Compare and contrast the following exchange rate systems A. f.docxdonnajames55
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Compare and contrast the following exchange rate systems:
A. fixed exchange rate system
B. floating exchange rate system
C. pegged exchange rate system
Second Language Acquisition in Adults: From Research to Practice
Donna Moss, National Center for ESL Literacy Education
Lauren Ross-Feldman, Georgetown University
December, 2003
Second language acquisition (SLA) is the study of how second languages are learned and the factors that influence the process. SLA researchers examine how communicative competence-the ability to interpret the underlying meaning of a message, understand cultural references, use strategies to keep communication from breaking down, and apply the rules of grammar-develops in a second language (Savignon, 1997). They also study nonlinguistic influences on SLA such as age, anxiety, and motivation. (See Ellis, 1997; Gass & Selinker, 2001; & Pica, 2002 for extensive discussions of SLA theory and research.)
Little research has been conducted on SLA with English language learners in adult education contexts. The complexities of adult English as a second language (ESL) instruction make research in this field challenging. Investigating issues of culture, language, and education and tracking learner progress over time are not easy when complicated by diverse and mobile learner populations and varied learning contexts (e.g., workplace classes, general ESL classes, family literacy classes). However, knowing about the SLA research that has been conducted can be helpful to adult ESL teachers because the findings may be applicable to their populations and contexts.
The purpose of this Q&A is to show how SLA research can inform adult ESL instruction. Research in three areas of second language acquisition are discussed: (1) the effect of learner motivation, (2) the role of interaction, and (3) the role of vocabulary. The research presented here includes experimental, correlational, and descriptive studies, as well as theoretical CAEarticles that analyze the results of other research.
What does research say about learner motivation in SLA?
Motivation has been a focus of SLA research for many years. Dornyei, (2002a, p. 8) identifies motivation as "why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity [and] how hard they are going to pursue it." Linguist Robert Gardner (1985; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003) examined factors that affected French- and English-speaking Canadians learning the language of the other community. His studies support the theory that integrative motivation (wanting to learn a language in order to identify with the community that speaks the language) promotes SLA. This motivation seems to promote SLA regardless of the age of the learner or whether the language is being learned as a second or foreign language. Even if individuals do not have this positive attitude toward learning the language, they may have instrumental motivation-that is, they may want to learn the language to meet thei.
Compare and contrast the following exchange rate systems A. f.docxdonnajames55
Â
Compare and contrast the following exchange rate systems:
A. fixed exchange rate system
B. floating exchange rate system
C. pegged exchange rate system
Second Language Acquisition in Adults: From Research to Practice
Donna Moss, National Center for ESL Literacy Education
Lauren Ross-Feldman, Georgetown University
December, 2003
Second language acquisition (SLA) is the study of how second languages are learned and the factors that influence the process. SLA researchers examine how communicative competence-the ability to interpret the underlying meaning of a message, understand cultural references, use strategies to keep communication from breaking down, and apply the rules of grammar-develops in a second language (Savignon, 1997). They also study nonlinguistic influences on SLA such as age, anxiety, and motivation. (See Ellis, 1997; Gass & Selinker, 2001; & Pica, 2002 for extensive discussions of SLA theory and research.)
Little research has been conducted on SLA with English language learners in adult education contexts. The complexities of adult English as a second language (ESL) instruction make research in this field challenging. Investigating issues of culture, language, and education and tracking learner progress over time are not easy when complicated by diverse and mobile learner populations and varied learning contexts (e.g., workplace classes, general ESL classes, family literacy classes). However, knowing about the SLA research that has been conducted can be helpful to adult ESL teachers because the findings may be applicable to their populations and contexts.
The purpose of this Q&A is to show how SLA research can inform adult ESL instruction. Research in three areas of second language acquisition are discussed: (1) the effect of learner motivation, (2) the role of interaction, and (3) the role of vocabulary. The research presented here includes experimental, correlational, and descriptive studies, as well as theoretical CAEarticles that analyze the results of other research.
What does research say about learner motivation in SLA?
