota useful metaphorfor
anythinginparticular(thoughinthe contextof the poem’shistory,itbecomesametaphorforthe unbuiltmonumentof imagination);however,itisa
fantasticallyprodigiousdescriptiveact.The poembecomesespecially evocativewhen,afterthe secondstanza,the metersuddenlytightens;the resulting
linesare terse andsolid,almostbeatingoutthe soundof the war drums(“The shadowof the dome of pleasure /Floatedmidwayonthe waves...”). The
fourthstanza statesthe theme of the poemas a whole (though“KublaKhan”isalmostimpossible toconsiderasa unifiedwhole,asitspartsare so sharply
divided).The speakersaysthathe once had a visionof the damsel singingof MountAbora;thisvisionbecomesametaphor forColeridge’svisionof the 300-
hundred-line masterpiece he nevercompleted.The speakerinsiststhatif he couldonly“revive”withinhim“hersymphonyandsong,”he wouldrecreate
the pleasure-dome outof musicandwords,andtake onthe personaof the magicianor visionary.Hishearerswouldrecognizethe dangerouspowerof the

33. vision,whichwouldmanifestitself inhis“flashingeyes”and“floatinghair.”But,awestruck,theywouldnonethelessdutifullytake partinthe ritual,
recognizingthat“he on honey-dewhathfed,/Anddrunkthe milkof Paradise.” (Editors)
The Damsel with Dulcimer:
The linesmentioningthe damselare asfollows:
“ A damsel witha dulcimer
In a visiononce Isaw:
It was an Abyssinianmaid
Andon herdulcimershe played,
Singingof Mt Abora.”
“The damsel isa figure of poeticinspiration,butherpowersare evokedhereonlytobe feltmissing: wereshe tosing,the poetwould then be able to
recreate the dome andits landscape;butthe conditional moodof the lines(‘CouldI…’,‘I would…’) conveysthisto be a wishratherthan any realized
achievement.”(Perry)
Christabel:
“Christabel isanunfinishedgothicballadwrittenbySamuel TaylorColeridge.Itwasfinishedintwoyears:firstpartin1797 and secondpart in1800 which
was publishedin1816 Christabel;KublaKhan,A Vision;The Painsof Sleep.The storyof Christabel isaboutacentral female characterof a younglady
namedChristabel andherencounterwithastrangercalledGeraldine.She claimstohave been kidnapped fromherhome byabandof roughmen.
"Christabel"juxtaposesthe theme of sinversusreligiosity, evil versusdevoutness,andsexualityversuspurity.Inthispoem,the central characterChristabel
representspurity,religiosityanddevoutnesswhereasGeraldine symbolizesevil,sinandsexuality.Christabel isoftenfound prayingthroughoutthe poem
and one of the mostnoticeable stuffsinherbedroomisthe carvingof an angel.Inopposite tothis,Geraldine saysthatshe doesnothave the powerto
praise the VirginMary forbeingrescuedbyChristabel.

34. The theme of mysticismisalsodominantin Christabel whichisColeridge’smostprominentfeatures.Geraldineiscontrolledbyamysteriousspell inthe
poem.She putssame spell onChristabel.Once Christabeltangiblyrecoversfromthe spell,she seemstochange.Christabel’s compassionforGeraldinehave
vanishedandshe begsherfatherto cast Geraldine outof theirhome.Christabel goesfromgeneroustoselfish.The taintof spellsuponGeraldine and
Christabel suggeststhe destructivepowersof mysticism.” (Shreshtha)
Geraldine:
“Geraldine isone of the earliestliterarydepictionsof the female vampire,althoughshe alsofollowsinthe traditionof the "white woman"ghoststories.
Geraldine representscarnal desireandthe darkerside of humannature.She portrays herself asa victimof male violence,butinfactperformsherownacts
of violenceagainstthe innocentsoul of Christabel.Attimesbeautiful,Geraldine'strue nature isrevealedinthe scarredanddeformedbodyshe hidesunder
herwhite dressandthe snakelike hissingshe directstowardthe resistantChristabel.” (Gordon)
However,Geraldine’sanalysisdoesn’tendhere.The statementsinthe defense of Christabel reflectare readingof hercharacter intermsof a more rational
thinking.“The role of Geraldine,inColeridge’sChristabel,isoftenviewedasthe wickedseductresswhocorruptsandshattersthe life of ayounginnocent
maiden.However,afterclose examinationof the poem,we cannotregardthistobe hersole purpose. Whenwe lookatthe way inwhichGeraldine is
portrayedinthe poem,we see thatColeridge bestowsqualitiesboth,goodandevil uponher,provokingbothoursympathyand disgust,makingit
impossible forustomake a concrete decisionabouthernature.WhenGeraldineisfirstintroducedinthe poem she isdescribedasexceedinglybeautiful
(l.68).We are sympathetictowardsthisdamsel bright whenwe learnthatshe hasbeenseizedbywarriorsandlefttodie.Notonlydowe feel sympathyfor
Geraldine,sodoesChristabel andaccordinglycomfortsfair Geraldine andoffersthe service of SirLeoline.However,beforetheyreachChristabel’scastle,
Coleridge indicatesthroughmanycluesthatthislovelyladymaynotbe whatshe appearsto be.”
Conclusion:
The argumentsgivenabove indicate clearlythatboththe female charactersare instark contrast,almostbinaries,whenitcomestotheircharacter
portrayal.Coleridge’sdescriptionof these charactersreflectsthe binaryunderstandingof womenof those times.Theyare eitheridealizedorare of
questionable andcondemnedcharacter.The damsel withdulcimer’srole seemsmore of amuse for Coleridge whereasGeraldine seems more of an
enchantress.

