Hydrology of High Arctic Lakes

Chris Benston
Geography of the Polar Regions
The hydrology of high Arctic lakes is heavily influenced by the surrounding landscape and climatic conditions occurring
within the regions surrounding these lakes. I believe the changing climate is causing adverse and devastating effects to occur in
these high Arctic lakes to due changes in the hydrology.
The hydrology and chemical composition of these high Arctic lakes tends to vary based on the environmental
conditions, land use patterns and the geology. The ecology of these high Arctic lakes is not widely understood. The majority of
the lakes which are being examined by this study are meromictic lakes. These meromictic lakes are of interest to us, because
unlike other lakes they did not mix completely and have a permanent chemical stratification1
. A defining feature of meromictic
lakes is lack the dissolved oxygen and the presence of hydrogen sulphate at increased depths. The three theories which can be
used to explain the formation of a meromixis in the basins of these lakes is the advection of waters which are saline deeper into
parts of these lakes found along the coast (ectogenic meromixis), saline groundwater which infiltrates the hydraulic head
(crenogenic meromixis), and finally both the production and accumulation of two types of salts (organic and catabolic) this
process is called biogenic meromixis.2
The majority of these lakes at high attitudes are found on the coast and were created as a
result of glacial retreat. These lakes were formerly marine embayment’s which consists of both trapped salt water and freshwater.
The freshwater tends to be seasonal runoff which comes from the surrounding area. As a result, the chemical composition of
these lakes is influenced by the surrounding landscape. Meromictic lakes are usually comprised of a mixolimnion, which is a
fresh oxygenated upper layer. The mixolimnion is underlined by a saline monilimnion, which is considered to be an anoxic or
oxygen deprived environment. In most cases the environmental conditions of the monimlimnia tend to limit the organisms which
can inhabit this zone. In most cases, the monimlimnia is a very anoxic environment, with large concentrations of hydrogen sulfide
1
Likens, G. E., and P. L. Johnson. "A Chemically Stratified Lake in Alaska." Science (1966): 875-77. Print.
2
Pagé, P., M. Ouellet, C. Hillaire-Marcel, and M. Dickman. "Isotopic Analyses (18O, 13C, 14C) of Two Meromictic Lakes in
the Canadian Arctic Archipelago." Limnol. Oceangr. Limnology and Oceanography: 564-73. Print.

and strong reduction conditions. In some cases, the increased amounts hypersalinity present in the lakes, may limit the
organisms found living in the lake to bacteria only. Bacteria tends to be the only type of organism which can tolerate such
extreme conditions. In addition, colder than usual water temperatures and permanent coverage by ice is a contributing to the
unusual limnologic conditions and organisms within these lakes.3
In order to determine the effects of climate change on high
Arctic lakes we will analyze the physiochemical data which was collected over the course of several years and the water
temperature data as part of an effort to continually monitor the temperature of the water, this data was collected over the course
over a three-year period time which ranged from 2007 to 2009. In turn, this data will be compared to data which was collected in
the years of 1962 and 1968. By doing this, I hope to gain a baseline understanding of how climate change is influencing the
hydrology and the physiochemical conditions of high Arctic lakes. I believe that climate change will have far-reaching effects on
both the physiochemical conditions and the hydrology of high Arctic lakes. It is believed that the biggest effects of climate
change on these high Arctic lakes will be changes in stratification, mixing and regimes of transport within these lakes. 4
All meromictic lakes have a chemocline which is stable in nature, this restricts the anoxic bottom waters
(monimolimnion) and the layers of water above (mixolimnion) from mixing together. However, recent studies have shown
changes in the mixolimnion temperatures during periods of cold may lead to internal mixing of the monimlimnion, this mixing can
occur without causing any damage to the chemocline. These observed changes in circulation is due to double diffusion, which
means heat diffuses at higher rates than the dissolved substances. This means the temperature will change at a faster rate
above the chemocline which will penetrate both deeper and faster into the monimolimnion when compared to the observed
changes in conductivity.4
This may lead to groundwater infiltrating the monimolimnion, this mostly occurs in regions with
permafrost. This intrusion of groundwater into the monimlimnion is strongly influenced by the climatic conditions, due to the
amount and rate recharge and discharge occurring within the taliks. Which can be defined as layers of ground which are not
frozen. In regions where permafrost is observed continuously, the taliks are found beneath thermokarst lakes which are shallow
3
Fisher, Timothy, Jessica D. Tomkins, Scott F. Lamoureux, Dermot Antoniades, and Warwick F. Vincent. "Sedimentology of
Perennial Ice-covered, Meromictic Lake A, Ellesmere Island, at the Northern Extreme of CanadaPolar Continental Shelf Program
Contribution 00109." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Can. J. Earth Sci.: 83-100. Print.
4
Holm, Trine Marianne, Karin A. Koinig, Tom Andersen, Espen Donali, Anne Hormes, Dag Klaveness, and Roland
Psenner. "Rapid Physicochemical Changes in the High Arctic Lake Kongressvatn Caused by Recent Climate Change." Aquatic
Sciences Aquat Sci (2011): 385-95. Print.

