The document compares changes in seabird phenology occurring in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Seabird phenology varies based on environmental factors like location and species. In the Arctic, threats include saltwater intrusion due to melting sea ice and lack of understanding of some species' distributions. Population dynamics of some Arctic seabird species fluctuate with sea surface temperature and ice extent. In the Antarctic, changes in prey availability due to sea ice and temperature influence seabird phenology. Differences in the Arctic and Antarctic regions that affect seabirds include the presence of non-flying seabirds in Antarctica and where the birds live and breed.

1. ChrisBenston
Geographyof the Polar Regions
A comparisonpaperonchangesofseabirdphenologyoccurringwithintheArctic and Antarctic.
I believethe phenologyof seabirdsisinfluencedbynumerousvariablesandissubjectto changescaused
by variation in environmentalfactors,suchasthe physicallocationandthespeciesof the seabird.Thephenologyof
seabirdswillvary basedon if the birds live in the Arctic or the Antarctic regions,as each individual speciesresponds
differently to climatechange.
Thematerialsandmethodswhichwillbeutilizedfor this paperare the examinationofdata from previously
conductedstudiesintheArctic andthe Antarctic. Thedatafor the Antarctic study relates to changesinthe phenology
of seabirdsand the relationship toclimatechange.Thedatasetfor the Arctic study examineschangesinthe
hydrology of highArctic lakes causedbysalt water intrusion.At first glance,theconnectionsbetweenthesetwo
subjectsmaynot bereadilyapparent.However, salt waterintrusionis the biggestthreat to Arctic seabirdsresidingin
proximityto the Atlantic Ocean. However,there maybe other threats to the survival of seabirds withinthe Arctic
regions,sincethe distribution,migrationpatternsandbreedingpatternsof several speciesof theseArctic seabirdsis
not widelyunderstoodit is difficultto ascertainhowclimatechange will effectthesebirds.
A total of 64 marinebirdspeciesareclassified asArctic species,20 of the 64 birdspeciesare classifiedas
circumpolar.Thismaymeantwothingsthese birdseither spendpart of the year living in Arctic waters or their
breedinggroundsarelocatedinthe Arctic regions.Circumpolarseabirdscanbeobservedbothbreedingandliving in
the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.Fourteenofthese circumpolarseabirdspecieshavebreedinggroundsin the Atlantic
Oceanandtwenty-oneof these circumpolarseabirdspecieshavebreedinggroundsinthe Pacific Ocean.Themost
commonlyobservedArctic seabirdspeciesin the Atlantic Oceanarethe Dovekies. TheDovekiesareflexiblein
regardsto theirdiets andforagingskills, as a result climatechangeishavinglittle to no effect ontheir population
dynamics.Unlikeotherspeciesof seabirdsthe breedingpopulationis notdecliningasthe climatechanges,this is

2. partiallydueto theirflexibilitywhenit comestotheir dietsand foragingbehaviors.TheCommonandThick-billed
Murresare seeingfluctuationsinpopulationdynamicsonashort term basis.1
Thesechangesinpopulationdynamicsaredueto changesinthe seasurface temperature(SST)andthe
sea iceextent. These changesobservedinpopulationdynamicsaresynchronouswithineachbasin.Theseobserved
changesinpopulationdynamics willalternatebetweenthe Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.Themigrationpatternsof
these seabirdsworksto assist with the transport of nutrientsto their breedinggrounds.However,the seabirdsmay
alsotransport contaminatessuchasmercuryto their breedinggrounds.1
In the past decades,a significantwarming trendhasbeenfound to be occurringwithintheArctic Region.
Arctic seabirdbehavior, phenology,diets, physiology, rates of foragingand survival are foundto changeinresponse
to these drastic warmingevents. ThebiggestissuefacingArctic seabirdsinthe Atlantic Oceanisthe loss of habitat
causedbyclimatechangeand thesewarmingevents. As a result of the changingclimatemanyfreshwaterhabitats
are becomingmoresaline.These observedincreasesinsalinityis caused byincreased influxesofsalinewater
causedbythe retreatingglacialice.Thissalinewaterhasincreasedlevelsofsalinity andhighertemperatures,when
comparedto thefreshwater it is displacing. Theincreasedlevelsof salinityin the Atlantic OceannearGreenlandis
having detrimental effectson the copepods
Additionalresearchhasshownseabirdsbreedinginthe Arctic are subjectto additionalchallengescaused
by climatechange.Manyof these challengesarenotuniform andtend to be speciesspecific.Suchaswith the Black
–leggedKittiwakeswhichspendthewintersin the moresouthernregionsof the Arctic. As a resultof this the Black-
leggedKittiwakesare beingexposedto increasinglevelsofharmfulhumanbasedactivitiessuchasbycatchfrom
fishingnets and oilspills.TheDovekiesare the most abundantspeciesofseabirdslocatedintheArctic portionof the
Atlantic Ocean.Thisspeciesofseabirdneston rockyslopes, uponexaminationofthe datacollectedfrom 1963to
2008a distincttrend wasobserved. Thisdatashowed anearliermedianbreedingandhatchdatesforthis speciesof
1 Kuletz, K.J., and N.J. Karnovsky. "Seabirds." ArcticReportCard.11 Nov. 2012.Web. 6Dec. 2015

