arguments for and against abortion. - GCSE Religious Studies .... Argumentative essay on abortion. Argumentative Abortion Essay â Argumentative essay on abortion for .... How To Create A Best Abortion Argumentative Essay? | Grademiners.com. Abortion Essay - GCSE Religious Studies (Philosophy & Ethics) - Marked .... A Discursive Essay on Abortion - GCSE Religious Studies (Philosophy .... Trump pushes anti-abortion agenda to build culture that 'cherishes innocent life'. I had an abortion. Why is none of your business. - The Washington Post. Questions surface as states pass abortion laws. Argumentative Essay on Pros and Cons of Abortion | Abortion Rights .... argumentative essay - abortion - completed | Abortion | Birth Control. Free Argumentative Essay Examples: Topics, Outline, Samples. Argumentative Essay on Abortion - PHDessay.com. Argumentative essay, abortion - Warning: TT: undefined function: 32 Why .... Abortion Argumentative Essay | English - Year 11 SACE | Thinkswap. Abortion Argumentative Essay | Essay on Abortion Argumentative for .... Free Abortion Argumentative Essay Sample | Essay-On-Line.com. Essay Writer for All Kinds of Papers - good thesis statement for being .... ď¸ Abortion pro life arguments essay. Pro Choice Argumentative Essay .... Argumentative Abortion Essay. Argumentative essay on abortion should be legal. Argumentative Essay On Abortion Thesis â resscamthamptran site. College Essay: Argumentative essay examples on abortion. Abortion Essays Pro Life - Abortion Debate Essay | Bartleby. Argumentative essays for abortion - writefiction581.web.fc2.com. Write my essay - discursive essay for and against abortion - 2017/10/10. Argument essay about abortion facts - writersdoubt.web.fc2.com. Essay For Abortion. Abortion Essays Free. persuasive speeches on abortion. The relevancy of abortion essay - articlehealthkart.x.fc2.com. Abortion persuasive essay 3 - articlesyellow.x.fc2.com Abortion Argumentative Essay
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How to Write Critical Analysis Essay with Examples. Critical Analysis Essay 101: How to Write a Literary Analysis. Check My Essay: Critical essay examples.
Respond by clarifying or expanding your understanding of the role of.docxcarlstromcurtis
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Respond by clarifying or expanding your understanding of the role of a theoretical or conceptual framework in qualitative research. Search and locate a relevant article that uses a similar lens or an article that takes a different approach to support your response. Use proper APA format and citations.
Looking from a Theoretical Lens Perspective
      Theory and research are interrelated in many ways: Theory frames what we look at, how we think and look at it. It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important questions. It suggests ways for us to make sense of research data. Theory enables us to connect a single study to the immense base of knowledge to which other researchers contribute. It helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree. Theory increases a researcherâs awareness of interconnections and of the broader significance of data (Neuman, 1997).
 Theories are, by their nature, abstract and provide a selective and one-sided account of the many-sided concrete social world. The theory allows the researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete, the theoretical and the empirical, thought statements and observational statements etc. Â
 Social theory informs our understanding of issues, which, in turn, assists us in making research decisions and making sense of the world. Theories play an important role in the development of the research questions and the goals of the study as well as throughout the entire process designing and engaging the research (Ravitch & Riggan, 2012).Â
 We can examine issues of race and ethnicity, which is my point of interest through three major sociological perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. For this discussion, I will only develop the Conflict theory as an example of a theory in Race and ethnicity.
Under conflict theory, in order to hold onto their distinctive social status, power, and possessions, privileged groups are invested in seeing that no competition for resources arises from minority groups. The powerful may even be ready to resort to extreme acts of violence against others to protect their interests. Thus, members of underprivileged groups may retaliate with violence in an attempt to improve their circumstances. Â
            Conflict theories are often applied to inequalities of gender, social class, education, race, and ethnicity. A conflict theory perspective of U.S. history would examine the numerous past and current struggles between the white ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities, noting specific conflicts that have arisen when the dominant group perceived a threat from the minority group. In the late nineteenth century, the rising power of black Americans after the Civil War resulted in draconian Jim Crow laws that severely limited black political and social.
 For example, Vivien Thomas (1910â1985), the black surgical technician who helped develop the groundbreaking surgical technique that saves ...
Violence Essay | Essay on Violence for Students and Children in English .... Essay writing on violence against women || How to write essay on .... An Analysis of Violence in Public Schooling - Free Essay Example .... What are the Possible Causes and Signs of Domestic Violence - Free .... Domestic Violence Essay | Legal Studies - Year 11 HSC | Thinkswap. Essay | Violence | Crimes | Prueba gratuita de 30 dĂas | Scribd. Dissertation 11100 Domestic Violence Essay Thesis â Movie comparison .... College Argumentative Essay Violence on Television Effects Children .... Youth Violence Essay Example for Free - 733 Words | EssayPay. Violence in Video Games Essay | Essay on Violence in Video Games for .... Globalcompose.com sample essay on the purpose of use of violence in aâŚ. 004 Essay Example On Crime And Violence ~ Thatsnotus. Frightening Media Violence Essay Topics ~ Thatsnotus. Essay on Domestic Violence | LW252 - Criminal Law B - Notre Dame .... Youth Violence Essay | Essay on Youth Violence for Students and .... Sample Essay on Violence. Problem Of Violence in Schools - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Legal Studies Essay on Domestic Violence | Legal Studies - Year 12 HSC .... Essay on violence in schools - Get Help From Custom College Essay .... Free Sample Essay on Violence against Women. Students Honored for 'Stop the Violence' Essays | Sarasota, FL Patch. Domestic Violence Essay. Domestic Violence Argumentative Essay - PHDessay.com. Reasons Of Violence In Schools - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Gun Violence Essay - Marc Kirchner ENG 201 18 February 2018 What are We ....