and where the depths of water in the lake will not freeze. As a result of this the sediment located between the water will not
freeze as well. 5
These lakes tend to have ice coverage which can be described as near perennial, this limits the interaction between
the atmosphere and the lake for the majority of the year. In turn, this also limits the amount of wave activity occurring within the
lake. When combined with a strong stratification and large amounts of seasonal sediment deposits, this creates an environment
that is capable of supporting and preserving varved and laminated sediments on an annual basis. However, this data can only be
used as an environmental proxy. This is due to the fact that ice coring records presents the only other chance to examine
variability of the long term changes occurring within the paleoclimate records. In spite of large wealth of information available on
the limnological conditions of these lakes, the processes behind sedimentation and deposition of sedimentation is poorly
documented. The majority of these high Arctic lakes are meromictic in nature as a result of them being disconnected from the
ocean. This lack of an outflow to the ocean leads to the saltwater being trapped in the lake’s basin, which will lead to the
formation of a very strong chemocline. These lakes have a past history of retaining perennial ice coverage during the freshlet
period, will only experience seasonal loss of ice. However, if this perennial ice cover were to melt earlier in the freshlet period
changes in the short conduit will occur. As a direct result of this the retention and concentration of contaminates will increase
within these lakes. Due to this lack of ice cover, turbulence caused by this will lead to a formation of a bigger halocline. As a
direct result increased levels of saltwater will enter the freshwater layers, this infiltration of saltwater will lead to increased salinity
of these lakes. It is expected these changes will allow contaminates to enter deeper depths within the water column and may
alter the ecology and primary production of these lakes.4
In order to gain a better understanding of the silica cycle, we must first understand the role of diatoms. The dissolution
of diatoms plays a major role in the repurposing and amounts of silica which are present within the sediment. In lakes with
greater depths which are stratifying over a long period of time, epilimnetic silica concentrations will decrease following increased
levels of eutrophication. These changes leads to increased levels of productivity observed among the diatoms. As a direct result
5
5
Pidwirny, Michael. "Periglacial Processes and Landforms." Periglacial Processes and Landforms. 7 Oct. 2008. Web. 8
Dec. 2015. <http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/155178/>.
4
4