35. WorksCited
Editors,SparkNotes. Coleridge'sPetry.2002. web.5 April 2019. <https://www.sparknotes.com/poetry/coleridge/section5/>.
Gordon,Todd. Coleridge'sPoemsStudy Guide.Ed. ElizabethWeinbloom.31May 2011. web.5 April 2019. <https://www.gradesaver.com/coleridges-
poems>.
Perry,Seamus. AnIntroductiontoKublaKhanOrA Visionin a Dream.15 May 2014. web.5 April 2019. <https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-
victorians/articles/an-introduction-to-kubla-khan-or-a-vision-in-a-dream>.
Shreshtha,Roma. Christabelby SamuelTaylorColeridge: Summary andAnalysis.28March 2018. web.5 April 2019.
<https://www.bachelorandmaster.com/britishandamericanpoetry/christabel-summary-analysis.html#.XKb4e5gzZPY>.

36. Archaismin TennysonandBrowning’spoems
Abstract:
ThoughVictorianage isusuallycharacterizedbyarapid change interms of literature aswell associety.Andyet,one canobserve akindof nostalgia
towards,to putit inTennyson’swords,‘the daysthatare nomore’;a wishto bringback the valuessuchas nobilityandmorality,whichwere,accordingto
some,were fadinginthe Victoriantime.Thisisclearlyevidentinthe poemsof the twomajorpoetsof the era, namelyAlfredLordTennysonand Robert
Browning.Some of the majorworksof these twopoetsreflectedthe theme of archaism.Needlesstosaythat the treatmentof the theme bybothof them
was differentandsignificantintheirownway.Howfardidthisarchaism helpinthe increase inthe popularityof theirworksisstill aquestion.Nevertheless,
it isthe aim of thisassignment,tohave a brief of thistheme anditstreatmentbyboththese poets.
What is Archaism?
“In language,anarchaismis a word,a sense of a word,or a style of speechorwritingthatbelongstoa historical epochlongbeyondlivingmemory,butthat
has survivedinafewpractical settings oraffairs.”(Contributors) Archaismalsoincludesthe use of archaiccharacters or settings.So,forinstance,if a
literaryworkincludesknightsandtheirchivalrictales,suchawork can be said tohave archaism as one of its central themes.“Archaicwordsorexpressions
may have distinctiveemotionalconnotations—some canbe humorous,some highlyformal,andsome solemn.” (Contributors).Toputthisinsimple terms,
the treatmentof archaic elementswoulddifferfromtime totime aswell asfrom writertowriter.So,for example,intermsof satire,archaiccharacters
eitherwouldbe usedasmediumstosatirize the real lifepeople oreventhe archaiccharactersthemselves.
Alfred Lord Tennyson’s Poetry:
Tennyson’spoetryischaracterizedbythe themesof melancholy,death,implicationsof time,etc.“Hispoemsare renownedfor,amongotherthings,their
boldheroicnarratives,theirmovingevocationof deepemotions,theirskilfullyricismandcadences,andtheirmemorable imagery.” (Osborne) Itis
importantto note here isthe fact that Tennysonhandledall these grave themeswithsuchsimplicityof language thatitbecomeseasyforareaderto
identifythem. Apartfromthis,Tennysonisalsoamasterof imagery,meterandrhyme scheme.These againare accompaniedbyastrongsense of rhythm.
Thisis the reasonwhy,Tennyson’sverseshave amusical qualitytothem.