3. bird. Themostplausibletheoryof whythis is taking placewouldbethe snowis meltingearlier,whichmeansearlier
availabilityof potentialnestingsites. 1
Theresearchshowstheoppositeis true for the Black-leggedKittiwakes,thesespeciesofseabirdsare
showinga minortrendtowardsbreedinglater.Thepotentialcausesforthis is decreasesinamount of prey
availability. Thesedecreased amountsofprey are dueto the elevated seasurfacetemperatures(SST)and the
decreasedamountsofsea ice.Within the Arctic regionscopepodsare akey componentofthe food webfor seabirds,
the increasedinflowsofsalinewater combined withwarmerwatertemperaturesareleadingtosmallersized
copepods.Thesechangesin thewater chemistryleadsto seabirdsforagingon smallerspeciesofcopepodsand
traveling longerdistancestoobtaintheir prey. Little to no long-term monitoringhasoccurredfor thesechangesinthe
populationdynamicscurrentlybeingseenamongtheArctic seabirds, thereforeis difficultto determinewhateffects
climatechangewillhaveon Arctic seabirds.However long-term monitoringdataexistsfor two Arctic seabirdspecies,
the CommonandtheThick-billedMurre.Thesespeciesofbirdshave abundantpopulationsandarespread
throughoutthe entireArctic region.The datashowedthat the Thick–billedMurre’sbreedingcoloniesincreasedin
size whenthe sea surfacetemperature orSST increasedslightly.However, the oppositeis true for the Common
Murre,the data showedslightdecreasesinthe sea surfacetemperatureorSST islinked to increasedsizesof the
breedingcolonies. Thedatashowsextremechangesinthesea surface temperature(SST)ineitherdirectionwill
negatively influence thepopulationsizesof both species.Another sideeffect of this decreasedicecoveragecaused
by glacialretreatis the increasedpotential forcontamination.1
Thedecreasedlevelsoficecoveragecausedbyglacialretreathasfar reachingconsequencesforthese
Arctic ecosystems. Thedecreasedamountsoficecoverage areleadingto biggerwaves whichcanreachfurther
inland.As a result of this more salinewater is being increasinglypushed intothe deltas of freshwaterrivers. Someof
the consequencesofthisare increasederosionamongthe shoreline,transformationanddestructionoffreshwater
ecosystemsdueto this intrusion of salinewater. A recentlyconductedstudyshowedafter surveying forty milesof
1 Kuletz, K.J., and N.J. Karnovsky."Seabirds." Arctic Report Card. 11Nov.2012. Web. 6 Dec.2011

