Assignment OverviewThis Case Assignment focuses on Volkswa.docx

Assignment Overview
This Case Assignment focuses on Volkswagen’s emissions
scandal and related
brand management and business ethics issues.
Case Reading
Boston, W., & Houston-Waesch, M. (2015, Oct 15).
Volkswagen suspends
another top engineer; berlin orders recall; transport minister
says recall of tainted
diesel cars is mandatory. Wall Street Journal (Online).
Cremer, A. (2016, April 20). VW to pay each U.S. customer
$5,000 to settle
dieselgate: Die Welt. Retrieved from
http://www.reuters.com/article
/us-volkswagen-emissions-court-idUSKCN0XH0ZV
Danny, Hakim, Kessler, A. M., & Ewing, J. (2015, Sep 27). As
VW pushed to be
no. 1, ambitions fueled a scandal. New York Times. De Cremer,
D., & de
Bettignies, H. (2013). PRAGMATIC BUSINESS ETHICS.
Business Strategy
Review, 24(2), 64-67.
De Cremer, D., & de Bettignies, H. (2013). PRAGMATIC
BUSINESS
ETHICS. Business Strategy Review, 24(2), 64-67.

Ewing, J. (2016, April 21). Volkswagen Reaches Deal in U.S.
Over Emissions
Scandal. New York Times. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04
/22/business/international/volkswagen-emissions-
settlement.html?_r=0
Farrell, S. (2015, Oct. 26). Volkswagen loses sales top spot to
Toyota after
emissions scandal. Retrieved from
http://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/oct
/26/volkswagen-top-spot-toyota-vw-emissions-scandal.
Fung, B. (2015). Volkswagen's U.S. CEO apologizes for
emissions cheating
scandal. Washington: WP Company LLC d/b/a The Washington
Post.
Lane, C. (2015, Oct. 26). Emissions scandal is hurting VW
owners trying to
Resell. Retrieved from
http://www.npr.org/2015/10/26/450238773/emissions-
scandal-is-hurting-vw-owners-trying-to-resell.
Listen
https://tlc.trident.edu/content/enforced/89898-MKT501-
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La Monica, P.,R. (2015, Sep 23). Volkswagen has plunged 50%.
will it ever
recover? CNN Wire Service.

Sanger-Katz, M., & Schwartz, J. (2015, Sep 30). Gauging
human toll of VW
fraud. International New York Times.
Here are some articles on brand equity and brand management.
Keller, K. L. (1993). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing
customer-based
brand equity. Journal of Marketing, 57(1), 1-22.
Helm, S., & Tolsdorf, J. (2013). How does corporate reputation
affect customer
loyalty in a corporate crisis? Journal of Contingencies & Crisis
Management, 21
(3), p144-152.
Case Assignment
Develop a report in terms of the following guidelines. A well-
written report should
have a brief introduction, headings or subheadings, and a brief
concluding
comment. Note that you should use some keywords as headings
or subheadings
such as "Brand Equity of VW”, instead of a sentence or a
question. Read and cite
required articles on Volkswagen’s emissions scandal, as well as
additional
research you have done, and address the following issues:
Briefly describe Volkswagen’s emissions scandal and provide
background on
the company and automobile industry.
1.

Do you think Volkswagen’s brand reputation was severely
damaged by the
emissions scandal? How about its brand equity? Discuss what
brand equity is,
and how Volkswagen’s brand equity will be impacted.
2.
How should Volkswagen handle the emissions scandal in an
ethical
way? Discuss the related ethical issues from both consumer and
brand
manager perspectives.
3.
What can you learn from this case? What suggestions could you
offer
to Volkswagen’s top management?
4.
Assignment Expectations
Expectations Regarding Your References and Defense of Your
Positions
Write clearly, simply, and logically. Your paper should be 750–
1,500 words long,
excluding title pages and references, but quality of writing is
more important than
length. Use double-spaced, black Verdana or Times Roman font
in 12 pt. type
size.

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Back up your positions or opinions with references to the
required readings for
this Case and those in the Module Background. In using those
references,
demonstrate your understanding of the concepts presented.
Rather than grading
on how much information you find, emphasis will be on the
defense of the
positions you take on the issues. Also remember that:
The “why” is more important than the “what.”1.
The defense of your positions on the issues is more important
than the
positions you take.
2.
Do not repeat or quote definitions. Your use of the required
reading to support
your opinions (that is, contentions or positions) should
demonstrate that you
understand the concepts presented. Do not include definitions or
summaries of
the readings or simply describe what the company did. Instead,
your responses to
the questions should be analytical and should demonstrate that
(a) you
understand the principles from the background reading and (b)

you can apply
them to this particular case. Vague, general answers will not
earn a good grade.
Avoid redundancy and general statements such as “All
organizations exist to
make a profit.” Make every sentence count.
Paraphrase the facts using your own words and ideas, employing
quotes
sparingly. Quotes, if absolutely necessary, should rarely exceed
five words.
When writing an academically oriented paper, you will uncover
many facts about
the company and the scandal. If you paraphrase the facts, cite
the sources in
your text and link those citations to references at the end of the
paper.
Here are some guidelines on how to conduct information search
and build critical
thinking skills.
Emerald Group Publishing. (n.d.). Searching for Information.
Retrieved from
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/learning/study_skills/skills/sear
ching.htm
Emerald Group Publishing. (n.d.). Developing Critical
Thinking. Retrieved from
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/learning/study_skills/skills/criti
cal_thinking.htm
Guidelines for handling quoted and paraphrased material are
found at:

Purdue Online Writing Lab. (n.d.). Academic Writing. Retrieved
from
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/2/
Purdue Online Writing Lab. (n.d.). Quoting, Paraphrasing, and
Summarizing.
Retrieved from
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/1/
Purdue Online Writing Lab. (n.d.). Is it plagiarism yet?
Retrieved from
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/1/
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Privacy Policy | Contact
Your paper consists of arguments in favor of your opinions or
positions on the
issues addressed by the guidelines; therefore, avoid the
following logical fallacies:
Purdue Online Writing Lab. (n.d.). Logic in argumentative
writing. Retrieved from
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/01/
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Managing change and transitions:
a comparison of different models
and their commonalities
Claire V. Brisson-Banks
Family History Library, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this article is to analyze the
commonalities of various change and
transition models developed over time to assist with and support
managing organizational change.
Design/methodology/approach – The article provides an
examination of change and transition
models through a review of relevant literature and the
comparison of different models.
Findings – Each change and transition model has similar
methods of handling change. Their unique
methods and strategies provide additional insights into possible
applications to most organizations. In
some cases, models could be combined to form new models to
best fit the circumstances of the
organization.
Practical implications – This comparison can assist individuals
in evaluating and selecting the
model based on organizational need while remembering to focus
on both the physical and the

emotional changes in an organization.
Originality/value – The article shows that human resource
managers can benefit from learning the
commonalities between change and transition models when
considering what will work for their
organization in conjunction with the review of a number of well
known and relevant models.
Keywords Human resource management, Organizational change,
Leadership, Change management,
Adaptability
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Change is evident everywhere from the simplest everyday
changes to the most difficult
situations encountered by human resource (HR) managers as
management grapples
with reorganizations, downsizing and/or cutbacks. A crucial
factor in the effectiveness
of an organization is the ability to adapt to change (French and
Delahaye, 1996).
According to Bridges and Mitchell (2000) “Business conditions
change and yesterday’s
assumptions and practices no longer work”.
While it may seem uncommon to some, most businesses are told
they have to
change everything from the way they think to the way they work
(Nortier, 1995).
Wagar (2000) provides a bit of history by reminding us of how
downsizing became an
obsession in the 1990s, the phrase “lean and mean” became a
primary focus of most

businesses at that time. Whether the success of downsizing
tactics worked is not the
topic for discussion here, however, the tactics employed at the
time are part of this
comparison. Today’s economic crisis has also added the new
dimension of change
needing to be immediate instead of over a period of time. Add
increased global
competition, outsourcing, fast changing and new technologies
and you have a recipe
for massive confusion to those involved in such a volatile
environment.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0143-5124.htm
Managing
change and
transitions
241
Received 15 August 2009
Revised 25 October 2009
Accepted 15 November 2009
Library Management
Vol. 31 No. 4/5, 2010
pp. 241-252
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0143-5124