37. “Tennyson'scharacteristicpoeticstructure takesthe followingform:the maincharacter progressesthroughaseriesof discrete sectionsorpanelsthatmay
take the form of landscapes,statesof mind,arguments,ortestsuntil he hasa dream,vision,orotherpowerful revelationthateffectsaconversiontonew
waysof life andaction.Whatis perhapsmostdistinctiveaboutTennyson'spoeticstructure isthe sharpseparationhe achievesbetweensectionsinmanyof
hispoems.Infact, evenwhentellingastoryinan apparentlystraightforwardchronological form,Tennysonalwaysprefersto progressthroughaseriesof
parables,songs,visions,arguments,andactions.”(Landow)
Followingare some of the majorworksbyTennyson:
1. PoemsChieflyLyrical [thisincludedMarianaandClaribel,whichbecame verypopular]
2. The Lady Of Shalott
3. In Memoriam
4. In The ValleyOf Cauteretz
5. Poems[acollection]
6. Ulysses
7. Tithonus
8. LocksleyHall
9. The Charge Of The LightBrigade
The characteristicsmentionedabovecanbe observedinthe followinglinesfromThe Ladyof Shalott:
“On eitherside the riverlie
Long fieldsof barleyandof rye,
That clothe the woldandmeetthe sky;

38. Andthro' the fieldthe roadrunsby
To many-tower'dCamelot;
The yellow-leavedwaterlily
The green-sheatheddaffodilly
Tremble inthe waterchilly
Roundabout Shalott.”
Archaismin Tennyson’s Poetry:
It isoftenconsideredthatthe Romanticswere more involvedinusingarchaismasa theme intheirpoetry.However,gloryof the pastand itsidealizationis
a theme whichrecursfromtime to time inthe literaryworksof everyage of everytraditionandculture.Itisa commontendencyof peopletoidealize the
distantpast;whereasthe immediatepastisnotso much significant,itremainsjustaphenomenontomove forwardsfrom.Similarkindof acharacteristic
can be observedinthe poetryof Tennyson,whoisconsideredtohave beeninfluencedbythe Romanticsinhisuse of archaism. “Like the romanticpoets
whoprecededhim,Tennysonfoundmuchinspirationinthe ancientworldsof Greece andRome.Inpoemssuchas“The Lotos-Eaters”and“Ulysses,”
Tennysonretellsthe storiesof Dante andHomer,whichdescribedthe charactersof Ulysses,Telemachus,andPenelopeandtheiradventuresinthe ancient
world.However,Tennysonslightlyaltersthese mythicstories,shiftingthe time frame of some of the actionandoftenaddingmore descriptive Imageryto
the plot.For instance,“Ulysses,”adramaticmonologue spokenbyHomer’shero,urge readerstocarry on andpersevere rather thantogive upand retire.
Elsewhere Tennysonchannelsthe voice of Tithonus,alegendaryprince fromTroy,inthe eponymouspoem“Tithonus”(1833, 1859). He praisesthe ancient
poetVirgil inhis Ode “To Virgil”(1882),commentingonVirgil’schoice of subjectmatterandlaudinghisabilitytochroniclehumanhistoryinmeter.
Tennysonminedthe ancientworldtofindstoriesthatwouldsimultaneouslyenthral andinspire hisreaders.” (Editors,SparkNoteonTennyson'sPoetry)
Anotherimportantthingtonote here isTennyson’sideaof KingArthurasthe ideal man.For him,ArthurianEnglandwasthe bestplace andtime to live in.
Robert Browning’sPoetry:
In contrastto Tennyson,Browningwasapoetwitha liberal bentof mind.Forhim, art and literature were meanttobe enjoyed.Hispoetryreflectsavery
deepunderstandingof the psychologyof hischaractersaswell asan urge to free literatureandart frommoral preachings.He isrememberedforhis