of this the silica which leaves the epilimnion will not be replaced and sent to the photic zone. This leads to changes in the
structure of the diatom community, which may change to include species of diatoms which do not require large amounts of silica.
These diatoms are not as a robust as the other species of diatoms and take in less silica into the frustules. The decreased levels
of silica in the epilimnetic waters, will lead to non-siliceous algae becoming the primary producers. In addition, increased levels
of contamination, will lead to changes within the entire zooplankton community. Changes among the zooplankton community has
far reaching consequences. Any changes in the zooplankton community has the ability to change the entire function of the lake.
Preservation of the diatoms within the lake is directly tied to physical limnology and chemistry of the lake water. Experiments
conducted in a lab setting showed that ph., temperature, salinity and conductivity are influenced by the preservation of these
diatoms. In addition, the physical characteristics of the lakes themselves are shown to influence the preservation of the diatoms
as well. The depth of the water has shown to influence the preservation of diatoms, if a meromixis is present within the lake. The
depth of the water plays a role when sediment which is located on the surface is re-suspended by the wind. This may lead to
dissolution of the finer taxa if the process of sedimentation is occurring over water columns with a greater depth. In saline lakes,
water body permanence plays a major role as well. The preservation of diatoms can be explained by the presence of organic
materials located within the sediment of these lakes.6,7,8
The methods which will be applied to conduct this study are similar to those described in the paper Rapid
Physiochemical Changes in The High Arctic Lake Kongressvatn caused by climate change. In order to conduct our study, we will
be utilizing Lake Kongressvatn to conduct this study, this lake was studied over several trips which occurred over the course of
several years from 2005-2010. The dates of the field outings ranged from July 20 to August 2. However, sampling occurred twice
in the winter months in the years of 2007 and 2009. Additional sampling for the temperature within the water column occurred
from April 2007 to July 2009. Additional water samples were collected from nearby springs, inlets and outlets of these lakes
during the summer months. The water samples from this lake were collected from the deepest point with in the lake. The
sampling parameters which were to be examined are temperature, ph. and conductivity, these measurements are to be
conducted a fixed point within the lake. The water samples were collected at initial depths of 0.5, 1, and 2 meters, after the point
of two meters is reached sampling will occur every 2 meters until a depth of 44 meters is reached. Once a depth of a 44 meters
6,7,8
6,7,8
Ryves, David B., Richard W. Battarbee, Stephen Juggins, Sherilyn C. Fritz, and N. John Anderson. "Physical and Chemical Predictors of Diatom
Dissolution in Freshwater and Saline Lake Sediments in North America and West Greenland." Limnol. Oceangr. Limnology and Oceanography: 1355-368. Print.
Wolfe, Alexander P., Colin A. Cooke, and William O. Hobbs. "Are Current Rates of Atmospheric Nitrogen Deposition Influencing Lakes in the
Eastern Canadian Arctic?" Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research: 465-76. Print. Kling, George W., Brian Fry, and W. John O'brien. "Stable
Isotopes and Planktonic Trophic Structure in Arctic Lakes." Ecology: 561. Print

is reached sampling will occur in intervals of one meter. The sample collection will continue until a depth of 52 meters is reached.
In order to collect water samples from the water column a ruttner sampler was used and in order to collect water samples from
the springs, outlets, and inlets sampling bottles were used. Immediately after collection these samples were analyzed for
inorganic and organic compounds. In addition, off site sampling for the following parameters occurred ph., conductivity, salinity
and temperature. The water chemistry of these samples was determined by analyzing triplicate samples of water collected at the
following depths of 0.5, 1, and 2 meters. Once an interval of 2 meters is reached, water samples will be collected at 1-meter
intervals until an overall depth of 52 meters is reached. Following sample collection sampling for ion chromatography will occur,
sampling for the following parameters will occur phosphorus (P), total nitrogen (TN), silicon (SI), Alkalinity, and dissolved organic
carbon (DOC). These samples were collected at the following depths within the water column 2, 16, 30, and 44 meters in depth.
The data from these samples were compared to the mean data of samples collected from the water column from the following
years 1962, 1968, and 2006 to 2010. This data showed the temperature of the epilimnion had increased by 2.7 degrees Celsius.
In addition, a slight increase in temperature of 1.1 degrees Celsius was observed occurring within the hypolimnion. The data
collected in the summers of 2006 and 2008 showed monimolimnetic temperatures were found to increase as the water depth
increased. However, water temperatures were found to be mostly even during the monitoring years of 2007 and 2010. Data
collected from the water columns during the time period ranging from April 2007 to July 2009, showed that water with a
temperature of 4 degrees Celsius will not mix with the lower layers of the lake during the summer months. This data leads us to
conclude water tends to stay above the thermocline within the epilimnion when the temperature has a range of 2 and 3 degrees
Celsius. All samples collected will be stored in dark and cold conditions until they are delivered to the lab for analysis. Additional
sampling for the following parameters in occurred in the years of 2005 and 2008, the parameters which were examined are ph.
and conductivity. This data will be compared to data which was previously collected during the summers of 1962 and 1968. The
standard unit for conductivity samples are us cm-1 25 at degrees Celsius. In order to calculate the mean temperatures for the
epilimnion, mixolimnion and monimolimnion we will utilize data collected from the following years 1968,2006, 2007, 2008 and
2010. The layers of water will be defined according to the depth profiles of the thermocline and the chemocline. The epilimnion
ranges from 0 to 6-12 meters in depth, the mixolimnion ranges from 6-12 to 32.5-44 meters in depth, and finally the monilimnion
ranges from 32.5 to 44-52 meters in depth. These profiles discussed were used to compare temperatures measured in the
epilimnion to air temperatures collected from a nearby airport. Additional monitoring of the water temperature has occurred within
the water column by using water samples collected between July 25 and July 27. These samples were compared to water

