3. DEFINITION
INFLAMMATION of the APPENDIX
First described in 1886 by DR. REGINALD FITZ1
Most common surgical condition requiring
emergency surgery in adults2
Remains the most common acute surgical
condition in children & major cause of childhood
morbidity5
4. DEFINITION
SIMPLE APPENDICITIS inflamed appendix, in
the absence of gangrene, perforation, or
abscess around the appendix2
COMPLICATED APPENDICITIS perforated or
gangrenous appendicitis or the presence of
peri-appendicular abscess2
5. EPIDEMIOLOGY
INCIDENCE RATE 1/1,000 (West)1, 2.5/1,000 (Philippines)
~100,000 children treated in children’s hospitals for AP each year5
MORTALITY RATE <1% (low)
GENDER male-to-female ratio is 1.4:1
AGE most common age group ––– 10–19 y/o1
1-2/10,000 children ––– BIRTH TO 4 y/o5
19-28/10,000 children ––– <14 y/o
RACE WHITES>BLACKS; more frequently in WESTernized societies, but
increasing in African Americans, Asians, and Native Americans
SEASON peak incidence in AUTUMN and SPRING
LIFETIME RISKS:
MALE3
8.6%
FEMALE3
6.7%
CHILDREN5
~7%
6. ETIOLOGY
EXACT CAUSE not completely understood1
ASSOCIATED FACTORS1,5:
• FECALITHS or APPENDICOLITHS common
in developed countries with refined, low-
fiber diets
• INCOMPLETELY DIGESTED FOOD RESIDUE
to include foreign body ingestion
• LYMPHOID HYPERPLASIA SUBMUCOSAL
LYMPHOID FOLLICLES few at birth but
multiply steadily during childhood
7. ETIOLOGY
ASSOCIATED FACTORS (con’t)1,5:
• INTRALUMINAL SCARRING blunt trauma
• TUMORS OR MALIGNANCIES carcinoid tumors
• MICROORGANISMS:
a. BACTERIA Yersinia, Salmonella, & Shigella spp.,
b. VIRUSES Mumps, Coxsackievirus B & Adenovirus,
Infectious mononucleosis
c. OTHERS Ascaris lumbricoides
• OTHER DISEASES:
a. IBD1 for adults)
b. CYSTIC FIBROSIS5 for children
9. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Vascular
Thrombosis
Ischemic
Necrosis
PERFORATION
GANGRENOUS APPENDICITIS
*50% of patients with fecaliths
*Patients with S/S for >48 hrs more likely to perforate
Leak of Contents into the Omentum
and SurroundingTissues
INHIBITION OF LYMPHATIC
AND BLOOD FLOW
Abscess
Formation Peritonitis
Supportive
Thrombosis
COMPLICATIONS
*Children with perforation rate
(82% for <5yo & 100% for infants)
*Impaired arterial perfusion, ischemia
of the wall of the appendix
*Escalating diffuse abdominal pain
with rapid development of toxicity
evidenced by dehydration and signs
of sepsis including hypotension,
oliguria, acidosis, & high-grade fever
Small Bowel
Obstruction
10. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
LOCATION1:
• Right Lower Quadrant
• Right Upper Quadrant
• Left Side of the Abdomen
• Pelvis and Right flank
PRESENTATION2:
• Retrocecal/retrocolic (64%)
• Subcaecal (32%)
• Pre-ileal (1%)
• Post-ileal (2%)
• Pelvic appendix
POSITION of the appendix is a critical factor affecting presentations of signs & symptoms
11. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
PAIN (depends on the location) 1:
• IF UNUSUALLY POSITIONED – challenge in
diagnosis regarding the pain
• IF BEHIND THE CECUM OR BELOW THE
PELVIC BRIM – may prompt very little
tenderness
• IF RETROCECAL/RETROCOLIC – psoas
stretch sign
FOR ELDERLY can be subtle, nausea, anorexia, and
emesis may be the predominant complaints1