39. distinctive dramaticmonologueswhichhelpedhiscentral charactersto ventout theirpersonal feelingsaboutthe situationathand. “A dramatic
monologue byBrowningtypicallyfeaturesanincandescentmomentof crisisorof self-realizationinthe mental lifeof some unusual,oftenmorallyor
psychologicallyflawed,character.”
Anothercharacteristicof hiswritingisthe reflectionof hislanguage proficiency.Hisknowledgeof Latin,Greek,FrenchandItaliancanbe observedtohave
beenusedinhispoemsaswell.However,thisledtohispoemsbeingrendereddifficultforhis readers.“One of the mostnotable featuresabouthis
collectionsisthathe doesnotgive anyimportance tothe chronology,justthe contentof the poemsthemselves.”(Prasad) Anotherimportantmatterto
consideraboutBrowning’spoetryisthe factthat he couldanalyze andunderstandamatter throughvariousperspectives.Browning’sbiographer,C.K
Chesterton,statedthat,“Withinhisworkliesthe mysterywhichbelongstothe complex andwithinhislife the muchgreatermysterywhichbelongstothe
simple.”
His majorWorks include:
1. The Ring AndThe Book
2. My Last Duchess
3. Men and Women
4. Sordello
5. Rabbi BenEzra
6. Fra LippoLippi
Archaismin Browning’s Poetry:
As isalreadyinmentioned,Browningalsoportraysarchaicsettingsand characters inhispoetry.Infact, portrayingthe historical eventsandcharacters,is
one of the manyimportantthemesinBrowning’spoetry.“Browningsetmanyof hispoemsinmedieval andRenaissance Europe,mostofteninItaly.He
drewon hisextensive knowledgeof art,architecture,andhistorytofictionalize actual events,includingaseventeenth-centurymurderin TheRing and the
Book,andto channel the voicesof actual historical figures,includingabiblical scholarinmedievalSpainin“Rabbi Ben Ezra”(1864) and the Renaissance
painterinthe eponymous“AndreaDel Sarto.”The remotenessof the time periodandlocationallowedBrowningtocritiqueand explorecontemporary
issueswithoutfearof alienatinghisreaders.”(Editors,SparkNote onRobertBrowning'spoetry)

40. Conclusion:
The examplesandexplanationgivenabove provesthatthe Victorianpoetswere asmuchusingarchaismaswere the Romantics.Itis evidentthatboth
these poets,treatedhistorical eventsand charactersdifferentlyintheirowndistinctstyle.Onone handwhere we findarchaiccharactersandsettingsbeing
idealizedinTennyson’spoetry,we findBrowningusingthemtocritique contemporaryissuesof histime.Tothe readerof the moderntime,Browning
wouldseemfarmore convincingthanTennyson;the reasonbeingBrowning’sfree playwiththe historical eventsforhispurpose.
WorksCited
Contributors,Wikipedia. Archaism.Vers.886637305. 7 March 2019. web.2 April 2019.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archaism&oldid=886637305>.
Editors,SparkNotes. SparkNoteonRobertBrowning'spoetry.2002. web.3 April 2019. <https://www.sparknotes.com/poetry/browning/themes/>.
—.SparkNoteonTennyson'sPoetry.2002. web.3 April 2019. <SparkNotes.com>.
Landow,George P. Tennyson'sPoeticProject.20 February2010. web.4 April 2019. <http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/tennyson/im/improject.html>.
Osborne,Kristen. Tennyson'sPoemsStudy Guide.Ed.AdamKissel.11November2013. web.3 April 2019. <https://www.gradesaver.com/tennysons-
poems>.
Prasad,Vaijayanti. RobertBrowning'sDetailedBiography.March2019. web.3 April 2019. <http://victorian-era.org/robert-browning-detailed-
biography.html>.

41. ‘NatureWriting’andHenryDavid Thoreau’s“Walden”
Abstract:
Accordingto M.H Abrams,“Eco-criticismdesignatesthe critical writingsthatexplore the relationshipsbetweenliteratureandthe biological andphysical
environment,conductedwithanacute awarenessof the damage beingwroughtonthatenvironmentbyhumanactivities.” The mainargumentof Eco-
criticismliesinthe factthat literature hasalwaysbeenanthropocentricandthat ithas beensubjecttoliterarydescriptionssince the birthof language itself.
Nature Writingisone such fieldwhichstudiesandunderstandsnature andthe natural cycles.The aimof thisassignmenttherefore is tohave a brief view
on whatthisfieldisall aboutand toanalyze Thoreau’s“Walden”asa textof Eco-criticismaswell asnature writing.
What is Nature Writing?
“Nature writingisnonfiction orfictionprose orpoetry aboutthe natural environment.Nature writingencompassesawide varietyof works,rangingfrom
those that place primaryemphasisonnatural historyfacts(suchas fieldguides) tothose inwhichphilosophical interpretationpredominate.It
includes natural history essays,poetry,essaysof solitude orescape,aswell astravel andadventure writing.”(Contributors)
"In critical practice,"saysMichael P.Branch, "the term'nature writing'hasusuallybeenreservedforabrandof nature representationthatisdeemed
literary,writteninthe speculativepersonalvoice,andpresentedinthe formof the nonfiction essay.Suchnature writingisfrequentlypastoral orromantic
inits philosophical assumptions,tendstobe modernorevenecologicalinitssensibility,andisofteninservice toanexplicitorimplicitpreservationist
agenda"(Nordquist)
GilbertWhite isconsideredasthe pioneerof thisfield,whoestablishedthe pastoral dimensionof nature writinginlate 18th
century.Followingare some of
the examplesof nature writing:
At the Turn of the Year,by WilliamSharp
1. The Battle of the Ants,by HenryDavidThoreau
2. Hours of Spring,byRichard Jefferies
3. The House-Martin,byGilbertWhite