temperature samples which were collected at depths of 2 and 5 meters. In turn these water temperature samples were compared
to samples of the mean air temperature which was collected during the months of July and August. 4
In the years 2008 and 2010 a change was observed in the minimum temperature between the depths of 20 and 30
meters, at these depths the temperature decreased by one degree Celsius when compared to the monilimnion. Additional
changes in temperature were observed during the record heat occurring during the summer of 2007, during this period the
largest spike in temperature was recorded in the epillimnion, these increased temperatures lead to changes in temperature
occurring within the hypolimnion, the temperature within the hypolimnion increased by one degree Celsius. It was determined
these changes are occurring upon comparison of this data with the data collected in the year 2008. These differing conditions
were found to influence the hypolimnion throughout the entire winter. These changes are caused by the heat capacity of the
water; the heat capacity of the water will influence the temperature of the water during the summer months. A portion of this heat
is stored throughout the winter under the ice cover, eventually the heat will cycle into layers of the lake. This explains how the
water temperatures in the summer months will influence the conditions of the water during the winter months. The maximum
water depth recorded in the summers of 1968, 2005, 2008 and during the winter of 2007 was 52 meters, during the year 2010,
the maximum water depth in the lake decreased to 47 meters. This resulted in the volume of water in the lake decreasing by
18%, a direct surface outflow was observed only in the year 2006. However, in the year 2010 researchers noted the presence of
a subsurface outflow on the lake. In the year 2005, researchers found the chemocline was 12 meters deeper upon comparison to
the 1968 data. The changing location of the chemocline was caused by a decrease in thickness observed within the monilimnion,
the thickness changed from 20 meters in 1968 to only 8 meters in 2005. The thickness of the monilimnion was observed to
fluctuate during the years of 2005 to 2010, the thickness of the monilimnion ranged from 7 to 8.5 meters in thickness. Additional
changes were observed during this monitoring period, a strong chemocline normally located at 44 to 46 meters in depth, was
found at much shallower depths of 3 to 15 meters. This was something that was very difficult to observe during the 1962 and
1968 studies. This appearance of a second chemocline is related to the thermocline and occurs as a result of infiltration of melt
water and low ionic concentrations occurring during the summer months. It is found that Calcium (ca) and Magnesium (mg) are
dominate cation ions present within the lakes and the surrounding springs. It was found that Sulphate (S04) is dominate acid
anion occurring in the lake and the springs. The increased levels of Sulphate, Calcium and Magnesium reflects the mineralogy of
4
4

the surrounding catchments basins. In particular, the strong concentrations of gypsum located adjacent to these catch basins.
The Average level of conductivity occurring within the epilimnion is 416 us cm-1
, in addition a noticeable increase in the size of
conductivity of 1,712 us cm-1
was observed within the monilimnion. It was found that Kongressvatn springs has a mean
conductivity of 1,835 us cm-1
which is slightly higher when compared to the conductivity observed in Linnedalen springs. The
conductivity of Linnedalen springs ranges from 1,380 to 1,792 us cm-1
. A very low concentration of phosphorus was observed in
both the epilimnion and the mixolimnion (4 ugl -1
). However, the concentration of phosphorus increased in the monilimnion which
ranged from 120 to 300 ugl-1
.4
In addition, the increased concentrations of phosphorus may be linked to decreased water levels which leads to wind
mixings. A significant change was observed within the chemocline between 1968 and 2005, the reasons for this change are not
clear. Several theories exist to explain these potential changes within the chemocline, however without further studies is difficult
to prove or disprove any of these theories. The first theory is the lake was exposed to greater amounts of wind, as a result of
stronger winds or decreased ice coverage. This may lead to more turbulent conditions in the upper layers of water and increased
of levels of erosion in the monilimnion. The second theory states, the inflow of water and dissolution of compounds is tied to
springs of groundwater drying up. However, there is a lack of information about discharge from the surface and subsurface
catchments. Sampling of the surface water spring conducted between 2005 and 2010 showed no significant changes of the
water chemistry and conductivity when compared to the 1968 data. In addition, the data shows inflow into the lake has not
changed significantly between 1968 and 2005, while the significant changes have occurred within the chemocline. The third and
final theory states changes are in the chemocline are occurring due to increased outflow from the subsurface caused by new and
reopening channels within the karst system, or potentially due to the recharge of groundwater. This will lead to decreased levels
of inflow to the lake, this theory is supported by decreased water levels occurring within the lake and observed decreases in
temperature occurring within the permafrost. Recent changes in the climate conditions of the high Arctic has led to an increase in
water temperatures. A correlation between increased water temperatures and increased levels of thermal stratification has been
observed. In deep meromictic lakes found within the Arctic region, these temperatures are reflected throughout the entire water
column. 4
4
4
4