How To Hire An Essay Writer For Your Paper? Quick Steps!. 9 Tips For Hiring The Best Essay Writer in 2023 - FotoLog. Hire the Best White Paper Writer Online at Essays-Writer.net. How to Hire a College Essay Writer Online for Your Papers?. Hire Professional Online Essay Writer to Get Your Essays Completed .... Hire A Narrative Essay Writer Online For An A+ Essay. Top Reasons For Hiring A Pro Essay Writer Online. 3 Key Reasons To Hire Professional Essay Writers. Hiring Essay Writers: Is It Safe and Legit? - Scoopify. Top Tips to Hire Professional Essay Writers. Essay Writer For Hire | CustomEssayMeister.com. Tips for Hiring an Essay Writer - Streaming Words. Essay Writer: Hire Professional Essay Writers Online. Professional Essay Writers For Hire - YouTube. Best Professional Essay Writers for Hire: Cheap but Vetted. To hire professional Australian essay writers just click on this link .... Freelance Essay Writing Jobs: How to Apply Online? | SOEG JOBS. Tips to-hire-professional-writers-for-essay-writing-services. Formidable Essay Writers For Hire ~ Thatsnotus. Hire essay writer - College Homework Help and Online Tutoring.. Get the best essay writers for hire for your assignments.
Administrative Theory & Praxis, 37 227â241, 2015Copyright #.docxcoubroughcosta
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Administrative Theory & Praxis, 37: 227â241, 2015
Copyright # 2015 Public Administration Theory Network
ISSN: 1084-1806 print/1949-0461 online
DOI: 10.1080/10841806.2015.1083824
Inserting Frontier into Dichotomies: Politics,
Administration, and Agonistic Pluralism
R. McGreggor Cawley
University of Wyoming
This article employs the concept of âfrontier,â from Chantal Mouffeâs political theory, to present an
interpretation of the political significance of dichotomies generally, and then applies it to Woodrow
Wilsonâs formulation of the politics/administration dichotomy. The central premise is that
dichotomies, rather than a source of frustration, serve important and necessary purposes for political
and administrative life in a discursive landscape shaped by values pluralism and liberalism. In
pursuing this premise, the article suggests that Frederick Jackson Turnerâs thesis about the
American frontier may have influenced Wilsonâs thinking. The article concludes with comment
regarding the possible utility of the presented argument for contemporary public administration.
What Deborah Stone (2012, p. 2) says of paradoxes can be applied equally well to dichotomies:
They âare nothing but trouble ⌠and political life is full of them.â The primary problem is that a
dichotomy presents opposing categories that usually make sense in the abstract but turn out to
be far less helpful for navigating the twists and turns of practical governing. Exasperating as this
may be, the situation is exacerbated by the fact that major political controversies frequently
entail traversing multiple dichotomies. Thus, difficult as unpacking any one dichotomy is,
the task of mapping the interactions among several of them is roughly analogous to unraveling
the Gordian Knot without the benefit of Alexanderâs sword.
While perhaps less dramatic than Alexanderâs solution, the argument I pursue in this
article is that a concept taken from Chantal Mouffe provides a way to unravel at least some
of the knot-like character of dichotomies in the governing process. Mouffe is an unlikely
source for my task in some respects. The centerpiece of her project has been to reclaim
and revitalize a leftist political critique in the face of the apparent âcollapseâ of Communism
around the world (Mouffe, 2005, p. 1). As such, her approach is more attentive to encour-
aging and sustaining political conflict than the governing process, from an administrative
perspective. For my purposes, however, one of the concepts from her theory strikes me as
useful, and as I will argue, may even have a rather surprising connection with the foundation
of American public administration.
In simple terms, Mouffe proposes envisioning the oppositions in a dichotomy as being
separated, not by a clearly delineated boundary, but rather by a âfrontierâ that âis not given once
and for all but constructed and constantly shiftingâ (p. 51). Adopting this view leads to at least
three points. First, dichotomies are concept.
Ottoman Empire Essay. Ottoman empire religious tolerance essayKimberly Pulley
Â
The Ottoman Empire Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. The Ottoman Empire golden age Research Paper Example | Topics and Well .... Read a Superb History Sample Essay on ÂŤDiplomatic History: The Ottoman .... PPT - Ottoman Empire Imperialism and Modernity PowerPoint Presentation .... In what ways was the Ottoman Empire different to its West European Essay. Ming ottoman comparative sample essay. Ottoman Empire Study Resources.
How to Write Critical Analysis Essay with Examples. Critical Analysis Essay 101: How to Write a Literary Analysis. Check My Essay: Critical essay examples.
Respond by clarifying or expanding your understanding of the role of.docxcarlstromcurtis
Â
Respond by clarifying or expanding your understanding of the role of a theoretical or conceptual framework in qualitative research. Search and locate a relevant article that uses a similar lens or an article that takes a different approach to support your response. Use proper APA format and citations.
Looking from a Theoretical Lens Perspective
      Theory and research are interrelated in many ways: Theory frames what we look at, how we think and look at it. It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important questions. It suggests ways for us to make sense of research data. Theory enables us to connect a single study to the immense base of knowledge to which other researchers contribute. It helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree. Theory increases a researcherâs awareness of interconnections and of the broader significance of data (Neuman, 1997).
 Theories are, by their nature, abstract and provide a selective and one-sided account of the many-sided concrete social world. The theory allows the researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete, the theoretical and the empirical, thought statements and observational statements etc. Â
 Social theory informs our understanding of issues, which, in turn, assists us in making research decisions and making sense of the world. Theories play an important role in the development of the research questions and the goals of the study as well as throughout the entire process designing and engaging the research (Ravitch & Riggan, 2012).Â
 We can examine issues of race and ethnicity, which is my point of interest through three major sociological perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. For this discussion, I will only develop the Conflict theory as an example of a theory in Race and ethnicity.