42. 4. In MammothCave,by JohnBurroughs
5. An IslandGarden,byCeliaThaxter
6. Januaryin the Sussex Woods,byRichardJefferies
7. The Land of Little Rain,byMary Austin
8. Migration,byBarry Lopez
9. The PassengerPigeon,byJohnJamesAudubon
10. Rural Hours,by SusanFenimore Cooper
11. Where I Lived,andWhat I LivedFor,by HenryDavidThoreau (Nordquist)
The above examplesclearlyindicatethatThoreauwasa prominentfigure inthe developmentof Nature writingasitdevelopedinmid-19th
century
America.DavidRainsWallace inhisarticle “The Nature Of Nature Writing”,publishedinthe NewYorkTimes,statesthatthe worksunderthe title of
Nature Writinghave one thingincommonand that is“theyare a appreciative aestheticresponsestoa scientificviewof nature”.Aboutthe beginnings
of Nature Writinghe writes,“Of course,there wasmuchwritingthatconcernednature before Linnaeusdevelopedscientificclassificationinthe mid-
18th century,butthe fascinationwithnature itself thatscience evokedwasnew.BeforeLinnaeus,there were huntingstories,fables,herbals,
bestiaries,pastorals,lyricsand traveller’stales,butnature generallywasseeninonlytwodimensions.Itwasa backdropto a historical cosmos,ora
veneeroverareligious one.Whetheritwasadmiredorscorned,the humanfigure stoodinstrongrelief againstit.AfterLinnaeusbegantogive even
insectsimpressive Greco-Latinatenames,nature rapidlyacquiredanewsubstantiality,andbecame asubjectaswell asa setting. Bythe 1790's, an
Englishcountryclergymanwhoa centuryor twobefore mighthave beenwritingtheologicaltreatisesormetaphysical poemsproducedabook(Gilbert
White's''The Natural Historyof Selborne'') whereinhistoryandreligionwere interwoven with,sometimesovershadowedby,beechtreesand
earthworms.”
He furtherstatessomethingaboutwhyNature Writingbecame soprevalentinAmericaandnowhere else,sayingthat“Europeancolonistsfoundhere
a worldwhichwasfor them(if notfor the Indianstheydisplaced)emptyof historical orreligiousassociation.Inthisworld,theyignorednature itselfat
theirownrisk.The earlyJamestownandBostoncolonistssucceededinignoringittosome degree,whichperhapsisone reason theyclungprecariously
to the coast for the firsthundredyears,butbyLinnaeus'stime,Americanshadbeguntoobserve nature closely,andtoventure intothe wildernesswith
appreciation.”