DOI 10.1108/01435121011046317
Literature review
When beginning a review of studies surrounding change models,
it was discovered
that much time and energy has been devoted to bring about a
better understanding of
change as it relates to organizations. While this topic has been
looked at from various
disciplines, this article will only touch on some of the many
change and transition
models, which organizations have to choose from as they work
through their particular
organization change.
An awareness of the need for change is the beginning of the
whole change process
(Armstrong, 2006). A complete assessment of the current
situation is necessary to
begin the process of implementing any kind of change in an
organization.
Unfortunately, this kind of assessment may take longer than
management or
stakeholders have if the situation is very serious. What
happened to bring about the
need for change? What kind of issues and problems have
occurred to bring about this
crisis are questions which need to be answered as this helps to
determine the best
course of action to follow. Which change and/or transition
model will fit the
organization?
Another facet within change models are the individuals involved

in working
together to implement change. Ulrich and Brockbank (2005)
provide some insights to
this element of the equation by pointing out how “high-
performing HR professionals
make change happen successfully and thoroughly with their
most critical contribution
being to make sure the change happens quickly”. Just how
involved the HR
professional has to be for a successful change is up to the
organization. There are a
variety of reasons their involvement is imperative to the success
of any type of change.
Additionally, their familiarity with the organization’s culture
and employees becomes
a great asset to the individuals responsible for organizing
changes. This is most
significant in a change process as follow through skills become
extremely valuable and
adds to the facilitation of all types of organizational change.
Taking a step back to change itself, various studies have
revealed additional
strategies concerning the very nature of change and how it
relates to organizations.
Kanter (1985) relates how organizations have to be able to
adapt to change or face the
possibility of losing out to competition. Kanter (1985) further
expounds on how some in
top management attempt to force change by just simply
dictating it, changing polices
without warning and expecting their middle management to take
charge and make the
change work. These experiences reflect how strategic-planning
models are only a piece
of the change process, which usually results in some sort of

modifications to work with
an individual organization.
Burke (2004) looks at where the organizational development
field is in 2004, and
expresses how difficult it is to move forward without the
knowledge of what is coming.
Burke’s (2004) review of what is now known (in 2004)
evaluates change processes and
points out some of the change models which will be covered
further in this article.
Additionally, change effort is now enhanced with the aid of
training and feedback.
Burke’s (2004) comments bring out how any value-based
change effort requires
effective leadership and a business structure which includes
strategy, mission plans
and a model. When a change model is used in conjunction with
the business structure it
has a better chance of success and is part of the eight-step
change model from Kotter
(1995) where “to work together as a team united in the vision,”
is necessary for success.
LM
31,4/5
242
Axelrod (2001) reminds us of how change management and
models came to the
point of unleashing the power of employees. Previous studies
conducted by Kurt Lewin
during World War II revealed how allowing input from

employees when changes were
needed added to acceptance of the changes with a bonus of
increased productivity.
These studies were conducted with surveys and working
together to review the
collected data which resulted in better change solutions.
Axelrod (2001) further
explains there needs to be a new paradigm involving more
people and widening the
circle of involvement.
Dannemiller and Norlin (2001) have developed a different
approach altogether
calling it a whole-scale change where the business comes
together to connect the
collective wisdom of the organization creating the one brain and
one heart
methodology. This process brings in individuals from all levels
of the organization to
create the alignment needed for success. The additional touch of
requiring high
performance brings this model in line with another change
model introduced by Quinn
(2006).
Following the path of working together, Schein(2004) uses the
term “culture” and
shows how it is extremely important to investigate and study the
culture of an
organization in order to work with them in a more cohesive
manner. This very notion
of knowing the culture of the organization is the responsibility
of the leaders in order to
determine how to lead or Schein (2004) says the “culture will
lead them” making any
change model more difficult to implement.

Evans and Ward (2004) remind us how managers are in the
position of needing to
“be prepared for two types of change-planned and imposed”.
New managers are under
pressure to make a good impression and feel like they have to
implement change
correctly and operating under an unexpected or forced change
can cause great
difficulties with staff. While change can be risky and is time-
consuming, careful
preparation can enhance the process. Managers tackle the
situation of how most people
do not enjoy change, but somehow, because change must
happen, individuals will
adjust over time with the right people in management.
Beer et al. (1990) conducted studies of change programs with 12
different companies
and discovered how most do not work unless everyone is
involved and on board. Beer
et al. (1990) determined that “effective corporate renewal starts
at the bottom, through
informal efforts to solve problems”. Their studies revealed how
senior officials can be
committed to change and have to foster a climate of change
instead of mandating the
changes from the top as may have been done in the past. They
also discovered how all
departments and mangers need to be involved or the whole
process can break down.
Additional organizational change studies were conducted by
Dunphy and Stace
(1993) to show how no one model is universally applicable.
They point out how

“turbulent times demand different responses in varied
circumstances, so managers and
consultants need a model of change that is essentially a
situational or contingency
model”. Dunphy and Stace (1988) developed a contingency
model using a combination
of leadership styles and different types of changes. Identifying
the optimum mix of
leadership and change styles, while considering the
organization, is what makes the
change successful.
Bridges and Mitchell (2000) provide what they call a new model
for change. They
remind us how, over the years, a large amount of time and effort
has been spent in
studying the management of change and yet it seems to have
fallen short in providing
Managing
change and
transitions
243
the much needed solutions to the economical situations
organizations find themselves
in today as they work through a variety of necessary changes for
survival. While
change is not an easy or simple process, many still operate
today as if it is and fail to
understand why a business is unable to create a plan and follow
it through
successfully. Bridges and Mitchell (2000) point out “most

leaders imagine that
transition is automatic – that it occurs simply because the
change is happening. But it
doesn’t”. The human element of change needs to be addressed
for change to be
successful.
Kotter and Cohen (2002) have put together a collection of
success stories using
Kotter’s famous eight-step change model from 1996 as well as
situations which could
be considered failures. In the book, Kotter and Cohen (2002)
point out the reasons for
success are “[b]ecause their most central activity does not
center on formal data
gathering, analysis, report writing, and presentations . . .
instead, they compellingly
show people what the problems are and how to resolve the
problems”. It is this kind of
process that goes a long way into creating successful
organizational changes. This
change model will be discussed in this article.
Change and transition models
Lewin
One of the earliest change models was developed by Kurt
Lewin. According to Burnes
(2004) and Armstrong (2006) this model is referred to as the “3-
Step Model” developed
in 1947 and referenced in his Field Theory in Social Science
(Lewin, 1951). This model
breaks change down into three steps: unfreezing, changing, and
refreezing, Armstrong
(2006) provides greater detail to this process as follows:
. Unfreezing – is altering the present stable equilibrium which

supports existing behaviors
and attitudes. This process must take account of the inherent
threats that change presents
to people and the need to motivate those affected to attain the
natural state of equilibrium
by accepting change.
. Changing – developing new responses based on new
information.
. Refreezing – stabilizing the change by introducing the new
responses into the
personalities of those concerned (Armstrong, 2006).
This could be compared to overcoming bad habits by replacing
them with new and
better habits. The individual, like an organization, has to be
resolved and committed to
make the change and do what is necessary regardless of any
inconveniences involved
in the process. The end goal is to succeed with the change.
Burnes (2004) points out that Lewin is one of the early pioneers
of group dynamics
and how individuals will usually go along with the group norm
whether it is a positive
or negative situation or actions. Armstrong (2006) adds how
“Lewin suggests a
methodology for analyzing change which is called ‘field force
analyses’” and involves
the following:
. Analyzing the restraining or driving forces will affect the
transition to the future state;
these restraining forces will include the reactions of those who
see change as unnecessary

or as a constituting a threat.
. Assessing which of the driving or restraining forces are
critical.
. Taking steps both to increase the critical driving forces and to
decrease the critical
restraining forces (Armstrong, 2006).
LM
31,4/5
244
How does this apply to an organizational change? Ritchie
(2006) sheds some light on
how an organization can apply this to a change situation. The
unfreezing is the time
process required to prepare for change, to help the staff accept
the coming change, and
break down the status quo found through the evaluation
completed leading up to the
realization that changes were necessary for survival. This will
force the organization to
take a hard and difficult look at their very essence. Ritchie
(2004) calls this a “controlled
crisis” which adds the needed motivation to make a change.
Once the change is set in motion, individual workers may have
to find new ways to
accomplish their jobs, whether they are the same jobs in new
locations or new jobs in
the same locations. Once the workers have accepted these
changes they easily support

and adjust to the change. In Johnson’s (1998) Who Moved My
Cheese?, the character
Haw realizes he needs to move on and accept his situation
making the best of it, while
Hem refuses to change and just remains in his same state. This
is often what happens
in an organization when certain individuals refuse to accept the
changes while others
move on and work through them.
Richie (2004) states refreezing is at the point when there is a
new stable
organization, people are accepting the reorganization by
working through the new
methods and ways of accomplishing daily tasks. Once this
occurs, confidence in the
business increases and there is usually a new sense of hope and
the future looks
brighter for all in the new organization. It is at this point when
refreezing should take
place. A celebration of the new organizations should be held.
This allows everyone to
feel appreciated for their part in the success of the change.
(Remembering change is
cyclical and may have to be addressed again in the future.)
Beckhard
Richard Beckhard (1969) developed a change program, which
incorporates the
following processes (as cited in Armstrong, 2006):
. Setting goals and defining the future state or organizational
conditions desired after the
change.
. Diagnosing the present condition in relations to these goals.