Motivation has been a focus of SLA research for many years. Dornyei, (2002a, p. 8) identifies motivation as "why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity [and] how hard they are going to pursue it." Linguist Robert Gardner (1985; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003) examined factors that affected French- and English-speaking Canadians learning the language of the other community. His studies support the theory that integrative motivation (wanting to learn a language in order to identify with the community that speaks the language) promotes SLA. This motivation seems to promote SLA regardless of the age of the learner or whether the language is being learned as a second or foreign language. Even if individuals do not have this positive attitude toward learning the language, they may have instrumental motivation-that is, they may want to learn the language to meet thei.
The aims of this study are firstly to find out whether tasks that are designed based on the studentsâ learning style specification are compatible with studentsâ language achievements, and secondly to find out factors that might affect the language achievements and the learning styles. The research was undertaken in 6 private tertiary educations involving first year students who learn English as a compulsory subject at these institutions. A 40-item questionnaire adapted from Yufrizal (2007) was distrubuted to 380 students resulting students with four learning styles: communicative, concrete, authority oriented and analytic. One group repeated measures design was carried out in this research. The students are taught and tested in four different assignment adjusted to their learning styles. The results show that there is a congruency between studentsâ learning style and their designed tasks. Students with communicative learning style were more dominant in conversation and students with analytic learning style were more dominant in tasks that required language analytical skill. Furthermore, gender seemed to be an important factor that contribute to the studentsâ language achievement and learning styles.
Investigation on promoting learnerâs autonomy through drama project for third year English major student. I myself used to participate in the drama âRomeo and Julietâ in 2012 and this was a remarkable memory in my studentsâ life. With the supporting of my respect teacher, we did attempt to show our best performance to the audience and received positive feedback form our teacher and spectators.
The aims of this study are firstly to find out whether tasks that are designed based on the studentsâ learning style specification are compatible with studentsâ language achievements, and secondly to find out factors that might affect the language achievements and the learning styles. The research was undertaken in 6 private tertiary educations involving first year students who learn English as a compulsory subject at these institutions. A 40-item questionnaire adapted from Yufrizal (2007) was distrubuted to 380 students resulting students with four learning styles: communicative, concrete, authority oriented and analytic. One group repeated measures design was carried out in this research. The students are taught and tested in four different assignment adjusted to their learning styles. The results show that there is a congruency between studentsâ learning style and their designed tasks. Students with communicative learning style were more dominant in conversation and students with analytic learning style were more dominant in tasks that required language analytical skill. Furthermore, gender seemed to be an important factor that contribute to the studentsâ language achievement and learning styles.
Investigation on promoting learnerâs autonomy through drama project for third year English major student. I myself used to participate in the drama âRomeo and Julietâ in 2012 and this was a remarkable memory in my studentsâ life. With the supporting of my respect teacher, we did attempt to show our best performance to the audience and received positive feedback form our teacher and spectators.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesarâs dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empireâs birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empireâs society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
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In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
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Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
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It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using âinvisibleâ attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
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http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasnât one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
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Action Research In The Language Classroom Motivating Teenage Learners
1. 1
Action Research in the Language Classroom:
Motivating Teenage Learners
Carolyn Leslie
INTRODUCTION
As all language teachers know, motivation is one of the key factors for success when
learning a language. Motivated students are persistent, enthusiastic and committed
learners whereas unmotivated students are insufficiently involved and therefore
unable to develop their language skills .Motivation has been described as âwhy people
decide to do something, how hard they are going to pursue it and how long they are
willing to sustain the activityâ (Dörnyei, 2001a, p.7). Theories of motivation to learn
therefore try to explain an extremely complex facet of human behaviour and it is not
surprising that presently many theories of motivation exist, most of which address a
single theoretical perspective rather than presenting a comprehensive framework to
explain how these factors are interrelated. Motivation to learn a language is a
complex situation, as language learning is not only an educational activity, but also
involves social and cultural issues (Dörnyei, 2001b, pp.47â62).However, a number of
theories describing motivation to learn a second or foreign language have been
presented, and four of these will now be described in greater detail. They are
Tremblay and Gardnerâs revised model of Gardnerâs Theory of motivation, Linguistic
selfâconfidence, Attributions of L2 learning successes and failures and Selfâ
determination theory.
Tremblay and Gardenerâs revised model.