43. He alsomentionshowNature Writingdevelopedinthe handsof Thoreauand his disciple JohnMuir,statingthat,“Althoughtheyoftenare seenasopposed
to 19th-centuryexpansionism,ThoreauandMuirwere menof theirtime,inhabitingaplanetwithabouta quarterof today'spopulation.Landspeculators
saw hope andfuture inquakingswampstoo,althoughtheydifferedfromThoreauinwantingtosee themdrainedafterthey'dboughtthemcheap.One
mightsay that ThoreauandMuir likedthe expansive qualityof the frontiersomuchthat theywantedtomake it permanent,to integrate itschallengesand
exhilarationswithcivilization.Fromthisdesire,expressedinThoreau'sNewEnglandswampruminationsandMuir'sCalifornia mountaintopraptures,arose
the conceptof the wildernesspark,America'suniquecontributiontoglobal culture.”
All these instancesare enoughtoinferthatHenryDavidThoreauwasa prominentfigure of Nature Writingandthathisworks inspiredthe laternature
writersaswell.Now,let’shave abrief viewof hisworkWaldenasanimportanttextinnature writing andeco criticism.
Walden- a brief introduction:
“Walden,infull Walden;or,Life in the Woods,seriesof 18 essaysby HenryDavidThoreau,publishedin1854. Animportantcontributionto New
EnglandTranscendentalism,the bookwasarecord of Thoreau’s experimentinsimple livingonthe northernshore of WaldenPond ineastern
Massachusetts(1845–47). Walden isviewednotonlyasa philosophical treatiseonlabour,leisure,self-reliance,andindividualismbutalsoasan influential
piece of nature writing.ItisconsideredThoreau’smasterwork.”(Lowne)
“Waldenisthe product of the two yearsand twomonthsThoreaulivedinsemi-isolationby WaldenPond nearConcord,Massachusetts.He builtasmall
cabinon landownedbyhis friendRalphWaldoEmerson andwas almosttotallyself-sufficient,growinghisownvegetablesanddoingoddjobs.Itwashis
intentionatWaldenPondtolive simplyandhave time tocontemplate,walkinthe woods,write,andcommune withnature.Ashe explained,“Iwenttothe
woodsbecause Iwishedtolive deliberately,tofrontonlythe essential factsof life.”The resultingbookisa seriesof essays,ormeditations,beginningwith
“Economy,”in whichhe discussedhisexperimentandincludedadetailed accountof the construction(andcost) of hiscabin.Thoreauextolledthe benefits
of literature in“Reading,”thoughinthe following essay,“Sounds,”he notedthe limitsof booksandimploredthe readertolive mindfully,“beingforeveron
the alert”to the soundsandsightsinhisor her ownlife.“Solitude”praisedthe friendlinessof nature,whichmade the “fanciedadvantagesof human
neighbourhoodinsignificant.”Lateressaysincluded“Visitors,”“HigherLaws,”“WinterAnimals,”and“Spring.”RelativelyneglectedduringThoreau’s
lifetime, Walden achievedtremendouspopularityinthe 20thcentury.Thoreau’sdescriptionof the physical actof livingdaybyday at Walden Pondgave
the bookauthority,while hiscommandof aclear,straightforward,but elegantstylehelpedraise ittothe level of aliteraryclassic.Oft-repeatedquotes
fromWalden include:“The massof menleadlivesof quietdesperation”;“Beware of all enterprisesthatrequire newclothes”;and“If a mandoesnot keep
pace withhiscompanions,perhapsitisbecause he hearsadifferentdrummer.” (Lowne)

44. ElizabethWitherellinherarticle titled“ReflectiononWalden”outlinesthe significance of Thoreau’sworkstating,“Thoreau'swordsexpressedthe concerns
of manyof his contemporariesasindustrializationandwarpermanentlyalteredthe worldaroundthem,justastheystruckachord in a generationof young
people inthe 1960s and 1970s who opposedthe modernmilitary-industrial complex andsoughtpeace andsimplicityintheirlives.Formany, Walden has
servedasa touchstone.”(Witherell)
Conclusion:
It can be saidthat both,the genre of nature writingaswell Thoreau’sWaldenare highlyanthropocentric.Theydeal with oursubjectiveexperiencesand
understandingof nature.Boththese instancesreflectthatnature hasalwaysbeentreatedasa place for humanstoescape fromthe strugglesof humanlife
and world.Butthe questionwhichquestionwhichEco-criticismasksis,“howfarcan humanshave a monopolyonnature?”“howfar can we exertour
authorityonnature?”
WorksCited
Contributors,Wikipedia. NatureWriting.Vers.886293289. 5 March 2019. web.4 April 2019.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Nature_writing&id=886293289>.
Lowne,Cathy. Walden- Essaysby Thoreau.18 October2018. web.4 April 2019. <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Walden>.
Nordquist,Richard. WhatisNatureWriting. 7 December2018. web.4 April 2019. <https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-nature-writing-1691423>.
Witherell,Elizabeth. TheWritingsof Henry D Thoreau.1995. web.4 April 2019. <http://thoreau.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau_walden.html>.