. Defining the transition state activities and commitments
required to meet the future state.
. Developing strategies and action plans for managing this
transition in the light of an
analysis of the factors likely to affect the introduction of
change.
Depending on the circumstance, an organization may receive the
latest quarterly
reports and realize that change is required in order to survive or
successfully contend
with their existing or future competition. A business’s staff can
work together to plan
and implement change using this program.
To breakdown this change program further, Rouda and Kusy Jr
(1995) provide
Beckhard’s definition of organizational development; it is “[a]n
effort, planned,
organization-wide, and managed from the top, to increase
organization effectiveness
and health through planned interventions in the organization’s
process, using
behavioral-science knowledge”. This explanation provides
additional insights in how
the change program can be used in a business setting.
Looking at this change program with this added definition helps
to show how it can
be applied in a business or organizational setting when change
is imminent. According
to Rouda and Kusy Jr (1995), this model:
Managing

change and
transitions
245
[t]akes a long-range approach to improving performance and
efficiency in an organization by
looking at the total organization, adding the necessary support
from top management by
implementing it themselves along with tying it to the bottom-
line. Next apply incremental
changes over a period of time while involving the individuals in
the business providing them
an opportunity to make a positive contribution.
Additionally, Marshak (2004) states “The whole idea of planned
change assumes, in
essence, that it is possible to determine rationally how to
initiate and implement actions
to achieve and then maintain a predetermined, desired future
state”. While these steps
are not always applied in the correct order, they all need to
happen for change to be
successful.
Thurley
A third change model described in Armstrong (2006) was
introduced by K. Thurley
(1979) and has five main strategies to managing change:
“Directive, bargained, hearts
and minds, analytical and action-based”. Each strategy has
advantages and
disadvantages for all parties involved. The primary starting
point is to recognize

the need for change in an organization. An in depth review of
each strategy is valuable
when determining if and when there is any commonality with
each of the change
models discussed in this article exists and whether access to
particular strategies will
aid or hinder the success of the organizational change. Both
Armstrong (2006) and
Lockitt (2004) provide ample explanations of each strategy.
. Directive – “the imposition of change in crisis situations or
when other methods
have failed. This is done by the exercise of managerial power
without consultation”
(Armstrong, 2006). “The advantage here is that change can be
undertaken quickly,
however, the disadvantage is it does not take into consideration
any views, or
feelings, of those involved in the change” (Lockitt, 2004).
. Bargained – “this approach recognizes that power is shared
between employer
and the employed and that change requires negotiation,
compromise and
agreement before being implemented” (Armstrong, 2006).
“[w]illingness by
senior managers to negotiate and bargain in order to effect
change. This
approach acknowledges that those affected by change have the
right to have a
say in what changes are made, with disadvantages being the
additional time to
effect change” (Lockitt, 2004).
. Hearts and minds – “an all-embracing thrust to change the
attitudes, values and

beliefs of the whole workforce. This normative approach seeks
commitment and a
shared vision but does not necessarily include involvement or
participation”
(Armstrong, 2006). This strategy allows “full support of the
changes being made
and a shared set of organizational values that individuals are
willing and able to
support. Again the advantage is the positive commitment to the
changes being
made with the disadvantages being that it takes longer to
implement” (Lockitt,
2004).
. Analytical – “a theoretical approach proceeds sequentially
from the analysis and
diagnosis of the situation, through the setting of objectives, the
design of the
change process, the evaluation of the results and, the
determination of the
objectives for the next stage in the process” (Armstrong, 2006).
LM
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246
. Action-based – “this recognizes that the way managers behave
in practice bears
little resemblance to the analytical, theoretical model. The
distinction between
managerial thought and managerial action blurs in practice to
the point of
invisibility. What managers think is what they do. Real life

often results in a
‘ready’, ‘aim’, and ‘fire’ approach” (Armstrong, 2006). “This
strategy stresses full
involvement of all those involved, and affected by, the
anticipated changes. Benefits
of this approach are that any changes made are more likely to be
supported due to
the involvement of all those affected, the commitment of
individuals and groups
within the organization as they all feel ownership over the
changes being made, the
disadvantages are the time it takes before changes are made”
(Lockitt, 2004).
Each of these strategies can be analyzed extensively, used
independently or in
combination in a manner appropriate for an organization. There
may be situations
arise which may require methods from one strategy mixed with
methods from a
different strategy to support a successful model for a particular
business. Lockitt (2004)
points out how “the skill of effective change management is to
recognize what
strategies to employ, when, where and how to use them in order
to be most effective”,
this can be an individual from human resources, management or
a hired change agent.
Often change models neglect the transition that is required to
occur within the
individuals in the organization during the actual change process.
It is important to include
this human element in the change process. Nortier (1995)
explains how Bridges (1986)
“considers transition as a dynamic in three stages”. Bridges and

Mitchell (2000) have
labeled these three stages as:
Endings, the neutral zone (explorations), and new beginnings.
Often, in the whole course of
action, whether using a change model or not, the benefits of a
change are presented, plans are
designed and implemented in coordination with managers,
policies, technical changes and
budgets leaving out one of the most important aspects, the
individuals who will be affected
by the changes (Nortier, 1995).
Bridges
Another thought on this is provided by Bridges (1991) in the
statement “it isn’t the
changes that do you in, it is the transitions”. In an earlier paper
by Bridges (1986), he
also points out how “change is the current corporate landscape
is the rule rather than
the exception”. It is worth noting that in 2009 this is still the
rule. Further explanations
of the three stages are as follows:
. The Ending Phase – Saying goodbye to the way things were, a
particular job, associates, a
location, even a manager or supervisor can all be changed when
realignment happens in
an organization.
. The Neutral Zone – New environment, new responsibilities,
the rules have changed, there
are different people to work with and report to, this can all be
unsettling as one explores
and experiments in this new setting.

. New Beginnings – This period requires the final adjustment to
new ways of doing many
different tasks or even similar tasks but in handling them in a
new manner (Bridges and
Mitchell, 2000).
The last phase is often when individuals lose it all hope; they
freeze and cannot move
forward. This is mentioned earlier in this article in reference to
Who Moved My Cheese?
( Johnson, 1998). Three of the four characters eventually make
it to this last phase, but
Managing
change and
transitions
247
one, Hem, is unable to move beyond his fears, and eventually,
he is left behind.
Organizational change models need to incorporate transitions in
their plans to improve
the success rate of their upcoming change.
Kotter
Kotter (2007) states “Leaders who successfully transform
businesses do eight things right
(and they do them in the right order)”. Kotter’s original article
by the same title published
in 1995 soon became a must read for organizational leaders
planning and implementing
change. Kotter (1996) states while change efforts have helped
improve some

organizations in the competitive markets, many situations have
been disappointing
and the results have been disastrous for the employees and those
in charge. Kotter points
out “the biggest mistake people make when trying to change
organizations is to plunge
ahead without establishing a high enough sense of urgency in
fellow managers and
employees”. The thought that this could not happen to our
organization is one of the main
causes of failure while instituting organizational change. Some
changes take years and
even after a number of years, they may fail for a variety of
reasons.
Armstrong (2006) goes through his eight steps as follows:
1. Establishing a sense of urgency
a. Examining market and competitive realities
b. Identifying and discussing crises, potential crises, or major
opportunities
2. Forming a powerful guiding coalition
a. Assembling a group with enough power to lead the change
effort
b. Encouraging the group to work together as a team
3. Creating a vision
a. Creating a vision to help direct the change effort
b. Developing strategies for achieving that vision