Under conflict theory, in order to hold onto their distinctive social status, power, and possessions, privileged groups are invested in seeing that no competition for resources arises from minority groups. The powerful may even be ready to resort to extreme acts of violence against others to protect their interests. Thus, members of underprivileged groups may retaliate with violence in an attempt to improve their circumstances. Â
            Conflict theories are often applied to inequalities of gender, social class, education, race, and ethnicity. A conflict theory perspective of U.S. history would examine the numerous past and current struggles between the white ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities, noting specific conflicts that have arisen when the dominant group perceived a threat from the minority group. In the late nineteenth century, the rising power of black Americans after the Civil War resulted in draconian Jim Crow laws that severely limited black political and social.
 For example, Vivien Thomas (1910â1985), the black surgical technician who helped develop the groundbreaking surgical technique that saves ...
Violence Essay | Essay on Violence for Students and Children in English .... Essay writing on violence against women || How to write essay on .... An Analysis of Violence in Public Schooling - Free Essay Example .... What are the Possible Causes and Signs of Domestic Violence - Free .... Domestic Violence Essay | Legal Studies - Year 11 HSC | Thinkswap. Essay | Violence | Crimes | Prueba gratuita de 30 dĂas | Scribd. Dissertation 11100 Domestic Violence Essay Thesis â Movie comparison .... College Argumentative Essay Violence on Television Effects Children .... Youth Violence Essay Example for Free - 733 Words | EssayPay. Violence in Video Games Essay | Essay on Violence in Video Games for .... Globalcompose.com sample essay on the purpose of use of violence in aâŚ. 004 Essay Example On Crime And Violence ~ Thatsnotus. Frightening Media Violence Essay Topics ~ Thatsnotus. Essay on Domestic Violence | LW252 - Criminal Law B - Notre Dame .... Youth Violence Essay | Essay on Youth Violence for Students and .... Sample Essay on Violence. Problem Of Violence in Schools - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Legal Studies Essay on Domestic Violence | Legal Studies - Year 12 HSC .... Essay on violence in schools - Get Help From Custom College Essay .... Free Sample Essay on Violence against Women. Students Honored for 'Stop the Violence' Essays | Sarasota, FL Patch. Domestic Violence Essay. Domestic Violence Argumentative Essay - PHDessay.com. Reasons Of Violence In Schools - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Gun Violence Essay - Marc Kirchner ENG 201 18 February 2018 What are We ....
How To Hire An Essay Writer For Your Paper? Quick Steps!. 9 Tips For Hiring The Best Essay Writer in 2023 - FotoLog. Hire the Best White Paper Writer Online at Essays-Writer.net. How to Hire a College Essay Writer Online for Your Papers?. Hire Professional Online Essay Writer to Get Your Essays Completed .... Hire A Narrative Essay Writer Online For An A+ Essay. Top Reasons For Hiring A Pro Essay Writer Online. 3 Key Reasons To Hire Professional Essay Writers. Hiring Essay Writers: Is It Safe and Legit? - Scoopify. Top Tips to Hire Professional Essay Writers. Essay Writer For Hire | CustomEssayMeister.com. Tips for Hiring an Essay Writer - Streaming Words. Essay Writer: Hire Professional Essay Writers Online. Professional Essay Writers For Hire - YouTube. Best Professional Essay Writers for Hire: Cheap but Vetted. To hire professional Australian essay writers just click on this link .... Freelance Essay Writing Jobs: How to Apply Online? | SOEG JOBS. Tips to-hire-professional-writers-for-essay-writing-services. Formidable Essay Writers For Hire ~ Thatsnotus. Hire essay writer - College Homework Help and Online Tutoring.. Get the best essay writers for hire for your assignments.
Administrative Theory & Praxis, 37 227â241, 2015Copyright #.docxcoubroughcosta
Â
Administrative Theory & Praxis, 37: 227â241, 2015
Copyright # 2015 Public Administration Theory Network
ISSN: 1084-1806 print/1949-0461 online
DOI: 10.1080/10841806.2015.1083824
Inserting Frontier into Dichotomies: Politics,
Administration, and Agonistic Pluralism
R. McGreggor Cawley
University of Wyoming
This article employs the concept of âfrontier,â from Chantal Mouffeâs political theory, to present an
interpretation of the political significance of dichotomies generally, and then applies it to Woodrow
Wilsonâs formulation of the politics/administration dichotomy. The central premise is that
dichotomies, rather than a source of frustration, serve important and necessary purposes for political
and administrative life in a discursive landscape shaped by values pluralism and liberalism. In
pursuing this premise, the article suggests that Frederick Jackson Turnerâs thesis about the
American frontier may have influenced Wilsonâs thinking. The article concludes with comment
regarding the possible utility of the presented argument for contemporary public administration.
What Deborah Stone (2012, p. 2) says of paradoxes can be applied equally well to dichotomies:
They âare nothing but trouble ⌠and political life is full of them.â The primary problem is that a
dichotomy presents opposing categories that usually make sense in the abstract but turn out to
be far less helpful for navigating the twists and turns of practical governing. Exasperating as this
may be, the situation is exacerbated by the fact that major political controversies frequently
entail traversing multiple dichotomies. Thus, difficult as unpacking any one dichotomy is,
the task of mapping the interactions among several of them is roughly analogous to unraveling
the Gordian Knot without the benefit of Alexanderâs sword.