45. Diaspora and CulturalHybridity
Abstract:
Diasporalife andliterature becomesaninterestingstudyundercultural studies.Notonlyisita fieldforunderstandingidentitypoliticsandpostmodernlife
but alsoisidentifiedbyadeepdiscourse onwhatdoesthe ‘sense of belongingness’meaninhumanlife.Onthe otherhand,Cultural Hybridityisequallyan
importantaspectwhile understandingthe dynamicsof identityinacrosscultural setup. These conceptsalsoplayasignificantrole inanalyzinglarger
structureslike globalization.The aim of thisassignmenttherefore,istohave a brief understandingof these twoconceptsandtheirrelevance and
significance incultural studies.
What is CulturalHybridity?
“Hybrid talk,the rhetoricof hybridity,isfundamentallyassociatedwiththe emergence of post-colonial discourseanditscritiquesof cultural imperialism.It
isthe secondstage inthe historyof hybridity,characterizedbyliterature andtheorythatstudythe effectsof mixture (hybridity)uponidentityandculture.
The principal theoristsof hybridityare Homi Bhabha, NéstorGarciaCanclini, StuartHall, Gayatri Spivak,and Paul Gilroy,whose worksrespondtothe multi-
cultural awarenessthatemergedinthe early1990s. In the theoreticdevelopmentof hybridity,the keytextis TheLocationof Culture(1994), byHomi
Bhabha,whereinthe liminalityof hybridityispresentedasa paradigmof colonial anxiety. The principal propositionisthe hybridityof colonial identity,
which,as a cultural form,made the colonial mastersambivalent, and,assuch,alteredthe authorityof power;assuch,Bhabha's argumentsare important
to the conceptual discussionof hybridity.Hybriditydemonstrateshowculturescome tobe representedbyprocessesof iterationandtranslationthrough
whichtheirmeaningsare vicariouslyaddressedto—through—anOther.Thiscontrastsany“essentialistclaimsforthe inherentauthenticityorpurityof
cultureswhich,wheninscribedinthe naturalisticsignof symbolicconsciousnessfrequentlybecome political argumentsforthe hierarchyand ascendaryof
powerful cultures.”Thisalsomeansthatthe colonial subjecttakesplace,itssubalternpositioninscribedinthatspace of iteration.” (Contributors)
“Cultural hybridity constitutesthe efforttomaintainasense of balance amongpractices,values,andcustomsof twoormore differentcultures.Incultural
hybridization,one constructsanewidentitythatreflectsadual sense of being,whichresidesbothwithinandbeyondthe marginsof nationality,race,
ethnicity,class,andlinguisticdiversity.Manyimmigrants,forinstance,face thisprocessastheyattempttoaccommodate newenvironmentsand
experiences,while holdingontotheirindigenoussociocultural principlesorbeliefs.Animportantresource islanguage,whichmaybe usedtoconstructan
identity,toadaptto newcultural environments,andtomake sense of newexperiencesorsome combinationof these features.”(Paez)

46. “Contemporarypostmodernand post-colonial studiesonhybridityregardthisconceptasan indicatorthatcurrentpracticesof identityneedtobe
conceptualizedinamannerthat refutesessentialistportrayalsof the waysinwhichindividuals,groups,andcollectivities locatethemselves. Moreover,
there are other meaningassociatedwithhybridity.Forinstance,incultural studies,hybriditydenotesawide registerof multiple identity,cross-over,pick-
‘n’-mix,boundary-crossingexperiencesandstyles,matchingaworldof growingmigrationanddiasporalives,intensive intercultural communication,
everydaymulticulturalismanderosionof boundaries(Pieterse,2001:221) For some cultural theorists,hybridityrepresentsa constantprocessof translation
and interpenetrationbetweenculturesandidentities(Anthias,2001: 625). For others,itrepresentsmore thanthat;itsignifiesthe inherentlytrans-gressive
potential of the colonial subjectinthe face of the expressionof Colonial power.ForBhabha(1998) hybriditytakesplace in conditionsof inequality,during
the attemptedimpositionof culturallyhegemonicpractices(quotedbyGrabham2006). Moreover,Hybridityhappensatthe point at whichcolonial
authorityfailstofix the colonial subjectinitsgaze.Itdenotesthe equivocal space thatthe colonial subjectoccupies;aspace neitherof assimilationnorof
collaboration.Furthermore,itisargue byBhabha(1994) that hybridity“unsettlesthe mimeticornarcissisticdemandsof colonial powerbutre-implicatesits
identifications instrategiesof subversionthatturnthe gaze of the discriminatedbackuponthe eye of power.” (The Conceptof Cultural HybridityMedia
Essay)
“The conceptof (cultural) hybridityhasgainedprominence withinabroadrange of cultural and social theoriessince the 1980s,most notablywithin
postcolonial studies,cultural studies,andglobalizationtheory.The importance andinfluence of hybriditytheoryisthuscloselyrelatedtoanincreased
awarenessof global cultural flows,influences,andinterdependences,bothhistoricallyandcontemporarily.Furthermore,focusingonhybridityand
hybridizationisaway of conceptualizingdifference thataimstoavoidandundermine ideasof boundednessandclosedidentityandhence also avoidthe
essentialismthathauntstheoriesof multiculturalismforinstance.” (Frello)
Diaspora and CulturalStudies:
Thisis howJemimaPierre definesthe termdiasporaanditssignificance inherarticle:
“Diasporais a termusedto describe the mass,ofteninvoluntary,dispersal of apopulationfromacenter(orhomeland) tomultiple areas,andthe creation
of communitiesandidentitiesbasedonthe historiesandconsequencesof dispersal.The termisnotnew;it isa Greekwordonce solelyusedtodescribe
Jewish,Greek,andArmeniandispersions—whatsome scholarsoftendescribeasthe “classic”diasporas.However,diasporahasgainedcurrencyrecentlyas
botha conceptual andanalytical tool toexplainvariouspractices of global movementandcommunityformation.The use of diasporaemergedinvarious
academicdisciplinesinthe secondhalf of the 20th centurybothinconjunctionwithandas an alternative toothertermsexpressingglobal shiftsin
movementandidentity formation,sharingmeaningwithabroadersemanticfieldthatincludessuchtermsastrans-nationalismandglobalization.”

