algae projects as CO2 sink - please contact me regarding such CO2 sequestration work for CO2 consulting services.

1. contribution 1
CONTRIBUTION
CO2 and Algae Projects
An opportunity to sequester and foster algae production
By Sam A. Rushing
$O JDH, QGXVWU 8SGDW H
30 |
The Japanese nuclear disas-ter
makes it clear the world is in
dire need of clean, safe, reliable
(renewable) energy alternatives.
Biofuels are a major component of this need;
more specifically, algae is feedstock for tomor-row’s
fuel, and the high-energy crop far ex-ceeds
other biofuel options. However, a mix
of biofuels is necessary to bridge tomorrow’s
energy demands, and reduce and sequester the
ever problematic carbon dioxide (CO2) emis-sions
glut.
CO2 is one of the essential components
required to grow algae; including sunlight,
water and nutrients. The technology is in
relatively early stages, used in smaller settings
such as breweries, but global power projects
are also interested. It may be a while before
it’s brought to full-scale commercialization,
however, all components exist—particularly a
need for high-energy biofuels. Carbon capture
and storage (CCS), or carbon sequestration, is
a growing science. This involves geologic se-questration
in oil production and coal recovery
projects—replacing recovered methane gas
with CO2, natural aquifer sinks for CO2—such
as those in the North Sea.
Of the gross total CO2 emissions daily
on a global basis, China is the highest emitter,
followed by the U.S. and the EU. CO2 by far
is the greatest greenhouse gas by volume, but
others (methane) are much worse. Sequestra-tion
means are constantly being evaluated by
those major emitters such as chemical and
power generation plants, and oil and ethanol
refineries.
Some estimates indicate at least 75 mil-lion
metric tons of CO2 are emitted daily from
a wide variety of sources. Natural processes
such as photosynthesis and natural oceanic ac-tivity
are major carbon sinks. The ocean has
traditionally absorbed about 25 million metric
tons of carbon but it’s becoming more dif-ficult
for the oceans to absorb CO2 naturally.
Many think the oceans are becoming saturated
because atmospheric CO2 is also elevated, and
the oceans’ pH is dropping toward an acidic
state, where “oceanic acidification” may be-come
a major problem. Acidification will
damage and kill marine life such as coral reefs,
perhaps indefinitely.
Algae produced for biofuels markets will
become a major component of the advanced
biofuels sector. Algae is an extraordinarily
energy-rich crop, exceeding the energy value
of soy by 30-fold. A small amount of physical
The claims and statements made in this article belong exclusively to the author(s) and do not necessarily
reflect the views of Algae Technology Business or its advertisers. All questions pertaining to this article
should be directed to the author(s).

2. contribution 1
spring 2011 | 31
space is required to produce sufficient algae to
replace all domestic petroleum needs.
Requirements
Studies suggest two pounds of CO2 on
average is utilized per each pound of algae
grown. This can be as low as one pound per
pound, and as high as three pounds of CO2
per pounds of algae. Growth settings include
raceway configurations, vertical thin sunlit
bioreactors, open ponds and coastal sea op-erations.
Best suited algae operations for CO2
are a function of strain selection, project size
and geography, and the presence of adverse
temperatures and other conditions. Should
the CO2 be delivered via pipeline, and due the
gas’ corrosiveness, the delivery system should
be constructed of a high-density polyethyl-ene
(HDPE) versus the standard, more costly
stainless steel. The CO2 would probably be in-troduced
into the pond, bioreactor or raceway
as a gas, and the commodity is stored, piped
and transported as a liquid. Small operations
might start with so-called micro-bulk storage
tanks, which can hold from 400 to 600 pounds.
Larger operations would use on site, vacuum-insulated
liquid storage vessels or refrigeration
systems to maintain pressures under 300 psig,
and temperatures near zero degrees Fahren-heit.
Delivery to the algae system might be
a series of diffusers, similar to those used in
water treatment applications for CO2; and the
piping from the storage to the application site
could be composed of stainless steel, or type
“K” copper tubing. The systems could be op-erating
on timers, with or without a flow meter,
however set to inject a given sum of CO2 into
the growth medium. The storage, deployment
and hardware for CO2 use is rather simple, but
CO2 is essential for algae growth.