4. Communicating the vision
a. Using every vehicle possible to communicate the new vision
and strategies
b. Teaching new behaviors by the example of the guiding
coalition
5. Empowering others to act on the vision
a. Getting rid of obstacles to change
b. Changing systems or structures that seriously undermine the
vision
c. Encourage risk taking and non-traditional ideas, activities
and actions
6. Planning for and creating short-term wins
a. Planning for visible performance improvement
b. Creating those improvements
c. Recognizing and rewarding employees involved in the
improvements
7. Consolidating improvements and producing still more change
a. Using increased credibility to change systems, structures and
polices that don’t fit
the vision
b. Hiring, promoting and developing employees who can
implement the vision

c. Reinvigorating the process with new projects, themes and
change agents
LM
31,4/5
248
8. Institutionalizing new approaches
a. Articulating the connections between the new behaviors and
corporate success
b. Developing the means to ensure leadership development and
succession (Armstrong,
2006).
It is interesting to note here how Kotter has managed to bring
together the change models
and transitions into an eight step process. In The Heart of
Change (Kotter and Cohen,
2002) these eight steps are linked to 34 real life organizations
located throughout the
world. The book is structured around these specific eight steps
because “this is how
people experience the process” (Kotter and Cohen, 2002). Both
books provide case studies
showing what works and what usually does not work. Kotter
(2007) also reviews what
happens when these eight steps are not followed in the correct
order or in the correct way.
The old adage of “this is the way we do things around here” is
very difficult to overcome,

but is very necessary to change when dealing with having to
change a culture.
Kotter (2007) states “his basic goal has been the same: to make
fundamental
changes in how business is conducted in order to help cope with
a new, more
challenging market environment”. This goal is evident as Kotter
(2007) reviews what
happens when these steps are not followed:
1. Not establishing a Great Enough Sense of Urgency
a. Transformation or changes begin but are frozen and can’t
move forward
b. Complacency has set in preventing any change from going
forward
2. Not creating a powerful enough guiding coalition
a. When just a few people are not supported by more along the
way, their efforts are
lost, major players need to be involved or the change will never
get off the ground
3. Lacking a vision
a. Without a clear vision, the whole effort can fall apart as
individuals struggle to be a
part of something not understood by the larger population
4. Under communicating the vision by a factor of ten
a. Everyone needs to be kept in the loop throughout the whole
process using every

possible means of communication available from meetings to
emails and everything
else in between. The management and the employees need to be
in sync with each other,
lack of communication can prevent major successes causing the
whole plan to fail
5. Not removing obstacles to the new vision
a. Everyone has to be working together to make this new vision
a reality, keeping those
who refuse to change need to be replaced or it will fail.
6. Not systematically planning for, and creating, short-term
wins
a. Change takes time; people lose momentum and need to be
congratulated when evidence
shows that the changes are going forward successfully
7. Declaring victory to soon
a. Some changes can take anywhere from five to ten years,
premature victory celebrations
can kill momentum and ruin the whole change
8. Not anchoring changes in the corporations culture
a. Making the new changes the way things are now done shows
that the change is most
likely to stay, however, if this is not happening and most things
beyond the surface don’t
really change then the change has failed (Kotter, 2007).
Managing
change and

transitions
249
It is crucial for successful change to help individuals adjust to
the ever-changing
business world and keep communication lines open at all times
while maintaining the
organization’s vision during the change process. When these
strategies are
implemented, taking everyone into consideration, than change is
more likely to be
completely successful.
Commonalities
Conclusions
Table I shows clearly there are significant commonalities
between these particular
change and transition models. It is interesting to note that is
while they are not all lined
up they each handle change in a similar fashion. All these
models are just guides to
assist organizations through the world of constant change which
exists today. While
no one exact and perfect model exists for everyone, each has
positive ways to handle
change and can be adapted according to the organization. It
must also be remembered
that change is constant. If an organization makes a set of
changes successfully, it
should be noted that one Kotter’s (1996) eight steps is to keep
improving, going
forward with new and more innovative ways to compete in the
market by adding new

products, always looking for new ways to handle situations and
keep the vision going
by adding new people as the organization continues to grow.
Senge (1990) points out how “from an early age we are taught
to break apart
problems, to fragment the world”. If problems are broken down
too soon or too quickly
perspective is lost and there are times when stepping back and
seeing the whole
situation first is very beneficial and usually necessary. In an
organizational
environment, creating a sense of urgency or mandating a
directive because market
forces have caused great economic upheaval, it is prudent to
step back, take a look at
the whole situation, analyze the problems, develop a plan of
action with support and
proceed to unfreeze, work with the employees, managers,
directors and stockholders in
creating a complete environment where everyone feels
ownership of the both the
problems and the solutions. This creates a solid foundation for
any organization to
Lewin Beckhard Thurley Bridges Kotter
Unfreezing Analyzing present condition Directive Sense of
urgency
Bargained Form guiding coalition
Hearts and
Minds
Ending
phase

Have powerful group to lead
change effort
Analytical
Neutral
zone Work together as a team
Changing
Setting goals for the future
Plan of action Create a vision
Communicate the vision
Implementing the plan
Action-
based
Empower others to act on the
vision
Plan for short-term wins
New
beginnings Improve on the changes
Refreezing
Institutionalize new
approachesTable I.
LM
31,4/5
250
handle the unexpected challenges brought on by a global market

and fast-paced
technological advances.
This article has provided a commonality view of change and
transition modes in
hopes of presenting additional insights into how they are still
relevant today in dealing
with the ever-changing organization world. Managing change is
definitely a challenge
but not impossible, linking together possible solutions can only
lead to improved ways
to handle changes and transitions and open up the possibility of
new and improved
methods not yet discovered.
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Corresponding author
Claire V. Brisson-Banks can be contacted at: [email protected]
LM
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Read the following article from the required reading
assignment:
Preston, G., Moon, J., Simon, R., Allen, S., & Kossi, E. (2015).
The relevance of emotional intelligence in project leadership.
Journal of Information Technology and Economic Development,
6(1), 16-40.
After reading the article, analyze the following scenarios, and
choose one to discuss in your case study paper:
Scenario 1: You are an office manager who has recently moved
into a new department. It comes to your attention that there is a
member of senior management who has been falsifying expense
reports for himself and approving falsified reports for his
subordinates, resulting in over-payments to employees.
· Based on your preferred leadership style, what would be the
best way to handle this situation?

· What are some effective practices that you would use for
leading people and business processes in this situation?
· In this situation, what is your role in the decision-making
processes that serve to establish an organizational climate
oriented to meet business goals?
Scenario 2: You are a newly hired department director, brought
on board to help turn around a struggling department. The
members of this department are highly educated and are taking
steps to improve the professional development of department
members. Despite these efforts, they feel they are
underappreciated and lack a voice in the direction that the
department is moving. You have leadership experience in a
variety of industries, but you have never worked in this specific
field.
· Based on your preferred leadership style, how would you
proceed in attempting to align the goals of the organization with
the goals of the department? (The goals are actually the same
for the organization and the department, but the two groups
have different concepts on how to achieve them.)
Scenario 3: As a manager, you have two employees who have a

difficult time working together. While nothing specifically
unprofessional has been done by either one of them, other team
members have expressed concern that the differences between
them are causing tension and some other team members are
having difficulty performing their work. Some have even gone
so far as to say that the situation is causing a hostile work
environment.
· Based on your preferred leadership style, how would you
handle this situation?
· In your case study, be sure to address the following:
· Begin the discussion by identifying which of the scenarios you
chose.
· Include a brief statement as to which of the leadership styles
presented in the above article you are most comfortable with.
· Explain your top three, in order from most like you to least
like you, and explain why you chose them.
· Then, answer the questions provided with your chosen
scenario.
· Use the information provided in this unit to determine which

leadership styles you prefer to use when you are in a leadership
position (visionary, coaching, affiliative, democratic,
pacesetting, and commanding).
· Then, considering the above points, how would you proceed
with handling the chosen scenario?
Be sure to follow the guidelines below:
· Be sure to include peer-reviewed sources to support
positions/conclusions. You are required to use at least two
outside sources beyond the required reading for this unit.
· Be sure that your analysis is highly relevant and informative,
and remains on topic.
· Accuracy should be strong with close attention to detail in
all parts of the assignment.
· Writing should be clear and concise with solid sentence
structure and should be free of grammar, punctuation, and
spelling errors.
· Your paper should be at least two pages in length.
· All sources used must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted
material must have accompanying citations in APA format.
Unit III Reflection Paper
It has been stated that different industries and organizational
differences influence which motivational techniques and
theories are most effective. It has also been stated that
situational factors, such as the type of power exerted, can
influence team and organizational effectiveness.