47. “Diasporastudies isanacademicfieldestablishedinthe late 20th centuryto studydispersed ethnicpopulations,whichare oftentermed diasporapeoples.
The usage of the term diasporacarriesthe connotation of forcedresettlement,due toexpulsion,coercion,slavery, racism,orwar,
especially nationalistconflicts.”(Contributors,DiasporaStudies)
Thisexplanationclearlyindicateswhydiasporaanditsliterature formsasignificantconceptwhile discussingculturalstudies.The followingexcerptexplains
howidentitydynamicsplayarole while discussingdiaspora.
“Overthe past two decades,‘diaspora’hasevolvedfromaterm witha somewhatrestrictedusage tosomethingconsiderablymore ubiquitous,
simultaneouslycrossingoverfrompolitical andacademicdiscourse intothe vernacular.Inacademia,the word‘diaspora’has,rightlyorwrongly,come tobe
appliedtoalmostanypopulationorgrouplivingoutsideitshomeland,while inpopularusage diasporanowseemsbe acollective nounusedtoreferto
anyone notat home.Diasporas – like all cultural orethnicgroups – are distinguishedbysharedclaimstoidentitythatbothprovideforinternal cohesion
and mark themoff fromothers.These commonalitiesare varied:theymaybe cultural, social,orbiological;more specificallytheymaybe religious,
linguistic,performative,symbolic,genetic,ormaterial incharacter.Identitiessomarkedmaybe expressedandanalysedthroughthe studyof
archaeological artefacts,familyorclannames,marriage patterns,residence patterns,economicactivity,political practice,dance,dress,andcuisine,the
constructionof heritage,andthe use of vernaculars.Indiasporiccontexts,thesemarkersof identityoftendrawattentiontoaconnectionwithaplace that
isdistantin time orspace,and mightbe curated differentlyathome andabroad,leadingovertime toa divergence inexpressionsof belonging.” (Walker)
It isalso importanttonote that the term diasporaitself isoftenusedtoindicate masses,whichagainisalsoa reasonwhycultural studiesisinterestedin
thisfield.Inherarticle ondiaspora,JemimaPierreexplainshow,the emergence of diasporaasaconcept of studyhas given rise toan in-depth
understandingof otherfieldsof studyaswell:
“A whole newgenre of ethnographicstudieshasbeeninformedbyconceptualizationsof diaspora,thoughthe termhasalsobeenusedacrossthe various
subdisciplines—inarchaeology,linguisticanthropology, sociocultural anthropology,andfolklore.Butevenasanthropologygrappleswiththe term’s
constantlyshiftingdeploymentsandvaryingcritiques,diasporacontinuestobe markedbythe standard theoretical concernsof the dialecticof homelandto
diaspora;the relationshipof the nation-statetodiaspora;andthe contemporarypoliticsof global populationmovement—particularlyof exiles,refugees,
and immigrants.”

48. Conclusion:
It can be inferredfromthe above explanationthatcultural hybridityanddiasporaoftengohandinhand.Althoughthese conceptsare perpetuallyremain
mattersof debate amongscholars,theyare significanttocultural studies.Whensuchcrosscultural communitiesvoice outtheirviewsandopinionsinthe
formof theirliterature,theyfunctionasimportantdocumentsforsocio-cultural analysis.
WorksCited
Contributors,Wikipedia. Diaspora Studies.Vers.886117817. 4 March 2019. web.5 April 2019.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Diaspora_studies&id=886117817>.
—.Hybridity.Vers.866945363. 2 November2018. web.5 April 2019.
<https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Hybridity&id=866945363>.
Frello,Birgitta. CulturalHybridity.5November2012. web.5 April 2019. <https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0297>.
Paez,Lillie.R.Albert&MAriela. CulturalHybridity.Ed.James.A.BAnks.2012. web.4 April 2019.
<http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/diversityineducation/n166.xml>.
The Conceptof CulturalHybridity MediaEssay.November2018. web.4 April 2019. <https://www.ukessays.com/essays/media/the-concept-of-cultural-
hybridity-media-essay.php>.
Walker,JoanaSotry& Lain. The impact of Diasporas:markersof identity.14 December2015. web.5 April 2019.
<https://tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/01419870.2016.1105999?scroll=top&needAccess=true>.