While perhaps less dramatic than Alexanderâs solution, the argument I pursue in this
article is that a concept taken from Chantal Mouffe provides a way to unravel at least some
of the knot-like character of dichotomies in the governing process. Mouffe is an unlikely
source for my task in some respects. The centerpiece of her project has been to reclaim
and revitalize a leftist political critique in the face of the apparent âcollapseâ of Communism
around the world (Mouffe, 2005, p. 1). As such, her approach is more attentive to encour-
aging and sustaining political conflict than the governing process, from an administrative
perspective. For my purposes, however, one of the concepts from her theory strikes me as
useful, and as I will argue, may even have a rather surprising connection with the foundation
of American public administration.
In simple terms, Mouffe proposes envisioning the oppositions in a dichotomy as being
separated, not by a clearly delineated boundary, but rather by a âfrontierâ that âis not given once
and for all but constructed and constantly shiftingâ (p. 51). Adopting this view leads to at least
three points. First, dichotomies are concept.
Ottoman Empire Essay. Ottoman empire religious tolerance essayKimberly Pulley
Â
The Ottoman Empire Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. The Ottoman Empire golden age Research Paper Example | Topics and Well .... Read a Superb History Sample Essay on ÂŤDiplomatic History: The Ottoman .... PPT - Ottoman Empire Imperialism and Modernity PowerPoint Presentation .... In what ways was the Ottoman Empire different to its West European Essay. Ming ottoman comparative sample essay. Ottoman Empire Study Resources.
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Childhood Memories Essay. Essay on memories of childhood. My Childhood Memor...Kimberly Pulley
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Memories From the Childhood Free Essay Example. Childhood Memories - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com. Top Childhood Memory Essay ~ Thatsnotus. 024 Memories Essay Example ~ Thatsnotus. My Childhood Memories Essay | Essay on My Childhood Memories for .... Essay about a favorite childhood memory. Childhood Memories Essay | Essay on Childhood Memories for Students and .... Childhood Memories - GCSE Drama - Marked by Teachers.com. Childhood memory Essays [ PDF ] 200 and 500 words . - Freetestpractices .... 005 My Favorite Memory Essay High School Childhood Memories Narrative .... Childhood memories essays for students. My Childhood Memories (400 Words) - PHDessay.com. Childhood Memories - GCSE Miscellaneous - Marked by Teachers.com. Childhood Memories- Essay for Bignnerrs and school boys & girls. English worksheets: Essay - Childhood memories. Essay on Childhood Memories in 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 Words. Childhood Memories. - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com. 012 Childhood Memories Essay Example 91 Thumb ~ Thatsnotus.
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Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
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In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
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A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
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Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
An Alternate Use Of The Uses Of Argument A Feminist Perceptive Adaptation Of The Toulmin Model
1. University of Windsor
University of Windsor
Scholarship at UWindsor
Scholarship at UWindsor
OSSA Conference Archive OSSA 6
Jun 1st, 9:00 AM - 5:00 PM
An Alternate Use of the Uses of Argument: A Feminist/Perceptive
An Alternate Use of the Uses of Argument: A Feminist/Perceptive
Adaptation of the Toulmin Model
Adaptation of the Toulmin Model
Keith S. Lloyd
Kent State University Stark
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/ossaarchive
Part of the Philosophy Commons
Lloyd, Keith S., "An Alternate Use of the Uses of Argument: A Feminist/Perceptive Adaptation of the
Toulmin Model" (2005). OSSA Conference Archive. 39.
https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/ossaarchive/OSSA6/papers/39
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Scholarship at UWindsor. It has been accepted for inclusion in OSSA Conference Archive by an authorized
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2. An Alternate Use of the Uses of Argument: A Feminist/Perceptive
Adaptation of the Toulmin Model
KEITH S. LLOYD
Department of English
Kent State University Stark
North Canton, Ohio USA 44720
klloyd@stark.kent.edu
ABSTRACT: Though a segment of feminists have questioned the combative, logical, objective nature of
academic writing and presentation, their critique has seldom extended to the most widely used model in
composition and communication, Stephen Toulminâs Informal Model of argument (1958), which
terminologically relates to combative, logical and legal terminologies (staking or possessing legal and
âwarrantedâ âclaimsâ on âdataâ). Toulminâs model, however, adapted to a visual rather than legal metaphor,
fits well with the less confrontational, more personal and contextual approach espoused by some feminists
and many argument theorists. This essay offers an adaptation of Toulminâs six-part model based in a visual
metaphor, adding three more parts: âInterrelated Perceptionsâ (to partially account for argument
complexities; âField Specific Horizonsâ (similar to Toulminâs âfields,â context of evaluation); and
âHistorical/Cultural Horizon,â (using Gadamerâs, 1989, hermeneutical historical concept to further
contextualize arguments. The model then responds to two key feminist and argumentation theorist
concerns, replacing the argument-as-war metaphorical mapping of argument relations, and personalizing
and contextualizing arguments as to historical, social, and cultural situation.
KEY WORDS: argumentation, feminism, Stephen Toulmin, informal argument, agonism, perception
A significant segment of feminists of various disciplines, from the late 1980s into the
1990s, began to question the common agonistic (from the Greek, agon, âstruggleâ)
concept of academic writing due to its âobjectiveâ and âcombativeâ nature (cf. Annas,
1995, Tompkins, 1987; Frey, 1990; Flynn, 1988; Gearhart, 1979; Foss and Griffin, 1995;
Lamb, 1991; Spender 1985). For instance, Pamela Annas writes that the academy values
writing that is âabstract, logical and impersonal,â rather than âsensual, a particular
problem for female writers, many of whom tend toward the latter type of writingâ (1995,
p. 362). Olivia Frey (1990) questioned academic argument as the âpreferred mode of
discussionâ (509) because it âmay not fit the values, the perceptual frameworks, and the
ways of writing of many women across the countryâ (1990, pp. 507-508). Jane Tompkins
applied the problem to her writing as a scholar:
The political problem posed by my need to reply to the essay is this: to adhere to the conventions
is to uphold a male standard of rationality that militates against women being recognized as
culturally legitimate sources of knowledge. To break with the conventions is to risk not being
heard at allâ (1987, pp. 170-71).