It is logical to evaluate more enriched
forms of CO2 from industry, such as etha-nol
plants. The power industry is the worst
offender by volume of CO2, and the unique
nature of hot flue gas from them could apply
well to certain blue -green algae that endure
heat from the Yellowstone Park geysers. Power
plant CO2 is lean in content compared to etha-nol
refining effluent or anhydrous ammonia
production, with raw gas, water saturated basis
of 98 to 99 percent volume or greater. These
“clean sources” generally don’t include sulfur,
heavy metals or heavy hydrocarbons. The flue
gas from combustion of coal and natural gas
can range from 14 percent volume in the raw
gas with coal fired plants to 3 percent from a
turbine exhaust source. If concentrating CO2,
costs become significant but concentration has
not yet been considered in the algae project
tests and pilot ops within the power sector.
One such power plant algae project is in
Southeast Queensland, Australia, owned and
operated by MBD Energy and a research co-operative.
It is moving forward with an algae
synthesis system, whereby the Tarong Power
Station flue gas will be injected into wastewater,
which contains nutrients, along with sunshine,
for production of select algae in a (membrane-based)
closed system structured to be a large
raceway project. The algae mass is expected to
double every 24 hours and be harvested daily
and crushed to produce algae oil suitable for
biodiesel, meal for cattle feed and clean water.
The crude mass for cattle feed contains from
50 to 70 percent crude protein, and feeding
trials are being conducted at James Cook Uni-versity.
The ultimate operating project is plan-ning
an 80-hectare site sequestering more than
70,000 metric tons of CO2 from the flue gas,
and producing 11 million liters (2.9 million gal-lons)
of oil plus 25,000 metric tons of algae
meal. This form of bio-CCS algae sequestra-tion
is similar to the earth’s natural carbon
cycle, however, it is accelerated exponentially,
taking only a day. Other applications for the oil
beyond biodiesel include jet fuel production
and bioplastic materials. Beyond feed the meal
can be used in plastics and fertilizers. The algae
product yields 35 percent oil and 65 percent
meal. The project has Australian government
funding and will lead the way throughout Aus-tralia
for similar projects.
U.S. power plant algae endeavors are
underway, some are feasibility and pilot stud-ies,
many funded by U.S. DOE’s $1.4 billion
Clean Coal Power Initiative. Applications for
federal and state funding and initiatives for al-gae
based sequestration have taken place with
Arizona Public Service Company, Duke En-ergy,
NRG, Southern Company, and American
Electric Power Co; to name a few. The power
industry has been the major component of
CO2 emitters to evaluate, test and work on
developments toward sequestering CO2 via
algae growth. The methodology surrounds a
rather methodical selection of the best suited
strains of algae, usually capable of enduring
SOx , NOx and other compounds, including
heavy metals from the power plant flue gas;
as well as being tolerant to high temperatures.
Other criteria for selection of algae strains are
driven by those that yield high amounts of
oils and starches. The point of application has
been tested in bags, vertical bioreactors, race-ways
and ponds. Conceptually, the algae are
harvested daily in a large or commercial-scale
facility.
The Future’s Choice
Many forms of sequestration will be
needed beyond a cap-and-trade system. Some
estimates consider at least 50 million metric
tons of CO2 are emitted to the atmosphere
daily, beyond what the oceans, photosynthesis
and other natural means can absorb. This num-ber
is likely to grow, with the so-called BRIC
countries, growing rapidly. As they grow, so do
carbon emissions. Further, the battle against
deforestation places added stress on the whole
CO2 emissions equation, which removes a sig-nificant
natural carbon sink: photosynthesis.
Many strains of algae are being investi-gated
to fit niche markets, such as those which
retard extreme heat or cold, or grow during
the night time with minimal light. Specific
algae strains will eventually meet extreme or
unique physical conditions for growth. The
end result will be extracting the oils for fuels,
plastics and other products, and the use of the
algae meal for numerous markets. The strains
of algae may be derived from far-flung African
swamps to frozen, high altitude snowfields in
South America. The strains selected to endure
the harshest of temperatures and other physi-cal
conditions are vast, and commercialization
to fit many conditions is one of the most vi-able
concepts ever developed to meet tomor-row’s
renewable energy needs.
Sam A. Rushing
Advanced Cryogenics Ltd.
(305) 852-2597
rushing@terranova.net