FOR VERY YOUNG atypical presentation, pain
patterns –– common1
12. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
EMESIS only mild and scant1
NAUSEA & VOMITING occur in more than half the patients, usually follow the
onset of abdominal pain by several hours
ANOREXIA so common that the diagnosis of appendicitis SHOULD BE
QUESTIONED IN ITS ABSENCE1
PELVIC APPENDICITIS more likely to present with dysuria, urinary frequency,
diarrhea, or tenesmus1
DIARRHEA & URINARY SYMPTOMS also common, particularly in cases of
perforated appendicitis when there is likely inflammation near the rectum and
possible abscess in the pelvis
FEVER common, typically low-grade unless perforation has occurred
13. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
NONSPECIFIC COMPLAINTS occur first1
Changes in bowel habits, malaise & vague,
perhaps intermittent, crampy, abdominal
pain in the EPIGASTRIC or PERIUMBILICAL
REGION1
Pain migrates to RLQ in 12–24 hours,
(sharper & localized at MCBURNEY’S POINT)1
1 = Anterior superior iliac spine
2 = Umbilicus
x = McBurney’s point
ADULTS
14. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
SAME CLASSIC PRESENTATION <50% of cases,
therefore, majority of cases of appendicitis have an
“atypical” presentation5
BEGINS INSIDIOUSLY with brief period of
generalized malaise & anorexia family is not likely
to seek consultation – assumption of “STOMACH FLU”
ESCALATES RAPIDLY with progressive abdominal pain
followed by vomiting perforation likely to occur
within 48° of the onset
PEDIA
16. MORPHOLOGY
OUTER ASPECT OF APPENDIX INVOLVED BY ACUTE
INFLAMMATION. A THICK PURULENT COATING IS SEEN TOGETHER
WITH MARKED HYPEREMIA OF THE SEROSA.
Gross Findings4
ACUTE APPENDICITIS WITH MASSIVE INFLAMMATORY INFILTRATE,
EXTENSIVE ULCERATION, AND HEMORRHAGE. AN ISLAND OF
HEAVILY INFLAMED RESIDUAL MUCOSA IS SEEN IN THE CENTER.
Histologic Findings4
18. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
HALLMARK of diagnosing acute
appendicitis remains a careful and
thorough Hx & PE
Presence of LOCALIZED ABDOMINAL
TENDERNESS the SINGLE MOST
reliable finding in the diagnosis of
acute appendicitis
19. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
CLASSIC SIGNS OF APPENDICITIS IN PATIENTS WITH ABDOMINAL PAIN
REBOUND TENDERNESS
Elicited by deep palpation of the
abdomen followed by the sudden
release of the examining hand5
20. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
CLASSIC SIGNS OF APPENDICITIS IN PATIENTS WITH ABDOMINAL PAIN
ROVSING’S SIGN
Palpating in the left lower
quadrant causes pain in the
right lower quadrant1
21. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
CLASSIC SIGNS OF APPENDICITIS IN PATIENTS WITH ABDOMINAL PAIN
OBTURATOR SIGN
Internal rotation of the hip
causes pain, suggesting the
possibility of an inflamed
appendix located in the pelvis1
22. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
CLASSIC SIGNS OF APPENDICITIS IN PATIENTS WITH ABDOMINAL PAIN
ILIOPSOAS SIGN
Extending the right hip causes
pain along posterolateral
back and hip, suggesting
retrocecal appendicitis1
23. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
CLASSIC SIGNS OF APPENDICITIS IN PATIENTS WITH ABDOMINAL PAIN
DUNPHY SIGN Coughing may elicit pain