4. shorelinean average of 6.8 metersretreating shorelinewasdocumented.Theseextremechangesarecausedby
manyvariableswhichincludeincreasedlandexposuretostorms, decreasedicecoverageandincreasedlevelsof
meltingpermafrostwhichleadstoincreasedlevelsof coastalerosion.Theincreasedlevelsofsalinewater have the
abilityto negatively affect freshwaterecosystems. Theincreasedlevelsof salt water intrusion have the abilityto alter
andinfluencethefood web. In addition,the changesinsalinitymayleadto freshwater speciesofseabirdsbeing
outcompetedbyspeciesof seabirdswhich thrivein salineenvironments.In extremecasesthe environmentmay
becomeanoxic,whichwill turnthelakeinto a deadzone devoid of mostlife forms.2
As with the Arctic seabirdphenologyinthe Antarctic is beinginfluencedbythe changingclimaticconditions
as well. Therearenumerousvariableswhichaffectthephenologyseabirdsin the Antarctic whichdonot exist within
the Arctic regions. Thepresenceofnon-flyingseabirdsinthe Antarctic is a majorfactorwhich tendsto influencethe
phenologyof seabirds.As with the Arctic changesinseabirdphenologyistied to decreasedamountsofprey. The
flying seabirdshave the abilityto fly longerdistancesinorderto forage for food. However, the non-flying seabirds
have a limitedrange andcannottravel these longerdistancesinorderto forgefor food. Thismayexplain
discrepancybetweenthedata collectedonthe Arctic and Antarctic seabirds,sincenonon-flying speciesofseabirds
suchas penguinsresideinthe Arctic. As with the Arctic sea iceextent (SIE) andsea temperaturewillaffectthe
phenologyof seabirdpopulationsresidingintheAntarctic. Thelackofprey for seabirdsis a majorproblem forthese
birds, the lackof prey is tied to delays in migrationandmolting.Forthesereasonsseabirdstendto delaythese
activitiessincethey requireextensive amountsof energyandwhichmeansaplentifulfood supplyis required.
Researchhasfoundthat changesinthese activitieswillcauseseabirdsto changetheirbreedingschedules.The
biggestdifferenceamongArctic andAntarctic seabirdswerethey live and breed.TheArctic seabirdspeciestendto
live and breedin freshwaterlakes. TheAntarctic seabirdstendto live andbreedon the continentaliceshelf.These
2
Struzik, Ed. "As Arctic Sea IceRetreats, Storms TakeTollon theLand." ByEd Struzik: Yale Environment360.6 June2011. Web. 8 Dec.2015.
<http://e360.yale.edu/feature/as_arctic_sea_ice_retreats_storms_take_toll_on_the_land/2412/>.

5. facts mayhelpto explainthe variation amongonhowclimateisinfluencingseabirdsinboththe Arctic and
Antarctic.3,4
As the with Arctic, the sea surfacetemperatureisinfluencingseabirdpopulationsintheAntarctic. Any
changesinthe seasurfacetemperaturewillleadto changesinseabirdphenology. Thebiggestproblem causedby
this it puts the seabirdsout of sync with theirsourcesof prey.4 Another factor whichcouldexplainthe differences
amongtheAntarctic and Arctic seabirdsis phenotype plasticity.Phenotype plasticitycanbedefinedas when
different types of phenotypes with the sameof genotype reactdifferentlybasedon the environmentalconditions.
Phenotype plasticityis influencedbythe locationandvariationdifferent speciesofseabirds.Thiscouldexplain
differencesinphenologywhichareseenamongtheArctic andAntarctic seabirds.5 However, the biggestinfluences
of seabirdphenologyare the life spansandreproductiverates of thesebirds. Seabirdswith lowerreproductivetend
to breed onlyin optimalconditions,asdothe seabirdswitha longerlifespan. And seabirdswith shorter lifespansand
highreproductive rates of are knownto breed in less than optimalbreedingconditions.Thechartsseenbelowarea
comparisonofseabirdsliving the in Arctic and the Antarctic.As one canseethere are manyspeciesbirdsfoundin
the Arctic whicharenotin the Antarctic. Thesamecanbesaidfor the seabirdsliving inthe Antarctic. Thedata
presentedin thesechartsprovides strong evidenceof phenotype plasticityoccurringwithinboththeArctic and
3,4 Constable, Andrew J., Jessica Melbourne-Thomas, Stuart P. Corney, Kevin R. Arrigo,ChristopheBarbraud,David K.A. Barnes, NathanielL.
Bindoff, Philip W. Boyd, Angelika Brandt,DanielP. Costa,Andrew T. Davidson, Hugh W.Ducklow, LouiseEmmerson, MitsuoFukuchi, Julian Gutt,
Mark A. Hindell, Eileen E. Hofmann, Graham W.Hosie, Takahiro Iida,Sarah Jacob, NadineM. Johnston, SoKawaguchi, Nobuo Kokubun, Philippe
Koubbi, Mary-AnneLea, AzwianewiMakhado,Rob A. Massom, Klaus Meiners, MichaelP. Meredith,EugeneJ. Murphy, Stephen Nicol,Keith Reid,
KateRicherson, Martin J. Riddle, Stephen R. Rintoul, Walker O. Smith, Colin Southwell, JonathonS. Stark, MichaelSumner, KerrieM. Swadling,
Kunio T. Takahashi, PhilN. Trathan, Dirk C. Welsford, HenriWeimerskirch,Karen J. Westwood,Barbara C.Wienecke, Dieter Wolf-Gladrow, Simon
W. Wright, JoseC. Xavier, and PhilippeZiegler. "ClimateChangeand Southern OceanEcosystems I: HowChanges in PhysicalHabitats Directly
Affect MarineBiota." Glob Change BiolGlobalChange Biology 20.10(2014): 3004-025. Web. 10Oct.2015
Chambers, Lynda E., Peter Dann, Belinda Cannell, and Eric J. Woehler. “Climateas a Driver of PhenologicalChangein Southern Seabirds." IntJ
BiometeorolInternationalJournalof Biometeorology 58.4(2013): 603-12. October, 5, 2015.
4
Chambers, Lynda E., Peter Dann, Belinda Cannell, and Eric J. Woehler. “Climateas a Driver of PhenologicalChangein Southern Seabirds." IntJ
BiometeorolInternationalJournalof Biometeorology 58.4(2013): 603-12. October, 5, 2015.
5 Grémillet, David, and AnneCharmantier. "Shifts in Phenotypic Plasticity Constrain theValueof Seabirds as EcologicalIndicators of Marine
Ecosystems." EcologicalApplications 20.6(2010): 1498-503. October 5,2015.