Given the fact that the employment of different types of power
might influence a team member’s satisfaction, and thus his or
her motivation to continue, in regards to your current industry
and/or the culture of your current organization, write a
reflection paper that considers the following:
· Describe leader power, follower motivation, and the aspects
of effective followership.
· Provide an overview of influence and the major process and
content motivational theories.
· Describe which motivational theory would be the most
appropriate at your industry/organization.
· Describe the power types from the French and Raven power
taxonomy that would fit best with that motivational theory.
· Are there any power types that should be avoided when
employing that motivational theory?
· Writing should include proper grammar, sentence structure,
and writing mechanics.
· Organization should be logical.
Unit IV Essay
Research the Kelley model of followership. Write an essay
describing how a leader might utilize the Kelley model of
followership to assess follower effectiveness, and discuss how

this leader might develop this individual into a more effective
follower.
Be sure to include the following in your paper:
· Describe the importance of organizational climate and
motivation.
· Describe Kelley’s model of effective followership (moving
between roles).
· Explain how knowledge of effective followership can help
one’s leadership perspective.
· Writing should include proper grammar, sentence structure,
and writing mechanics.
· Organization should be logical, clear, and appropriate.
· Provide strong evidence of critical thinking.
· Make use of logical transitions.
· Paragraphs should contain strong topic sentences.
Unit V Case Study
A textile manufacturer is closing its North Carolina plant and
moving the production of its products to a developing nation in
Southeast Asia. The primary reason for the move is the lower
labor cost that the organization can enjoy in the new location.

· Proponents of the decision laud the move as a means to save
the organization by taking advantage of the free market and
finding cheaper methods of producing the company’s goods.
· Opponents of the decision state that a breach of trust existed
between the company and the loyal employees in the North
Carolina facility. Additionally, opponents cite recent findings
that contractors in the Southeast Asia region where the company
is moving have been cited for utilizing child labor and failing to
provide working conditions equivalent to those in the United
States.
· Officials in the Southeast Asia region have answered the
criticisms of the use of child labor by pointing out that
oftentimes children are the only individuals in a family who are
capable of working, and to deny them that opportunity would
create greater hardship on the already desperately poor
population.
Based on the case study above, apply the deontological and
teleological frameworks learned in this unit to provide the
following information in your response:
· Describe which framework the proponents of this move
would use to support their statement that it be considered
ethical.
· Describe which framework the opponents of this move would
use to support their statement that it be considered unethical.
· Describe style of leadership this decision reflects, and

discuss whether this move would lead to a positive evaluation
of leadership and organizational performance.
· Describe the level of corporate responsibility this decision
reflects. Be sure to follow the guidelines below:
· Be sure to include peer-reviewed sources to support
positions/conclusions.
· Analysis should be highly relevant, informative, and remain
on topic.
· Accuracy should be strong with close attention to detail in
all parts of the assignment.
· Writing should be clear and concise with solid sentence
structure and should be free of grammar, punctuation, and
spelling errors.
· You must also use at least five outside sources to support
assertions and conclusions.
Unit VI Project
Assume that you have been tasked with preparing a cultural
brief for an upcoming trip that will put you and your travel
companions in touch with three different societal clusters.
Choose three clusters other than the one in which you currently
operate.

In a PowerPoint or Prezi presentation, briefly describe the
following:
· List and describe the three cultural clusters that will be
visited.
· Provide information on cultural norms from each of the
clusters to be visited. (Make sure to use specific information
from the GLOBE study.)
· Describe the leadership approaches preferred in the clusters
that will be visited.
· Describe the considerations for leading multicultural teams.
· Your presentation should have originality, and the content
should be presented in a unique and interesting manner.
· Analysis should be thorough and fully developed.
· Organization should be clear in your paper. The main points
should be arranged logically to support the information
provided, with similar ideas grouped together and smooth
transitions.
· All graphics and texts should be appropriate and attractive
and support the theme and content. Be sure to use a consistent
and appropriate background.
· Any sources used should be properly cited and referenced
according to APA format.
· Writing should be clear and concise with correct use of
sentence structure and should be free from grammar,

punctuation, and spelling errors.
Unit VII Research Paper
Write a research paper that analyzes methods used to
appropriately manage groups and teams. In your paper, be sure
to include the following:
· Discuss the process of evolving a group into a team, and
discuss the importance of organizational culture in that process.
· Evaluate the leadership styles that are effective for managing
groups and teams, including unique considerations for leading
multicultural teams.
· Describe the benefits and drawbacks of having groups or
teams in terms of groupthink vs. teamthink. Be sure to follow
the guidelines below:
· Your introduction should engage the reader and clearly
present the thesis and a summary of the main points to clarify
your point of view.
· Review of literature should present a critical analysis and
synthesis of the existing research.
· Discussion should reveal insightful analysis of research.
· A summary should be present that reviews or summarizes key
points and provides a smooth transition between sections.
· Writing should be clear and concise with correct use of
sentence structure and should be free of grammar, punctuation,
and spelling errors.
· Your paper should be at least four pages in length.

· You must also use at least five outside sources to support
assertions and conclusions.
Unit VIII Article Critique
The Brisson-Banks (2010) article in the required reading for
this unit compares the five different change management models
presented in this unit, and it describes various situational
variables that could influence the effectiveness of each.
Utilizing all of the knowledge accumulated through this and the
previous units, write a critique of the article.
In your paper, be sure to include the following:
· Evaluate different aspects of organizational change.
· Discuss the role that leader vision and organizational climate
plays in a change management strategy.
· Discuss how the leadership style that was identified as your
primary preference would fit into the models of change
presented.
· Discuss how effective change initiatives can influence
organizational performance.
· Accurately identify the premise and supporting points from
the article.
· Provide an insightful and thorough analysis of information
from the article, including using evidence and reasonable and

compelling interpretations.
· Link material to course content and real-world situations.
· Demonstrate solid critical evaluation by providing well-
supported opinions and conclusions using additional peer-
reviewed articles.
· Organize the material logically by using smooth transitions
and grouping similar material together.
Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 16-40, April
2015 16

The Relevance of Emotional Intelligence in Project Leadership
Genna Preston, Jayet Moon, Ryan Simon, Shayna Allen, Edem
Kossi
Project Management program
Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected],
[email protected]
Abstract
The Emotional Intelligence School of Leadership Styles major
paper invites readers to
uncover the six different styles of leadership that compose the
school. The paper identifies and
summarizes the following styles: Visionary, Coaching,
Affiliative, Democratic, Pacesetting, and

Commanding. Additionally the paper outlines the positives and
negatives associated with each
style of leadership as well as provides an example of those
styles in use. Lastly, the paper
concludes with the literature review and synopsis of how these
styles can be effectively integrated
into modern project management.
Introduction
Leadership is defined as, the power or ability to lead other
people (Bass,1960). Project
leadership is defined as, the ability to persuade others to
enthusiastically and diligently pursue the
projects objective (Salovey & Mayer, 1989). A project is always
evolving dynamically and
likewise, project leadership is situational. In a project, the
leader is required to have cognitive,

social, and emotional intelligence in order to assess the
situational and organizational needs and
adjust the pace of leadership accordingly (Mayer, Caruso &
Salovey, 1989).
Emotional intelligence is defined by Salovey and Mayer (1989)
as the subset of social
intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own, and
others feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide
one’s own thinking and actions. For
2015 17
a long time emotional dimension of leadership was associated

with the Visionary or Charismatic
School of Leadership (Popper & Zakkai, 1994). Since the mid
1990’s, emotional intelligence has
established itself as a leadership competence in its own right, as
well as numerous books,
publications, and exploratory studies, that lend credence and
justify its importance. Goleman
(1998) first synthesized and presented this idea of a new school,
and it soon found its way into
mainstream acceptance.
Great leaders are the ones who drive people to deliver optimum
performance. A critical
way of doing this is by tapping into employees emotions while
taking control of self-emotions.
Leading and performing is not easy under pressure, more so in a
project with hard deadlines. The

ability to manage self and teams emotions, as well as connect to
the emotions that drive their
behaviors is a competency that is necessary in a modern project
leader.
According to the proponents of the emotional intelligence
school, the emotional
intelligence of the leader has greater impact on leadership skills
and consequently the team
performance than his intellectual capacity. Goleman, Boyatzis,
& McKee (2002) identify four
dimensions of emotional intelligence.
1. Self-Awareness
2. Self-Management
3. Social Awareness
4. Relationship Management