Sally Miller Gearhart (1979) goes so far as to conclude: âany intent to persuade is an act
of violenceâ (p. 195).
Individual critiques found some verification in field research in gender. The
research of Deborah Tannen (1993) confirmed that male students are more likely to be
3. AN ALTERNATE USE OF THE USES OF ARGUMENT 317
comfortable attacking readings and might find the inclusion of personal anecdotes
irrelevant and 'soft.' Women were more likely to resist discussions they perceived as
hostile, and women in her classes were most likely to offer personal anecdotes (125).
Elizabeth Flynn (1988) concluded, drawing upon the work of researchers who found
similar patterns in male and female psychology, (i.e. Choderow; Gilligan; Belenky,
Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule), as well as her own studies, that due to an âimbalance in
the social orderâ women may differ in their âdevelopmental processesâ and in their
âinteractions with othersâ in ways that affect their writing processes (p. 425).
Such critiques, as might be expected, enabled connections with feminists and
others concerned with revising academic argumentation and writing (cf. Bridwell-
Bowles, 1992; Brody, 1993; Chase, 1990; Emmel, 1996; Resch, and Tenny; Friend,
2002; Kraemer, 1991; Lamb, 1991; Tedesco 1991), but also (ironically) met with
significant opposition because of their seemingly âessentialistâ dichotomization of
masculine and feminine âstylesâ or approaches (Bruner, 1996; Easley, 1997), their
assumptions about the relation of women to combative language (Jarrett, 1991), and/or
their logical inconsistencyâi.e. arguing for a non-combative model (Fulkerson, 1996).
Cohen (1995), in particular, objects to Gearhartâs equating persuasion with violence as
âan attitude that,â he insists, âeffectively puts an end to all rational discourse and any
possible exchange of ideasâ (p. 179).
In light of these criticisms, calls for a âfeministâ argumentation have been re-
interpreted as part of a general trend in argumentation away from agonistic models of
argument (Gilbert, 1994; Cohen, 1995; Fulkerson, 1996; see also Farrar, Musgrove,
Stewart, and Cosby, 1995), as one option among other options (Lynch, 1997; George and
Cooper; Sefcovic and Bifano, 2004), and/or as a needed perspective with qualifications
(Fulkerson, 1996; Bruner, 1996; Easley, 1997).
This essay begins there, positing not only that feminist perspectives express a
trend in argumentation itself, but also provide, with qualifications, an opportunity to
reconceptualize argument. An adaptation of Toulminâs model to a visual metaphor
provides an alternative for those who question current metaphors of argument. It also
provides a more connective basis for thinking through arguments of all types, and may be
used as a corollary or counter example to Toulminâs original. I do not offer it as THE
feminist alternative, just one suggested by the particular strains of feminism outlined
here.
The feminist critique focuses on two key problemsâantagonistic relations and
impersonal objectivityâboth related to what Fulkerson (1996) calls the âargument-as-
warâ âconceptual metaphor.â Fundamental to our common understanding of argument--
âarguments are conceived as having an essentially adversarial structureâ (Cohen, 1995, p.
179, cf. Fulkerson, 1996; and Lakoff and Johnson, 1980, âConceptualâ), it is not just an
isolated image. It âmanages to permeate to all corners of discourse about argument and
our argument practicesâ (Cohen, 1995, p.178).
The war metaphor casts the recipient of the argument as Other, as the
âopposition,â an enemy, someone to be convinced or defeated. The language of Toulminâs
model (1958) comfortably aligns with such a stance, implying that audiences function as
positions to be rebutted or diverted (qualification), and the arguer as someone who legally
(with the help of a âwarrantâ) stakes a âclaimâ or takes possession of the objective subject
(âdataâ). A feminist alternative sensitive to the concerns raised here should be based in a
4. KEITH S. LLOYD
318
more connective and personal metaphorical matrix (using the feminine origins of the
term intentionally) of associations, such as the one available in a visual metaphor:
Toulminâs Terms Feminist/Connective Terms
Claims Perception
Warrants Chosen Lens
Data Situated Observation
Qualifier Given this lens
Rebuttal Outside the lens
Backing Frame of the Lens
The vision metaphor returns argument from its practical equivalence to agon to its
original Greek meaning, to âmake clear.â The vision analogy maps the âclaimsâ complex
within a perspectival matrix; âperceptionsâ of âsituated observationsâ (temporal, changing,
subject to experience) occur through âchosenâ lenses (though they may seem natural or
commonly understood), and given that lens, certain things are revealed (âGiven this lensâ)
and/or hidden (âOutside the lensâ). The model also illustrates that the lenses themselves
are âframedâ by certain belief systems or fields of vision.
The model as a whole implies that persons create and maintain perspectives, and
that those perspectives are always mediated (drawing from some implications of
Toulminâs âwarrantâ) by the assumptive lenses of particular fields and cultures. Seeing,
then, is a cultural, as well as individual act, and different (cultural) lenses create different
perspectives. âPerceptionâ implies flexibility and changeability, since perceptions change
with time and circumstance. The superordinate image of the law court and its agonistic
associations is replaced by âfield of visionâ associations that emphasize the
personal/cultural positions and situations that enable us to see what we see. Toulmin
himself stresses the importance of the situatedness of argument: âfor me all questions
about knowledge have to be situatedâ (Olsen, 1993, p. 296).
This model, then, doesnât change the basic structure of how we argue, but it does
modify the metaphor and context we use to think it through. Framing arguments in a
visual metaphor may not eliminate agonistic tendencies; at least it does not inherently
promote them, and it potentially personalizes and contextualizes argument as something
we see or offer or share (âLook at this⌠Do you see what I see?â), rather than something
we defend, justify, or present for analysis (âThis is reasonable and logical; you should
believe itâ).