6. Antarctic regions.(see chart1 and 2 for moreinformation.) Charts3 and4 show the variableswhichinfluencethe
breedingphenologyoftwo speciesofAntarctic Seabirdsthe EmperorpenguinandtheSnow petrel.As onecansee
the Emperorpenguinpopulationswilldecreaseinresponsetolower levels of sea iceanddecreasesinthe air
temperatureduringthespringmonths.Thedatafor the Snowpetrels showschangesinthe populationsdynamics
occurringifthesea iceextent wereto decreaseinsize. In addition,changesinthepopulationdynamics ofSnow
Petrels were observed if any of the followingchangesoccurreddecreasesintheair temperatureorthe southern
oscillation index.6,7 Thisproves the variablesinfluencingseabirdphenologytendsto vary greatlyboth in the Artic
andthe Antarctic regions.Thefinalset of chartsyou are seeingare the comparisonofconductivitymeasurements
taken from a highArctic lakefrom the years 1968 and2006.(See chartsnumber5 and6.) Thedatapresentedin
these chartsindicatescertainlayersof the lake arebecomingmoresalinewhileotherlayersare becomingless
saline.It is impossibletoget a baselinebycomparingthe1968and2006sets of data sincemanyof the variables
whichwereexaminedin2006werenotexaminedin1968.8 Basedon the data in this paper wecanconcludethat
climatechangeishaving adverse effects on seabirdpopulationsbothinthe Arctic andAntarctic regions.However,
sincechangesinseabird phenologyis highlyvariableandinfluencedbyspeciesandlocationitisimpossibleto
determinehoweachspecieswillreacttoclimatechange. Beforeany conclusionsonhowclimatechangeis
influencingthephenologyof seabirdson globalscalecan bemade furtherresearchisnecessaryand a long-term
monitoringprogram shouldbeestablishedbeforecomingtoanyconclusions.
6 Jenouvrier, Stephanie, ChristopheBarbraud, and HenriWeimerskirch."Long-Term Contrasted Responses To ClimateOf Two Antarctic Seabird
Species." Ecology 86.11 (2005): 2889-903. October, 5,2015.
7 Jenouvrier, S., H. Weimerskirch, C. Barbraud,Y.-H. Park, andB. Cazelles. "Evidenceof a Shift in theCyclicity of Antarctic Seabird Dynamics Linked
to Climate." Proceedings of the RoyalSociety B: BiologicalSciences 272.1566(2005): 887-95. October 5, 2015.
8
Holm, TrineMarianne, Karin A. Koinig, Tom Andersen, Espen Donali, AnneHormes, Dag Klaveness, and RolandPsenner. "Rapid Physicochemical
Changes in theHigh Arctic LakeKongressvatn Caused byRecent ClimateChange." Aquatic Sciences Aquat Sci (2011): 385-95. Print.