Of these, 1&2 lie in the domain of personal competence while
3&4 lie in social competence
domain. Personal competence translates to, having
understandings of ones strengths, weaknesses,
motives, and values, while at the same time having attributes
like transparency, self-control,
2015 18
initiative, and optimism (Avolio & Zakkai,1994). Social
competence means empathy, awareness,
and ability to understand and fulfill customer needs.
Relationship management is an important part
of social competence which involves influencing people,

navigating conflicts, and ensuring team
building and bonding. Based on such a distribution, there are
six leadership styles:
1. Visionary
2. Coaching
3. Affiliative
4. Democratic
5. Pacesetting
6. Commanding
Each style of leadership can be matched with a stage, and phase
of a project as shown. This is an
indicative generalization, and it is the prerogative of the project
manager as to which style he/she
adopts in each phase, such that most efficient performance is
realized.

Style Suggested Phase
Visionary Initialization
Coaching Planning
Affiliative Planning
Democratic Execution
Pacesetting Monitoring & Control
Commanding Closure
2015 19
The styles listed above impact the organizational climate and

culture since, leadership and
management commitment directly translates to employee
commitment, responsibility, task, goal
orientation, and clarity of purpose (Detailed chart available in
Appendix A).
The sections below detail each of these styles in detail with
their positives and negatives
and examples of implementation. Some examples illustrate
versatile leaders who show different
styles, while some use a certain style as base and work within
that boundary, transgressing it as
the need dictates.
Visionary
The first style from the emotional intelligence school of
leadership that we will analyze is

the visionary leadership style. According to Dictionary.com
(n.d), a vision is defined as, an
experience in which a personage, thing, or event appears vividly
or credibly to the mind, although
not actually present, often under the influence of a divine or
other agency. A vision is something
imagined, and in business, it is where leaders of organizations
imagine their organization to be at
some point in the future. The visionary leadership style is
defined by Daniel Goleman as, the
leadership style where the “leader is inspiring in vision, and
helps others to see how they can
contribute to this vision; allowing the leader and followers to
move together toward a shared view
of the future,” (Toren, 2014). Daniel Goleman believes after
many of his research studies, the
visionary leadership style is the most effective one (Mersino,

2013).
Visionary Positives
The first advantage is the ability of the project leader to help
others see their contribution
in the big picture. This is perhaps the most important aspect of
the visionary leadership style; this
can help motivate the project team during the project life cycle,
and this motivation can contribute
to the success for the project. Project Team members would
have the great benefit of knowing
2015 20

that what they do is important. The second advantage is that,
visionaries can describe the end goals
on a project, and leave the individuals plenty of latitude on how
to achieve them (Mersino, 2013).
This tactic can be beneficial to a project team that is made of
skill workers or experts who are in
this situation, given the ability to use their expertise to
successfully complete this project. Lastly,
a project leader with a visionary style can help a project team
easily navigate various changes in a
project. In fact, visionary leaders thrive on change and the
ability to draw new boundaries (Mark,
2012).
Visionary Negatives
In a project, a visionary leadership style can suffer from poor
articulated visions. Because

this style takes advantage of the project team members’ ability
to connect personally to the leader’s
vision, there may be a disadvantage if the leader is unable to
articulate his or her vision. This may
lead to the opposite results with disconnected and unmotivated
team members. Also, a project
manager might face a similar situation if he has many senior
people or experts reporting to him.
In this situation, the vision casting by the manager may fall flat
to resonate with the project team
(Mersino, 2013). Finally, this style may also have some
disadvantages if the project leader is full
of great visions, but lack the necessary details to carry out his
visions.
Visionary Example

One example of effective leaders who employ the visionary
leadership is Dr. Martin Luther
King Jr. Dr. King had a vision that he was able to channel to
millions of people decades ago; his
visions are still being deployed today. Through his “I have a
dream” speech and his non-violent
acts, he was able to connect his vision to millions people, and to
help them understand how they
fit into the end result, when it comes to humanity and human
rights (Toren, 2014).
2015 21
Visionary Summary

The visionary leadership style, which is a style of leadership
that are inspires visions, can
be very effective for project leaders. Visionary leadership
qualities help their project teams
understand the true objectives and goals, as well as, how their
contributions are important to
achieve these goals. It helps to organically motivate the project
team
Pacesetting
The next leadership style that a project manager may use while
executing a project is
known as pacesetting. As defined in the Wall Street Journal
Online article, Leadership Styles
(Murphy, 2011), the pacesetting style is one in which “the
leader sets high standards for

performance. He or she is obsessive about doing things better
and faster, and asks the same of
everyone”. The pacesetting method allows for mangers with a
mastery of certain tasks to exemplify
his or her mastery over those tasks in the hopes that the
supporting project team will gain mastery
through osmosis. When utilized, this type of leadership style
presents a variety of positives and
negatives in relation to achieving overall success of a project’s
desired outcome. Below is an
examination of those positives and negatives as well as an
example of the pacesetting leadership
style in action.
Pacesetting Positives
The pacesetting leadership style is one of fast action. As
described in the Money-zine.com

article, Pacesetting Leaders, “one of the pros of the pacesetting
leadership style is they are able to
quickly achieve business results” (Money-zine, 2006). The
reason behind the fast results of this
style is because the project manager has great aptitude in the
work that is being done. Thus, the
project manager embarks on a lead by example approach and,
expects that the team has the same
aptitude and motivation for the project as he or she does.
Creating a high energy team, that is
2015 22
challenged to constantly progress at the rate of the manger and
allowing for project results to occur

at a rapid pace. Pacesetting is an excellent leadership style to
use at the beginning of a project, as
you are able to build momentum off of the excitement
surrounding a new endeavor. It is an
effective style to use to achieve the first few milestones of a
project in short order.
Pacesetting Negatives
While pacesetting is excellent at achieving short-term goals,
this leadership style can have
a long-term negative impact on a project team. Primarily, this
style of leadership is conducive for
employees to burn out. Burn out occurs from the team being
unable to sustain the same enthusiasm,
drive, and competency of the project manager. The Changing
Minds.org article, Six Emotional
Leadership Styles, points out that pacesetting leaders, “tend to

be low on guidance, expecting
people to know what to do” (Goleman, 2002). Thus the
pacesetting style not only demands
constant amounts of high energy from its team but also it
demands self-correction and self-
sufficiency of its team. This type of environment causes
increased stress levels as any member
who struggles in a task will quickly fall behind the pace of the
remainder of the team and will not
have any guidance on how to take corrective measures.
Pacesetting Example
Pacesetting leaders are typically found in military settings,
however, the Money-zine.com
article, Pacesetting Leadership, provides businessman Jack
Welch as an example of person who
primarily implemented this leadership style (Pacesetting

Leaders, 2006). Welch served as CEO for
General Electric from 1981 to 2001. During his time as CEO,
Welch would interact with
employees at all levels of the organization as he believed “that
leaders should avoid micro-
managing, and spend their time inspiring others”(Pacesetting
Leaders, 2006). Welch was
2015 23
accessible to his employees, however, he was also demanding of
them expecting the highest of
results while disposing of those who were unable to keep up.