d/t abdominal wall movement5
24. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
OTHER SIGNS OF APPENDICITIS:
BASSLER SIGN Sharp pain created by
compressing the inflamed appendix between
abdominal wall and Iliacus
TEN HORN SIGN Pain in the RLQ or
McBurney’s Point caused by gentle traction of
right testicle or the spermatic cord for males
27. DIAGNOSTIC FACTORS
CBC (with DIFFERENTIAL COUNT)
• WBC 10,000–18,000/mm3 in 70% cases1
11,000–16,000/mm3 for pediatric patients5
>20,000/mm3 –––– indicates PERFORATED CASES
• “LEFT SHIFT” toward immature PMN leukocytes in >95% of cases
URINALYSIS
• Indicated to help EXCLUDE genitourinary conditions1
• Often with WBC and RBC d/t result of the proximity of the
inflamed appendix to the ureter or bladder, but it should be free
of bacteria5
LABORATORY TESTS
28. DIAGNOSTIC FACTORS
OTHER TESTS
• ELECTROLYTES & LIVER PANEL most helpful only in
assessing the level of illness and direct fluid
resuscitation, but RARELY aid accurate diagnosis5
• C-REACTIVE PROTEIN increases in proportion to the
degree of inflammation, but non-specific as well5
• AMYLOID A PROTEIN consistently elevated in
patients with acute appendicitis (SENSITIVITY –– 86%;
SPECIFICITY –– 83%)
29. DIAGNOSTIC FACTORS
PLAIN RADIOGRAPHS
• Most helpful in evaluating complicated cases in which
small bowel obstruction or free air is suspected5
• FINDINGS:
1. Sentinel loops of bowel & localized ileus
2. Scoliosis from psoas muscle spasm
3. Colon “CUT-OFF” Sign colonic air–fluid level above
the right iliac fossa
4. RLQ soft-tissue mass
5. Calcified appendicolith (5-10% of cases)
IMAGING TESTS
30. DIAGNOSTIC FACTORS
ULTRASOUND
• Highly operator dependent
• SENSITIVITY – 0.86
• SPECIFICITY – 0.81
• FINDINGS5:
1. Wall thickness ≥6 mm
2. Appendicolith
3. Luminal distention
4. Lack of compressibility
5. Complex mass in the RLQ
WALL-C
MAIN LIMITATION an inability to visualize the appendix in up to 20% cases
31. DIAGNOSTIC FACTORS
• GOLD STANDARD for pediatric evaluation
• BUT carries negative effects of radiation &
increased costs
• SENSITIVITY – 0.94
• SPECIFICITY – 0.95
• FINDINGS5:
1. Distended (>7 mm) thick-walled appendix
2. Inflammatory streaking of surrounding mesenteric fat
3. Pericecal phlegmon or abscess
4. Appendicoliths more readily seen (40-50%) than
plain radiographs (5-15%
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY Also helpful in demonstrating NON-APPENDICEAL
CAUSES of abdominal pain
33. DIAGNOSTIC FACTORS
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
• EQUIVALENT to CT in diagnostic
accuracy for appendicitis
• LIMITED because it is less available,
more costly, often requires sedation
• DOES NOT involve ionizing radiation
• Most useful in adolescent girls when
advanced imaging is needed
34. DIAGNOSTIC FACTORS
WHITE BLOOD CELL SCAN
• RADIONUCLIDE-LABELED WBC SCANS
• Also been used in some centers in
evaluating atypical cases of possible
appendicitis in children
• SENSITIVITY – 0.97
• SPECIFICITY – 0.80
37. DIAGNOSTIC FACTORS
• Dx of ACUTE APPENDICITIS made in only 50-70% of children at the
time of initial assessment
• NEGATIVE APPENDECTOMY rates (10-20%)
• PERFORATION rates (30-40%) REMAINS HIGH!!
MEDICAL ALERT!!