A switch to a visual metaphor reflects one concern shared by some feminists and
argument theorists, changing the argument-as-war approach. This concern is relevant, not
just because women or others may be enculturated in certain less agonistic ways, but
because agonism may not be the best model of human relations. Even if we, as Jarrett
(1991) suggests, do not want to eliminate conflict from argument, posing argument as
sharing situated perspectives rather than as abstract case presentation could in any case
promote more effective conflict interactions.
The feminists mentioned here seek to include the personal, the invitational, not
just to âfeminizeâ argument, but also to highlight the interconnected, situational,
historical, cultural context from which we make our arguments. Argument as agon sets
an often abstract relation between arguer and audience, as well as arguer and subject
5. AN ALTERNATE USE OF THE USES OF ARGUMENT 319
matter. In the following sections I offer some parameters for understanding the visual
modelâthe importance of metaphors, parallel arguments in argumentation theory. Based
on this research, I suggest a fuller model that maps argument perceptions as occurring in
specific historical, social, cultural and political âhorizons.â The concept of horizons
encourages us to consider how we understand arguments, as not only logical, but
hermeneutical endeavors (Ehrenhaus, 1988).
PERCEPTIONS AND METAPHORS
According to Lakoff and Johnson, âmany, if not all, of our abstract concepts are defined
in significant part by conceptual metaphorâ (1980, âMetaphors,â p. 128), which are not
just âtropesâ or rhetorical devices; they generate (perhaps Gender-ate) perspectives. The
âargument is warâ metaphor is âreflected in our language in a variety of expressions,â
such as âYour claims are indefensible;â âHe attacked every weak point in my argument.â
âHis criticisms were right on target;â âI demolished his argument;â âHe shot down all my
argumentsâ (âConceptual,â p. 454). We do not just talk argument is war, âMany of the
things we do in argument are partially structured by the concept of warâ (p. 455).
Interestingly, gender seems to map their examples, lending off-hand credence to the
feminist critique. They offer that, in an imagined culture where argument is âviewed as a
dance,â ⌠âthe goal being to perform in a balanced and aesthetic way,â ⌠âpeople would
view arguments differently, experience them differently, carry them out differently, and
talk about them differentlyâ (p. 455). The visual metaphor already used in understanding
(âI see what you meanâŚâ), could help us escape for a while argument as agon. Even
Toulmin, in Uses of Argument mixes relational and legal metaphors, noting that warrants
âact as bridges and authorize the sort of step to which our particular argument commits
usâ (1958, p. 98).
Similarly, models, a type of extended metaphor, provide some structure for
generating or interpreting arguments. According to Michael Pemberton, models provide
âconceptual frameworksâ (p. 42) through which we understand certain subjects,
functioning as what Kuhn refers to as âpreferred analogiesâ (p. 45). He distinguishes,
following Rom Harre, the subject of a model, that which the model is supposed to
represent, and the source of a model, basically âthe medium or analogous system on
which the model is basedâ (p. 45). In the present controversy, the problem is with the
source of the analogy and its relation to the subject, the matrix of war analogies used to
map argumentation.
Pemberton notes that âmodels will always be partial isomorphs of their subjectsâ
(p. 45); this explains two aspects of the problem. Although the argument-as-war model
(cf. Palczewski, 1996, for an excellent overview of this analogy) adequately explains
many aspects of argument as is, it does not explain others, especially non-aggressive
motives for arguing or non-agonistic arguments (cf. Fulkerson, 1996, p.6); it also reflects
some of the more negative aspects of human relations--the desire to dominate and
control. For this reason, Easley (1997), before teaching a course on argumentative
writing, âcouldnât help feeling that the teaching of argumentative writing was basically an
anti-feminist activityâ (p.1). Re-mapping argument with a different metaphor similarly
might miss some aspects of argumentation, but will bring other elements that highlight
how perspective and situation interact.
6. KEITH S. LLOYD
320
So far, feminists have not offered a model of less agonistic argument that clearly
identifies an alternate argument structure. A feminist âmodelâ might seem an oxymoron,
given the feminist critique of the impersonal and objective nature of academic writing.
But models based in relational analogies may function inter-relationally, such as Foss and
Griffinâs (1995) âinvitationalâ rhetoric or Rogerian argument. In any case, as Palczewski
writes, âwe need to open up studies of argumentation so that they address not only
adversarial processes (which, in some instances, are indispensable) but also consensual
processes (which, in other instances, are indispensable)â (p. 5-6).
PERSPECTIVES ON ALTERNATE METAPHORS
The key question is whether a less combative model of argumentation would offer greater
possibilities for women in general and/or argumentation as a whole?
As argumentation theorist Michael Gilbert (1994) notes, many feminist authors
make a reasonable case for supposing that the style of argument fostered by the C-L [critical
logical] tradition is preponderantly male, and that this disparity places an unfair obstacle in the
path of those women who feel themselves excluded from the official arenas where one is required
to argue âreasonablyâ(p. 110-111).
Composition scholar Richard Fulkerson (1996), though he questions what he
perceives as the âexaggeratedâ and âself-contradictoryâ claims of many feminist critiques,
agrees that
If it is true that women are socialized to be less aggressive, less competitive, less blunt than men
(of even if there is something more basic such as an evolved tendency toward nurturance), then
conceptualizing argument as a battle in pursuit of victory and dominance over the other side
indeed makes argument a maleâs game (p. 9).
He offers the alternate metaphor âpartnershipâ (p. 11) to emphasize that we can argue
together from our common need to understand each other.