Pacesetting Summary
In conclusion the pacesetting leadership style is one that is best
served in small doses. It
serves to help launch a project or to help complete a project
within a tight time frame. However,
the style will wear thin on the team if utilized to often, as
pressure builds and people are left feeling
burnt out and left behind.
Coaching
The next leadership style from the emotional intelligence
school of leadership to be
examined is coaching. The coaching style as defined in the Jeff
Hodgkinson article, Leadership
Styles for Program and Project Managers, is when the project
manager “instructs and motivates

others to enhance their skills to achieve maximum impact for
the team and project” (Hodgkinson,
2009). The coaching style puts the project manager in a
mentoring role in relation to the project
team. However, the coaching style isn’t mentoring in the truest
sense; the needs of the project
outweigh the needs of personal development or growth of a
project team member. That being said,
ideally the coaching style would be implemented with a team
member that is inexperienced in a
certain aspect of a project, which he or she is assigned so that
the goals of the project, and the
personal growth objects of the team member are aligned.
Coaching Positives
The coaching style is designed to cultivate a project member’s
professional skill set. It is a

relationship that is very similar to that of a teacher and student,
with the project manager serving
in the role of the teacher. Deidre Harris’ article, Project
Leadership Styles notes, a project manager
2015 24
utilizing the coaching technique “challenges all to do better and
is encouraging when any failure
is present” (Harris, 2009). By utilizing this technique an
environment that is based on
encouragement and empathy is created, allowing for team
members to approach project goals
without trepidation. The warm working environment that is born
from this leadership style spurs

the creation of more substantial inter-personal relationship
amongst manger and team member.
Trust is thus established within this style, and a trusting
environment leads to productive
environment, working towards self-improvement, as well as
project success.
Coaching Negatives
The drawbacks behind utilizing the coaching leadership style
are that it is very time
consuming and that it runs the risk of being viewed as
micromanagement, if not executed properly
with the proper audience. In order to create a high level of trust
and to teach in a project
management setting, a large quantity of time is required for the
project manager to devote to
individual members. This time commitment isn’t feasible for

projects with hard and fast deadlines,
nor is it feasible on a project with a large project team.
Additionally, this style is only conducive
with a project member that is willing to learn and improve his
or her craft. A Money-zine.com
article aptly details, “if someone is managing employees that
are extremely resistant to change, or
are not interested in learning new things, the manager will
struggle if they choose this style”
(Coaching Leadership, 2006). Thus it is essential for a project
manager to understand the make-up
of the team, and the time constraints of the project before
implementing this strategy.
Coaching Example
Not surprisingly, the best examples of the coaching leadership
style come from the realm

of sports. Being that all sport teams require a manger or coach
in order to execute a strategy to
meet an objective through a temporary endeavor; the match or
game. It is easy to make the
2015 25
connection between sports and project management. That is not
to say that all sports coaches or
managers utilize the leadership style of coaching, as they in fact
do not, but it is meant to set the
stage for a true example of this leadership style in action. Red
Holzman was an NBA coach that
achieved success in the league by winning multiple NBA titles,

but perhaps his greatest success
was his mentoring and development of his one-time player Phil
Jackson. Jackson developed into
one of the NBA’s all-time greatest coaches. The article Inspired
by Holzman, Jackson Arrives in
Springfield, beautifully depicts the Holzman-Jackson
relationship, and provides the following
quote from Jackson regarding his former coach; “Red took me
under his wing, he didn't have an
assistant coach, he made me his assistant coach and taught the
game to me and taught me a lot
about the game and encouraged me to go into coaching”
(Hareas, 2007).
Coaching Summary
In summation, the coaching leadership style is a one that can be
applied in any type of

situation but is most beneficial in situations that have loose
time constraints and eager team
members. Coaching aims to give a team member the skills to
succeed in a current project as well
as cultivate skills that will serve beyond the context of a
project, granted that it doesn’t divert too
much attention away from the project. It aligns personal goals
with project goals and provides
constructive feedback, but has the potential to be viewed as
overbearing to members unreceptive
to change and constant feedback. It is a leadership style that
should be implemented when possible,
but will not always be appropriate, especially within highly
demanding situations that have short
deadlines and oversized teams.
Democratic

Another leadership style within this school is the democratic
leadership style, also known
as the participative style. This style is, “an open approach to
leading, where decision making is
2015 26
shared and the views of a team or group are valued and
contribute to the vison, goals and decision
that are made” (Democratic Leadership Style, 2013). This
allows members of the teams to feel
included and impactful in several stages of a project. With this
style of leadership offering equality

of power, and group decision making, it is imperative that it is
used in the right situation or task
(Detailed example available in Appendix B).
Democratic Positives
Democratic leadership brings teams together. With technology
capabilities many
organizations are outsourcing or working remotely. Democratic
leaders bring individuals together
in order for everyone to give their thoughts, ask questions, and
be involved in the entire project
and its processes. The inclusion of many opinions may offer a
different insight or thought that you
may have missed. This shows team members they are valued,
and allows for everyone to have a
clear understanding of the vision and goals of the project

(Democratic Leadership Style, 2013).
A democratic leader provides intrinsic motivation for their
team. Research has proven that
intrinsic motivation is a precursor to creativity and innovation,
and by offering democratic
leadership, individuals will satisfy their four motivators; sense
of meaningfulness, sense of choice,
sense of competence, and sense of progress. By satisfying these
needs, individuals will be
intrinsically motivated to go above and beyond any project or
task assigned, as well as assist their
organization in becoming front runners within their industry
(Mahmood A. Bodla, 2014).
Democratic Negatives
A democratic leader is a great assets to any team however, the

democratic leadership style
comes with some negatives as well. One of the major problems
with this style is that is very time
consuming. With the inclusion of many different people it may
take a longer period of time to
2015 27
come to an agreement, receive a response, or communicate
effectively. This also effects crisis
management. During crises especially, time is of the essence,
and in situations where decision need
to be made right then and there, it just is not possible to lead
democratically and include everyone

in the plans (Ryan, 2015).
When applying democratic leadership, it is important to still
identify yourself as the leader.
Unfortunately, sometimes group members may misinterpret this
style with lack of leadership or
bad job performance. Individuals may also feel it is not their
place to make decisions, or they do
not have enough experience offering suggestions or their
opinions. Also, sometimes when opinions
are offered time after time, but never implemented or acted
upon, team members may feel deceived
or manipulated, which will ultimately negatively affect
employee morale, outcomes, and success
(Cosmato, 2011). If managerial boundaries, and roles are not
followed and respected, democratic
leaders may experience negative results using this method of
leadership.

Democratic Example
Civil Rights activist Rosa parks is a great example of a
democratic leader. Although many
people before Parks were arrested for ignoring racial boundaries
and laws, Rosa Parks became the
face of the civil rights movement. Supporters followed her as
she led, collaborated, and acted upon
change within the United States. She valued other people’s
opinions, challenges, and treated
everyone as an equal. Not only did she help change American
law and policies, she did it
effortlessly and democratically.
Democratic Summary
When used properly and productively, the democratic leadership

style has many positive
qualities and attributes. By allowing individuals to participate
in the entire project and processes,
it offers a sense of satisfaction, belonging, and accomplishment.
This leadership style has been
2015 28
directly connected to organizational success and achieved goals.
As leaders continue to engage in
this style, projects and organizations continue to excel and
achieve successful outcomes.
Commanding

The commanding leader is a strong, authoritative individual
who forcefully commands
orders and tasks. A commanding leader will communicate
honestly, and let you know if you are
not progressing or working satisfactory (Larry Richard, 2008).
This person holds all of the power,
and will make changes and decisions without his or her
subordinate’s. Although this leadership
style has some positives attributes, it is comprised of more
negative effects, and should be used
with caution and only during demanding times (Coercive
Leadership, 2014).
Commanding Positives
This leader gets the job done! Fear is instilled upon team
members which drives them to
use their full potential; ultimately achieving their goals. This

leadership style is most effective
during times of crises; internal or external (Six Emotional
Leadership Styles, 2015). Because this
leader gets the job, it will allow organizations to bounce back in
times of crisis. This leadership
style is also beneficial during organizational change, because he
or she is the leader, and
“encourages action, activity, and work” (Sloane, 2013). Leaders
that command, extrinsically
motivate their staff by offering rewards, based on performance
and outcomes (Sloane, 2013).
Commanding Negatives
The commanding leader may negatively affect creativity and
innovation. Team members
do not feel a sense of meaningfulness or a sense of choice. This

lack of inclusion will hinder
intrinsic motivation; intrinsic motivation encourages individuals
to succeed through self-
satisfaction. Commanding limits intelligent thinking, team
work, and disregards team experience
2015 29
and capabilities (Hughes, 2013). Team members will respond
negatively to this style, if it used all
of the time. If leaders are feared and unapproachable, team
members may feel insubordinate to
offer information that may be valuable or beneficial to a
particular situation. "Beware that in the

long run it may result in employees passively resisting,
rebelling or leaving altogether”
(Leadership Style, 2015).
• Today’s workforce does not accept the autocratic style often
adopted by leaders following
historical models of leadership.
• Leadership has had to evolve to match a growing sense of
democracy and independence in
the workforce
• Employees now have far more options and choices than the
foot soldiers of yesterday,
(Childs, 2004).
With that said, we can see why it is imperative to only use the
commanding leadership style during
necessary times of crises. Also, because of ever-changing times,
and a diverse group of team
members, practicing emotional intelligence will only benefit

your team’s organization and
outcomes.
Commanding Example
A great example of a commanding leader is America’s military
organizations; army, navy,
air force, national guard, etc. Depending on their rank and
institutional standing within the
organization, individuals control, direct, and order groups and
teams daily. Commanders,
sergeants, and lieutenants disregard their subordinates and
demand authority and cooperation.
Fear, respect, and obedience are demanded in the beginning, and
these principals are passed
throughout the different divisions of the military.
Commanding Summary