7. Antarctic
Seabirds
Adelie Penguins
AfricanPenguins
Antarctic Petrel
Antarctic petrel
Antarctic Prion
Antarctic prion
Antarctic Seabirds
Antarctic shag
Antarctic Skua
Antarctic tern
Black -belliedStorm Petrel
Black-browned Albatross
Blue Petrel
Broad -billedprion
Brown Skua
Brush-tailedPenguin
Cape Petrels
Chin-strap Penguin
Common diving Petrel
Diving Petrel
Emperor Penguin
FairyPrion
FiordlandPenguin
Fulmar prion
Galapagos Penguins
Gentoo Penguin
Graybacked- Storm Petrel
GrayDuck
Grayheaded Albatross

8. Graypetrel
Great Shearwater
Great -wingedpetrel
Grey-headed albatross
Humboldt Penguin
Imperial Shag
Kelp Gulls
Kerguelenpetrel
Kerguelenpintail
Kerguelenshag
Kerguelentern
King Penguin
Lesser-shealthbill
Light-mantledsooty albatross
Little Penguin
Little Shearwater
Mottled petrel
Narrow-billedPrion
Northern Giant Petrel
Rockhopper Penguin
Royal Penguin
Royal Albatross
Snow petrel
Snowy-sheathbill
Soft-plumagedpetrel
Sooty Albatross
Sooty Shearwater
South Georgia diving petrel
Southern Fulmars
Southern Giant Petrel
South-polar Skua
Speckled Teal
Wandering albatross
White -capped Albatross
White -chinned petrel
White- faced Storm Petrel
White facedAlbatross
White-cappedalbatross
White-headed petrel
Wilson's Storm Petrel
Yellownose Albatross

9. Yellow-billedPintail
Yellow-eyedPenguins
Yellow-nosedalbatross
Chart 1
9 McGonigal, David, and Lynn Woodworth. The Complete
Encyclopedia Antarcticaand the Arctic. Willowdale, Ont.:
Firefly, 2001. Print
Arctic Seabirds
Arctic Redpoll
Arctic Seabirds
Arctic Tern
Atlantic Puffins
Blacked -leggedKittiwake
Common Guillemots
Common Murre
Common Redpoll
Glaucous Gull
Horned Puffins
Ivory Gull
LaplandBunting
Long-tailed Skua
Northern Fulmar
Northern Gannets
Razor Gills
Red -Throated Divers
Red-necked Phalarope
Snow Bunting
Thick -billedMurres
TuftedPuffins
Chart 2
10
10 McGonigal, David, and LynnWoodworth. The Complete Encyclopedia Antarctica andthe Arctic. Willowdale, Ont.: Firefly, 2001. Print.

10. Chart 36
6 Jenouvrier, Stephanie, ChristopheBarbraud, andHenriWeimerskirch. "Long-Term ContrastedResponses To ClimateOf Two Antarctic Seabird
Species." Ecology 86.11 (2005): 2889-903. October, 5,2015
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
The breeding of Emperior Penguins and The Associated
Environmental Variables
Emperor Penguin So ( Survival during
the first year at sea)
Emperor Penguin BS (Breeding Success)
Emperor Penguin N(number of breeding
pairs)
Emperor Penguin Pb( Proportion of
breeders)
Emperor Penguin Pb+6 (Proportion of
birds attempting to bird for first time)

11. Chart 46
6 Jenouvrier, Stephanie, ChristopheBarbraud,and HenriWeimerskirch."Long-Term Contrasted Responses To ClimateOf Two Antarctic Seabird
Species." Ecology 86.11 (2005): 2889-903. October, 5,2015
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
The Breeding of Snow Petrels and The Associated Environmental Variables
Snow Petrel So ( Survival during the first year at sea)
Snow Petrel BS (Breeding Success)
Snow Petrel N(number of breeding pairs)
Snow Petrel Pb( Proportion of breeders)
Snow Petrel Pb+6 (Proportion of birds attempting to bird for first time)

12. Chart 58
Chart 68
8
Holm, TrineMarianne, Karin A. Koinig, Tom Andersen, Espen Donali, AnneHormes, Dag Klaveness, and RolandPsenner. "Rapid Physicochemical
Changes in theHigh Arctic LakeKongressvatn Caused byRecent ClimateChange." Aquatic Sciences Aquat Sci (2011): 385-95. Print.
8
Holm, TrineMarianne, Karin A. Koinig, Tom Andersen, Espen Donali, AnneHormes, Dag Klaveness, and RolandPsenner. "Rapid Physicochemical
Changes in theHigh Arctic LakeKongressvatn Caused byRecent ClimateChange." Aquatic Sciences Aquat Sci (2011): 385-95. Print.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Mixolimnion Monimolimnion Kongressvatn
springs
Outflow
Conductivity
(us cm-1 25 at Degrees Celsius 1968)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Conductivity(us cm-1 25 at Degrees Celsius
2006)