The data collected within the time period covering dates from 1968 to 2010, shows the mean epilimnetic temperature
of Lake Kongresstavn has increased by 2 degrees Celsius. A correlation between these increased temperatures and changes in
the average summer temperature occurring was observed. It is believed that these increased temperatures in the epilimnion will
lead to the formation of a single thermocline. In addition, the inflow of melt water with lower ionic content, may lead to the
formation of a single thermocline as well. This has the ability to limit vertical mixing occurring in the chemocline and the
thermocline. During the warmer periods thermal stratification tends to be very stable and as a result very little heat moves
downward in the water column. However, the opposite is true during colder periods thermal stratification becomes very unstable
and as a result increased amounts of heat will travel downward into the water column. When higher temperatures are observed
in the summer months, temperatures of the mixolimnion will remain at elevated levels as well throughout the winter months.
However, after a colder summer the temperatures in both the mixolimnion and epilimnion were found to decrease. This leads us
to conclude that heat transport is occurring within the various layers and these high Arctic lakes are very sensitive to changes in
climatic conditions. In addition, this data tells us that high Arctic lakes will react rapidly to changes in the air temperature. During
this study it was observed that the water temperature of the monilimnion had increased by 0.5 degrees Celsius. The
temperatures in the monimolimnion are influenced by geothermal influxes and processed heat within the sediments, which leads
to inflow from groundwater and diffusion of transported heat within the epilimnion and the mixolimnion. However, the
temperatures observed in the monimlimnion were relatively stable when compared those of the epilimnion and the mixolimnion.
The decreases in the level of water within the lake are especially noticeable in the year 2010, when the volume of water in the
lake decreased by 18%. The sudden drop of in the volume of water in the lake cannot be explained by decreased levels of
precipitation. The most commonly held theory is decreased water levels are a result of changes occurring within the hydrology of
these catchment basin. However, the research shows the depths of the transition layers found between the mixolimnion and the
monilimnion have not changed location. This points to no drainage or decreased levels of drainage occurring at a depth of 44
meters, no evidence of erosion from the chemocline is believed to be occurring from the layers above. It is believed that
reduction of glacial areas is responsible for the changes we are seeing within this lake. It is estimated up to 25% of the glacial ice
coverage and permafrost has disappeared from this region, this is tied to decreased amounts of groundwater inflow. Upon
examination of the permafrost temperatures, a significant warming trend was discovered occurring within the permafrost. These
changes in permafrost temperature can be observed down to a depth of 60 meters. Lake Kongresstavn became a meromictic
lake as water with high ionic concentrations started flowing into lake Kongresstavn from the nearby springs. This process is
further influenced by the dissolution of minerals found within the sediment combined with a cone shaped lake. The dissolution of