Feminists offer other approaches, notably Foss and Griffinâs (1995) âinvitational
rhetoric,â mentioned before, where conclusions are âofferingsâ and the rhetor/audience
relation is defined by âsafety, value and freedomâ (p. 10) rather than distrust, attack, and
coercion. Maryann Ayim (1991) recommends a similar âaffiliative nurturant style,â as
opposed to the âdominant confrontational styleâ (p. 79). However, these approaches lack
specific argument structure.
In the field of argumentation, other writers offer similar criticisms. Cohen (1995),
writing from philosophical/educational perspective, cites feminist critiques as just one
among many reasons to challenge the argument-as-war metaphor, suggesting that the war
approach creates âcasualtiesâ out of those who lose and âargumentative arguers:
proficient, pedantic, and pettyâ out of those who win. He laments, âGood trial lawyers
should not be the only recognized legitimate end product of an educational systemâ (p.
181), which Toulminâs legal metaphor seems to imply is the goal of argumentation.
Wayne Brockriede (1972) characterizes argument as involving three kinds of
relationships: ârape,â âseduction,â and âloveâ (p. 3-5). He observes, ââŚthe adversary
system in all of its glory manifests rape when one adversary sees another as an object or
an inferior being and when he intends to destroy his opponentâ (p. 3-4). Seduction,
7. AN ALTERNATE USE OF THE USES OF ARGUMENT 321
according to Brockriede, occurs when âthe arguer âsees the relationship as unilateral and
does not look at the coarguer except from his own point of viewâ (p. 4). Love occurs
when arguers promote âa bilateral relationship,â see âa person as a person,â and desire
âpower parityâ (p. 5).
Gilbert (1994) finds feminist critiques compatible with his view of âcoalescent
communication,â âcritical reasoning that embraces inclusion, agreement, and
connectednessâ (p. 96). Arguers should seek to âidentify not what is wrong with an
argument, but what are the points of agreement and disagreementâ minimizing
disagreement by finding what âcrucially requires disagreement as opposed to what is
merely an inessential accompaniment of the opposed positionâ (p. 96).
His metaphor, âcoalescence,â âmeans combining two things into one whole or
bringing separate things togetherâ (p. 96). Arguers do not have to agree, but âfind the
aspects with which we can agree, sympathize, or, at the very least, understandâ (p. 96).
Clearly, agonism creates antagonism. These writers call for a more egalitarian and
thoughtful relation of arguer, audience and subject matter. We need to ask how our
models of argument relate to this change. Significantly, Gilbert (1994) uses a visual
metaphor to set parameters for alternate arguments, relating his ideas to feminist views
such as Carol Gilliganâs:
What is even more important than style is focus⌠. Who a partner in a dispute is, what
connections and concerns she has, and why the issues are important to her are every bit as vital, if
not more so, than the precise representation of the premises and conclusions (p. 101-102).
THE FEMINIST/PERCEPTIVE MODEL
Though Charles Willard (1976) and others have questioned the value of Toulminâs model
for describing real life arguments (as opposed to isolated samples) the reception of
Toulmin's model has been widespread, especially in the teaching of written argument,
mostly because, as Charles Kneupper (1978) once pointed out:
ďˇ Valid syllogistic arguments are rarely found in rhetorical discourse (p. 239)
ďˇ A coherent essay could result from the development of each functional element of the Toulmin
model in the kernel argument and from tying the interrelated claims together in a conclusion (p.
240)
ďˇ The Toulmin model treats the overall functional relations of the claim and provides insight into the
structure of argument (p. 240).
For Kneupper then, and for many who use it, Toulmin's model works because it
can be rhetorical, generative, and structural, as many argument texts using the model
attest. Kneupper also believes, as does Fulkerson (1996) (though Fulkerson does not
believe we need to âteachâ the model as such) that the model provides a way for the
teacher to âcriticize the argument more specificallyâ (p. 241).
The model offered here draws upon two writers in the fields of composition and
communication who proposed alternate versions of Toulmin's model useful to a less
agonistic form of argument. In composition, Gail Stygall (1986) rejects âformal logicâ
because in teaching it we imply âthat there is one 'right' answer, one truth, one valid
approachâ (p. 7), and because it causes us to miss the fact that âreal worldâ arguing âhas
much to do with being able to envision underlying assumptionsâ (p. 7). She finds in
8. KEITH S. LLOYD
322
Field Specific and Cultural Horizons
Perspectives: the Inter-Related Perceptions
Perceptions
(Data) (Warrant) (Qualifier) (Claim)
Situated Observation #1<>Chosen Lensď Given this lens, ď Perception
Situated Observation #2 | |
Situated Observation #3 | (Conditions of Rebuttal)
etc. | Outside the Lens
|
(Backing) /
Lens Frame
Toulminâs model a way to get to these assumptions, one that is better designed ethically
because instead of implying general univocal truths, it invites students âto come to know
why and how a member of a discipline, a resident of a field, arrived where he or she didâ
(p. 11). With its stress upon the field-dependent criteria for evaluation, the model reveals
that âfactsâ come after theory, or, in Toulmin's terms, âthe warrant becomes the frame
through which the data is viewedâ (p. 8). She believes the warrant/field relations allow a
clearer understanding of how truths are created, as well as the role of individuals in
creating truth. Mixing visual and growth metaphors, she casts the âfieldsâ as gardens.
Robert Kendall (1978) shifts some of Toulminâs terminology to adapt the model
to interpersonal communication. First, he suggests we refer to arguments as
âperspectivesâ to avoid the confrontational connotations of the term argument (p. 3).
Instead of âdataâ or âfactsâ he proposes the term âperceptions,â to emphasize that the
âdataâ is only a person's perceptions of the âfactsâ (p. 5). For the âQualifierâ he proposes
âIt seems to meâ to avoid the objective appeal of the more disembodied âpresumablyâ
used by Toulmin, âas if taking for granted that everyone views data similarly and
therefore has no alternative but to arrive at the same conclusionâ (p. 5). For âclaimâ he
proposes âassertion,â to avoid the property associations with the term. Assertion,
according to Kendall, seems more of a
simple, interpretive response to an individual's perceptions... . There is no 'staking public claim' to
a position that must be recognized and recorded as accurate by anyone else using the same data,
but rather the making of a positive statement or declaration with or without support, reason, or
necessary reason [emphasis mine] (pp. 5-6).