Although this leader will get the job done, it is important to use
this method sparingly.
Demanding and commanding attitudes will benefit your
organization in times or change and crises.
2015 30
Leaders of the world use this style while when they want to
quickly establish authority and
organizational goals.
Affiliative
The affiliative leadership style is another style within the
emotional intelligence group of

leadership styles. Affiliative leaders create emotional bonds
and harmony (Leadership That Gets
Results, 2000). This particular style of leadership works best
when there are disagreements among
team members. This leadership style is also most effective
when team members need motivation
during stressful circumstances.
Affiliative Positives
The affiliative leadership style places an emphasis on placing
value on individuals, rather
than centering on goals and objectives. An affiliative leader has
the innate ability to forge strong
emotional bonds with others, leading to immense loyalty from
the individual. Building strong
relationships between others, sets a solid foundation to establish

positive team chemistry
(Leadership That Gets Results, 2000). With a harmonious
group, communication becomes smooth
and amiable; members are willing to engage in productive
conversation with one another, ideas
are traded back and forth, companionship increases, and
positive feedback becomes abundant and
consistent. A sense of belonging is felt, and this allows for a
positive work environment, strong
loyalty and very high-spirited employees (Leadership That Gets
Results, 2014).
Along with this style, autonomy amongst workers is increased,
predominantly driven by
the trust that members have with one another that the work and
task will get done no matter the
process used. Affiliative leaders help harbor that flexibility as
unnecessary rigid structures are not

imposed on the employees (Smith, 2014). Workers have the
ability to use the most efficient method
2015 31
for them in order to complete their work, which, in turn can
lead to reduced pressure and more
favorable performance results.
One of the greatest qualities of an affiliative leader is the
ability to drive motivation among
members through solid and consistent feedback. Although
commentary remains largely
constructive and positive, this empowers the workers and
increases their sense of value. This is

very imperative today as Millennials begin to take over the
corporate landscape. Per a 2014 article
by Business Insider, CEO of Twilio, Jeff Lawson, discusses how
Millennials enjoys consistent
feedback (Smith, 2014). This generation is accustomed to quick
gratification given the world of
technology they were raised in, and the ample feedback
provided allows them to keep tabs on their
performance so there aren’t any surprises (Smith, 2014).
Combining that with an Affiliative leader
who will communicate nothing but positive and encouraging
remarks, the motivational level with
employees will soar.
Affiliative Negatives
While this leadership style is very effective at building a

positive work environment and
group culture, there are some downfalls when this style is over
utilized. Since Affiliative leaders
predominately remain constructive in the feedback they provide,
under-performing workers tend
to go unrecognized, which thereafter, fosters mediocrity. These
deficient workers will start to
become content with their performance, as affiliative leaders
leave these issues unaddressed, and
indirectly, their poor output is condoned (Money-zine n.d.).
Deficient workers lack the clear
direction that is needed in order to course-correct, thus they
must rely on themselves in order to
improve their performance. This can lead to an overall drag on
the group’s performance, cause a
disruption in the harmony, and ultimately lead to failure.

2015 32
The affiliative leadership style should mainly be reserved when
building a team together
to create a harmonious balance and positive chemistry amongst
members. This style is ideal when
there is a lack of communication or when trusts needs to be
mended. Leaders who rely on this style
will run eventually into issues with meeting overall
performance targets since it focuses on the
mental and emotional health of the group. In order to
appropriately sustain a healthy and productive
team, it is suggested that this style be combined with other
styles, such as the authoritative

leadership style (Leadership That Gets Results, 2000). An
authoritative leader will establish clear
direction in order to maintain goals, and help workers
understand their role in helping the
organization meet its objectives. With appropriate execution on
combining the affiliative and
authoritative leadership styles, the stage is set for establishing
an environment of committed and
driven workers producing outsized performance (Smith, 2014).
2015 33
Affiliative Example

A classic example of an affiliative leader is the ex-manager of
the New York Yankees, Joe
Torre. As manager for such a prominent team in baseball, Joe
Torre had many ego-centric players
to manage. Through all of this Joe Torre managed to hold the
team together while building a sense
of harmony among the teammates (Money-zine, n.d.). Joe Torre
would recognize the contributions
of individual players and express his gratitude for them. This
method of leading created an overall
cohesiveness that allowed the Yankees to be as successful as
they were (Money-zine, 2014).
Affiliative Summary
This leadership style is one that relies on emotions of the

individual, rather than task. The
affiliative leader strives to keep their employees happy and
create harmony among them (Money-
zine, 2014). This style focuses on the culture of the group in
order to create unity. Although this
style of leading seems ideal, the lack of constructive criticism
for the employees can lead to poor
performance and project failure.
Literature Review
Most cited definitions of emotional intelligence can be found in
(Salovey, 1989). More
modern and refined versions can be found at (Mayer, 1999) and
(Salovey, 2001). The literature on
the effect of Emotional Intelligence on leadership styles is vast;
however, an interpretation of the
term itself is manifold. The early interpretation of emotional

style can be found in (Avolio, 1991)
and (Popper, 1994), these papers start to identify values of
emotional intelligence, but do not assign
a separate school of leadership to it, rather, it is considered an
important but subsidiary aspect of
Visionary or Charismatic School of Leadership. They focus
more on influencing the emotions and
behavior, rather than on understanding them. The seminal
publication that birthed a new school of
2015 34
leadership solely based on emotional intelligence was
(Goleman, 1998). (Goleman, 1998) and

(Cooper, 1998), together popularized and identified emotional
intelligence as a leadership
competency, and defined its dimensions and styles. Further
publications like (Goleman, 2002)
presented a detailed analysis of sub-styles within the emotional
school and established emotional
intelligence as a critical leadership competency separate from
cognitive and social intelligence.
The pioneer proponent of this school is Daniel Goleman, who
has published numerous papers and
books; his most recent being (Goleman, 2013).
Conclusion
Attempts have been made to identify various competencies that
define a successful leader. Authors
have identified these as cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and
motivational (Dulewicz, 2003) but
has been shown that emotional competence accounts for 36% of

the leadership performance
(Dulewicz, 2000) greatest amongst all competencies. Literature,
lists numerous schools of
leadership, but its clear emotional intelligence finds relevance
in each of them (Turner, 2005).
From a project viewpoint with fixed start and end dates, project
managers often tend to be more
task oriented than people oriented, which may hamper the
leadership role (Turner, 2005). This
division was propounded by the contingency school of
leadership (Turner, 2005) and, emotional
competence in a leader is crucial to bridge this gap.
Another factor is the global nature of projects in modern times.
Increasingly remote teams
are being used and a leader has to be competent enough to
identify, cope up with, and even utilize

the cultural and lingual differences. Literature has identified
personality traits for coping with the
cultural differences (Selmer 2002), and they heavily involve
social awareness and relationship
management dimensions from which the emotional
competencies arise.
The emergence of agile project management and self-organizing
and managed teams in
recent years has presented a new situational analysis of
leadership styles. Leaders do emerge in
2015 35
such teams, either formally and informally, even if no
leadership need has been defined. Again, an

emotional competency of empathy in this case has been found to
play a significant role and
influence task focused and socio-emotional goals (Wolff, 2002).
While emotional dimensions have been largely nebulous and
debated aspects of leadership,
through theory and examples in this paper, we have tried to
define emotional competencies that
underlie the leadership styles and predict which style will be
appropriate in relevant phases of the
project. However there is an unanimous agreement that
leadership always lies in the situation. This
can demand dynamic shuffling of the various competencies for a
leader to emerge successfully.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful for the encouragement and mentorship of Dr.
Victor Sohmen, Project

Management Program, Drexel University, and for his useful
comments and editorial guidance in
this paper.
2015 36
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