the monilimnion in this lake is caused by a decreased water flow with high ionic concentrations. The changing position of the
chemocline is directly correlated to the reduction of volume occurring within the monilimnion. This study found a 50 percent
reduction of volume is occurring within the monilimnion, is directly tied to the loss of one- fifth of the lake’s water. The largest
factor which is influencing the decreased levels of water occurring within the lake are decreased glacial meltwater and snowpack
from the groundwater. The decreased levels of glacial meltwater and snowpack is directly correlated to a decrease in amounts of
inflow the lake is receiving. As seen in the two charts below the conductivity and the chemical composition of these lakes tend to
be quite variable. As state before the conductivity of lake water is heavily influenced by the location of the lake and variation
among climate changes. Upon comparison of the 1968 conductivity data to 2006 data, we see extreme variation among the data.
The conductivity for the mixolimnion saw a slight but insignificant increase, however the conductivity for the monimlimnion was to
found to decrease. The biggest challenge when comparing the 1968 and 2006 sets of data is limited sampling parameters within
the 1968 data set. This makes it difficult for us to establish a baseline measurement to determine what long-term changes are
occurring. The sampling of the lake occurring in 1968 determined the dominate cation ions found in the lake and the surrounding
springs were Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) and Sulphate (S04
) was the dominate anion. No sampling for total phosphorus
occurred for the 1968 data set. The chemical composition of the lakes and nearby springs for the 2006 data is relatively
unchanged, however the data shows the amounts of sulphate present in the springs and monilimnion to be have decreased
significantly. A potential explanation of why this is occurring would be the rates of and the amounts of inflow and outflow to these
bodies of water are changing. Changes in the rates of inflow and outflow tends to alter the chemical composition of water. In
addition, changes in the amounts of total phosphorus present in the lake and spring waters may be altering the water chemistry
as well. However, since many of these variables were not examined by either 1968 or 2006 study, it is difficult to come any solid
conclusions on why these changes are occurring. Therefore, in order to increase our understanding of the effects climate change
on these high Arctic lakes, we must conduct more research before coming to any solid conclusions.4
4
4

Mixolimnion Kongressvatn springs
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Conductivity
(us cm-1 25 at Degrees Celsius 1968)
4
4
4

Epilimnion Linnedalen spring 3Outflow 2 Inflow 3
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Conductivity(us cm-1 25 at Degrees Celsius 2006)
4
4
4

CI( mg L-1 )
SO4( mg L-1 )
Na( mg L-1 )
K( mg L-1 )
Mg(mg L-1 )
Ca(mg L-1)
TP(ug L-1)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Chemical compositon of Lake Kongressvatn and surrounding springs (1968)
Mixolimnion Monimolimnion Kongressvatn spring
Epilimnion Inflow 1 Linnedalen spring 3Outflow 1 Kongressvatn spring
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Chemical composition of Lake Kongresstavn and the surrounding springs (2006)
CI( mg L-1 ) SO4( mg L-1 ) Na( mg L-1 ) K( mg L-1 )
Mg(mg L-1 ) Ca(mg L-1) TP(ug L-1)
4
4
4

4
Biblography
Ryves, David B., Richard W. Battarbee, Stephen Juggins, Sherilyn C. Fritz, and N. John Anderson. "Physical and Chemical Predictors of Diatom
Dissolution in Freshwater and Saline Lake Sediments in North America and West Greenland." Limnol. Oceangr. Limnology and Oceanography: 1355-368. Print.
Wolfe, Alexander P., Colin A. Cooke, and William O. Hobbs. "Are Current Rates of Atmospheric Nitrogen Deposition Influencing Lakes in the
Eastern Canadian Arctic?" Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research: 465-76. Print. Kling, George W., Brian Fry, and W. John O'brien. "Stable Isotopes
and Planktonic Trophic Structure in Arctic Lakes." Ecology: 561. Print.
Holm, Trine Marianne, Karin A. Koinig, Tom Andersen, Espen Donali, Anne Hormes, Dag Klaveness, and Roland Psenner.
"Rapid Physicochemical Changes in the High Arctic Lake Kongressvatn Caused by Recent Climate Change." Aquatic Sciences Aquat
Sci (2011): 385-95. Print.
Pidwirny, Michael. "Periglacial Processes and Landforms." Periglacial Processes and Landforms. 7 Oct. 2008. Web. 8 Dec.
2015. <http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/155178/>.
Fisher, Timothy, Jessica D. Tomkins, Scott F. Lamoureux, Dermot Antoniades, and Warwick F. Vincent. "Sedimentology of
Perennial Ice-covered, Meromictic Lake A, Ellesmere Island, at the Northern Extreme of CanadaPolar Continental Shelf Program
Contribution 00109." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences Can. J. Earth Sci.: 83-100. Print
Pagé, P., M. Ouellet, C. Hillaire-Marcel, and M. Dickman. "Isotopic Analyses (18O, 13C, 14C) of Two Meromictic Lakes in the
Canadian Arctic Archipelago." Limnol. Oceangr. Limnology and Oceanography: 564-73. Print.
Likens, G. E., and P. L. Johnson. "A Chemically Stratified Lake in Alaska." Science (1966): 875-77. Print.

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