Although âassertionâ and other emphases may not avoid the agonistic metaphor,
Kendall's model opens up ways Toulmin might be used in a feminist context. Based in
his ideas, as well as Stygallâs, I developed this visual model more sensitive to feminist
ends. Each term has next to it Toulminâs own terms:
Figure 1: A Feminist/Perceptive Model of Argument
I substituted Kendallâs âperceptionâ for Toulminâs âconclusionâ to remind the user
of the tentative nature of our ideas and that perceptions are based on observations made
9. AN ALTERNATE USE OF THE USES OF ARGUMENT 323
through experiential lenses. The remainder of the model follows the general visual
metaphor, with the âbackingâ referred to as the âframeâ for the lens.
While Toulminâs concern in offering the model was to show how we âjustifyâ
arguments, the model I offer here functions more as a hermeneutic, a way to understand
how we create arguments. Arguments not only arise from perceptions about observed
situations, they also arise within particular historical/cultural horizons.
The boundaries of the personal perceptual field that make up full arguments I call
âPerspectives,â a fuller term than perception that shows that arguments are series of
related perceptions. What Toulmin terms the âforceâ of claims would be rather their
âperceptive fitâ to observations and relation to the changing communal visual âfieldâ of
knowledgeâthe perceptual âhorizon.â
Because one feminist motive for including the personal and relational is to
question the false âobjectivityâ of argument-as-is, I add three other parts. The first,
âinterrelated perceptions,â emphasizes surrounding arguments often included within a
written or oral argument. These arguments involve various texts, people, studies,
anecdotes, interferences, etc., and serve as part of the general argument structure.
A second part, similar to Toulminâs idea of the âfieldâ where arguments are
evaluated, I refer to as âField Specific Horizons,â a term to emphasize how fields inter-
relationally shape the argument style and content. The model includes to encourage the
user to consider how the fieldâconventions, terminologies, accepted topics (similar to
Kuhnâs ânormal scienceâ)âshapes the discourse. This differs from the âLens Frameâ
(backing) in that it is less specific to the individual argument, but supports the argument
field in general, such as when the feminists who critique argument rely on perspectives
based in analogous feminist arguments (Lens Frames) that are in turn surrounded by
similar arguments within the general field of feminism and/or cultural critique.
Arguments also interact with larger cultural perspectives. Hans-Georg Gadamerâs
(1989) concept of the âhorizonâ express this relation:
Just as the individual is never simply an individual, because he [sic] is always involved with
others, so too the closed horizon that is supposed to enclose a culture is an abstraction. The
historical movement of life consists in the fact that it is never utterly bound to one standpoint, and
hence can never truly have a closed horizon. The horizon is, rather, something into which we
move and that moves with us (p. 271).
Gadamerâs metaphor expresses the larger visual relations and places the argument
in the broadest possible context. He notes that it is living, moving, that it often surrounds
us without our awareness. Challenging the notion of âhistorical objectivism,â which
falsely posits that we can know history from outside it, he offers that understanding
occurs rather when both the interpreterâs horizon and that which s/he seeks to understand
are most fully known and articulated, an active interchange. He refers to this process as
âplacing ourselves:â (271). Using the term horizon in the model serves as reminder that
arguments function best in a similar context, when the individualâs interrelation with the
historical/cultural situation horizon is fully recognized.
The Toulmin model originated in Toulminâs desire to show that arguments are
human interactions, not immutable truths based in immutable logic. His recent
terminology in Return to Reason (2001)ââreasonable doubtâ (19), âbody and forceâ (15)â
shows that the agonistic court image still very much applies to his understanding of
10. KEITH S. LLOYD
324
argumentation. Yet he holds that our arguments are situational, our answers contingent,
âour best founded beliefs ⌠uncertainâ (2001, 196). He voices the need for tolerance and
âintellectual democracyâ (99). The visual adaptation encourages such perspectives.
The suggested visual model may be used to expand the Toulmin structure into a
broader hermeneutical model. Following the feminist lead, as well as currents in the field
of argumentation, the model may be used and taught as a way to think through arguments
contextually and interpersonally, as well as to reflect upon how we create arguments. If
our perspectives are to promote what Brockriede (1972) calls âa bilateral relationship,â
and help us see âa person as a person,â and desire âpower parityâ (5), some accompanying
questions might move the arguer from the inner to the outer areas of the model where
connection with other perspectives might begin:
ďˇ What elements of the field of vision and or cultural horizon effect my perceptions or perspectives?
ďˇ What elements of the perceptual fields or cultural horizon affect the ways other interested groups
perceive the situation?
ďˇ Who stands to gain or lose given the perceptual field or horizon in question?
ďˇ What material conditions set my cultural or field horizons?
ďˇ Other arguers do not see what I see. What is different about their situation?
ďˇ What aspects of gender, class, race, ethnicity, etc., effect our perceptions?
Though not a complete solution to the argument-as-war problem, the model offers
a fairly simple structure from which we might discuss and create arguments in a fuller
manner, to help us see that we create arguments from within and reacting to very specific
contexts that shape and structure what we perceive, that our fellows in disputation react
to similar contexts, and that we may find meeting places within them. As John Berger
notes in âWays of Seeing,â (1990), âSoon after we can see, we are aware that we can be
seen. The eye of the other combines with our own eye to make it fully credible that we
are a part of the visible worldâ (p. 67). Perhaps our increasing awareness of that could
create a process of more careful and personal argumentation.
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