13. Bibliography
Holm, Trine Marianne, Karin A. Koinig, Tom Andersen, Espen Donali, Anne Hormes, Dag Klaveness, and Roland
Psenner. "Rapid Physicochemical Changes in the High Arctic Lake Kongressvatn Caused by Recent Climate Change." Aquatic
Sciences Aquat Sci (2011): 385-95. Print.
Jenouvrier, Stephanie, Christophe Barbraud, and Henri Weimerskirch. "Long-Term Contrasted Responses to Climate of Two
Antarctic Seabird Species." Ecology 86.11 (2005): 2889-903. October, 5, 2015
McGonigal, David, and Lynn Woodworth. The Complete Encyclopedia Antarctica and the Arctic. Willowdale, Ont.: Firefly, 2001.
Print.
Jenouvrier, S., H. Weimerskirch, C. Barbraud, Y.-H. Park, and B. Cazelles. "Evidence of a Shift in the Cyclicity of Antarctic
Seabird Dynamics Linked to Climate." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272.1566 (2005): 887-
95. October 5, 2015.
Grémillet, David, and Anne Charmantier. "Shifts in Phenotypic Plasticity Constrain the Value of Seabirds as Ecological Indicators
of Marine Ecosystems." Ecological Applications 20.6 (2010): 1498-503. October 5, 2015.
Chambers, Lynda E., Peter Dann, Belinda Cannell, and Eric J. Woehler. “Climate as a Driver of Phenological Change in
Southern Seabirds." Int J Biometeorol International Journal of Biometeorology 58.4 (2013): 603-12. October, 5, 2015.
Constable, Andrew J., Jessica Melbourne-Thomas, Stuart P. Corney, Kevin R. Arrigo, Christophe Barbraud, David K. A. Barnes,
Nathaniel L. Bindoff, Philip W. Boyd, Angelika Brandt, Daniel P. Costa, Andrew T. Davidson, Hugh W. Ducklow, Louise
Emmerson, Mitsuo Fukuchi, Julian Gutt, Mark A. Hindell, Eileen E. Hofmann, Graham W. Hosie, Takahiro Iida, Sarah Jacob,
Nadine M. Johnston, So Kawaguchi, Nobuo Kokubun, Philippe Koubbi, Mary-Anne Lea, Azwianewi Makhado, Rob A. Massom,
Klaus Meiners, Michael P. Meredith, Eugene J. Murphy, Stephen Nicol, Keith Reid, Kate Richerson, Martin J. Riddle, Stephen R.
Rintoul, Walker O. Smith, Colin Southwell, Jonathon S. Stark, Michael Sumner, Kerrie M. Swadling, Kunio T. Takahashi, Phil N.
Trathan, Dirk C. Welsford, Henri Weimerskirch, Karen J. Westwood, Barbara C. Wienecke, Dieter Wolf-Gladrow, Simon W.
Wright, Jose C. Xavier, and Philippe Ziegler. "Climate Change and Southern Ocean Ecosystems I: How Changes in Physical
Habitats Directly Affect Marine Biota." Glob Change Biol Global Change Biology 20.10 (2014): 3004-025. Web. 10 Oct. 2015
Chambers, Lynda E., Peter Dann, Belinda Cannell, and Eric J. Woehler. “Climate as a Driver of Phenological Change in
Southern Seabirds." Int J Biometeorol International Journal of Biometeorology 58.4 (2013): 603-12. October, 5, 2015.
Struzik, Ed. "As Arctic Sea Ice Retreats, Storms Take Toll on the Land." By Ed Struzik: Yale Environment 360. 6 June 2011.
Web. 8 Dec. 2015. <http://e360.yale.edu/feature/as_arctic_sea_ice_retreats_storms_take_toll_on_the_land/2412/>.
1 Kuletz, K.J., and N.J. Karnovsky. "Seabirds." Arctic Report Card. 11 Nov. 2012. Web. 6 Dec. 2015