38. MANAGEMENT
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY
• Lowers the incidence of POSTOPERATIVE WOUND INFECTIONS
& INTRAPERITONEAL ABSCESSES in perforated appendicitis,
but their role is less well defined in simple appendicitis5
• Antibiotic coverage is continued postoperatively for 3-5 days
• For SIMPLE NON-PERFORATED AP one pre-op dose of a single broad-spectrum
agent (CEFOXITIN) or equivalent is sufficient
• For PERFORATED OR GANGRENOUS APPENDICITIS combination regimens such as
Zosyn (piperacillin/tazobactam), ticarcillin/clavulanate, or ceftriaxone/metronidazole
39. MANAGEMENT
For UNCOMPLICATED APPENDICITIS:
NON-OPERATIVE vs OPERATIVE
• NON-OPERATIVE:
a. Used in an environment where Sx not available & antibiotics alone not effective
b. Pt’s who did not pursue medical treatment occasionally have spontaneous resolution
• OPERATIVE remains the standard of care
URGENT vs EMERGENT
• Dependent on each institution & surgeon
• URGENT best done within hours
• EMERGENT done as soon as possible because minutes can make a difference
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
40. MANAGEMENT
For COMPLICATED APPENDICITIS:
• Refers to PERFORATED APPENDICITIS commonly associated with an ABSCESS
or PHLEGMON
NON-OPERATIVE vs OPERATIVE
• NON-OPERATIVE patients with complicated appendicits & a contained
abscess or phlegmon but limited peritonitis ––– conservative management
only (antibiotics, bowel rest, fluids, and possible percutaneous drainage) d/t
risk for POSTOPERATIVE INTRA-ABDOMINAL ABSCESS FORMATION
• OPERATIVE sepsis & generalized peritonitis would prompt immediate
management at the OR with concurrent resuscitation
41. MANAGEMENT
OPERATIVE INTERVENTIONS:
1. INTERVAL APPENDECTOMY3,5
• Performing appendectomy following initial successful non-operative management
in patients with no further symptoms
• GOAL –– To prevent future attacks or to identify other disease (e.g. malignancies)
• Role following successful management of conservative treatment of complicated
appendicitis –– UNCLEAR
• Majority of pediatric surgeons perform this routinely (4-6 wk interval) after initial
non-operative management of perforated appendicitis5
42. MANAGEMENT
IF WITHOUT CONTRAINDICATIONS –
if suggestive of medical Hx & PE with
supportive Labs should undergo
APPENDECTOMY urgently1
2. OPEN APPENDECTOMY3
• Under GA, placed in supine position
• RLQ MCBURNEY’S INCISION (oblique) or
ROCKY-DAVIS INCISION (transverse)3
43. MANAGEMENT
2. OPEN APPENDECTOMY (con’t)
• If appendix not easily identified, the CECUM
and MESENTERY should be located3
• Appendiceal stump managed by SIMPLE
LIGATION or by LIGATION AND INVERSION3
• If appendicitis not found, a methodical search
must be made for an alternative diagnosis3
• NEGATIVE APPENDECTOMY term used for
an operation performed for suspected
appendicitis, in which the appendix is found
to be normal on histological evaluation2
44. MANAGEMENT
3. LAPAROSCOPIC APPENDECTOMY3
• First reported laparoscopic appendectomy
was performed in 1983 by Semm
• Under GA, an OGT and NGT are used
• Surgeon and assistant stands on the pt’s left
FACING THE APPENDIX
• Screens should be positioned on the pt’s
right or at the foot of the bed
• Stump should be carefully examined to
ensure hemostasis, complete transection,
and ensure that no stump is left behind
45. MANAGEMENT
3. LAPAROSCOPIC APPENDECTOMY (con’t)
ADVANTAGES:
• Fewer incisional surgical site infections
• Less pain, shorter length of stay
• Quicker return to normal activity
DISADVANTAGES:
• Increased risk of intra-abdominal abscess LAPAROSCOPIC APPENDICECTOMY. ARROW
SHOWS THE INFLAMED APPENDIX.
46. MANAGEMENT
4. LAPAROSCOPIC SINGLE-INCISION APPENDECTOMY
• “GROWING INTEREST”3 –– Instead of two or three incisions, a SINGLE INCISION
made, typically periumbilical
• Almost similar with the typical laparoscopic appendectomy
• NO DIFFERENCE in the ff:
a. Return to bowel function
b. Post-operative pain
c. Return to normal activity
d. Overall cost
e. Incidence of hernia formation
• Late outcomes & patient quality-of-life outcomes REMAIN TO BE INVESTIGATED
47. MANAGEMENT
5. NATURAL ORIFICE TRANSLUMINAL ENDOSCOPIC SURGERY
• New surgical procedure using FLEXIBLE ENDOSCOPES in the abdominal cavity
• Access gained by way of organs that are reached through a NATURAL, ALREADY-
EXISTING external orifice (e.g. transvaginal approach)