Much of the research on motivation in language learning was initiated by Gardner and
Lambert (1972) in studies they carried out on learners in Anglophone and Francophone
communities in Canada. This work pointed to the importance of âintegrativenessâ,
which was defined as a desire to be like members of the other language community,
and it was suggested that this identification with the L2 community was a principal
component of motivation to learn a second language (Clement, Dörnyei & Noels, 1994,
2. 2
441). This model was criticised however as it did not take into account more individual
aspects of motivation (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991, Oxford & Shearin, 1994).
Consequently, Gardnerâs model was later expanded (Tremblay & Gardner, 1995), to
include more individual factors such as;
ï· goal setting, i.e. motivation is related to setting language learning goals and
pursuing them,
ï· valence, i.e. motivation is related to the perceived intrinsic and extrinsic value
of the activity. For example, how interesting and enjoyable the activity is
(intrinsic) and how useful it will be in oneâs life (extrinsic).
ï· selfâefficacy, which relates to how confident individuals feel of their ability to
carry out certain specific language learning tasks, and inversely how anxious
they feel about using L2.
Linguistic selfâconfidence
Clement, Dörnyei & Noels, (1994, p.422) defined linguistic selfâconfidence as âlow
anxious affect and high selfâperceptions of L2 competenceâ, and proposed that in
multiethnic situation, those with positive attitudes towards the L2 community would
seek out contact with this community. Linguistic selfâconfidence would then develop if
this contact was frequent and pleasant. They further expanded this idea to foreign
language learning situations by proposing that in such situations, individuals could
establish contact with the L2 community through cultural products , for example
through contact with music, advertising and the cinema.
Attribution Theory
Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1992) concerns the reasons people present for past
successes and failures. Learners who attribute their insuccess in language learning to
their inability to learn will easily become demotivated. However, those who attribute
insuccess to temporary situations that they can overcome e.g. lack of attention or
effort, will be more motivated to persist in their language learning. Attribution theory
is of particular importance in language learning as few learners achieve the levels of
proficiency they desire, and so for many, language learning is an activity associated
with a certain amount of failure.
3. 3
SelfâDetermination Theory
One aspect of selfâdetermination theory which has been applied to language learning
is that of learner autonomy which involves âlearner independence, learner
responsibility and learner choiceâ (Dickinson, 1995, p.168).In a review of this area
Dickinson (1995, p.174) concluded that studies on motivation revealed that motivation
and success in language learning were related to âlearners taking responsibility for
their own learning, being able to control their own learning and perceiving that their
learning successes or failures are to be attributed to their own efforts and strategies
rather than to factors outside their controlâ, all characteristics of learner autonomy.
It is clear that these four theories have much in common. The idea of linguistic selfâ
confidence/efficacy is important in both Clementâs Theory of Self Confidence and
Tremblay and Gardnerâs revised model. Learner autonomy is an important aspect of
Tremblay and Gardnerâs revised model (through the use of goalâsetting), Attribution
Theory and SelfâDetermination theory. Accordingly some aspects of goal setting,
building linguistic selfâconfidence and encouraging learners to become more
autonomous will now be discussed in greater detail.
Goal Setting, Learner Autonomy and SelfâConfidence
Lock and Latham (1990) argue that individuals who set themselves specific, difficult
goals will outperform those who set nonspecific, easy goals. It has also been suggested
that goalâsetting can have a positive effect on academic achievement (Schunk and
Swartz, 1993), and it has been found especially useful for elementary level learners
or students who have recently taken up a course of study (Gabb, 2001). Goals can be
group or individual goals, long or short term, and researchers agree that for groups to
work productively, they must share the same general goals (Senior, 1997, p.5).
Individual goals, which can include both language learning and behaviour goals, should
be clear, specific and measurable. Once goals have been set, it is necessary to assess if
these goals have been achieved, and for this self assessment of performance and
instructor feedback have been found helpful (Kato, 2009, p.179). Self assessment is
4. 4
important as it allows learners to become more involved in the learning process and
therefore become more autonomous learners. Many secondary school and university
students are passive learners who are more concerned with getting good marks than
really learning the language. If learners are asked to assess their performance in the
classroom they may begin to perceive the language more in terms of what they can do
with the language rather than what they know about the language.
Teacher assessment of learner progress is a very valuable way of increasing student
selfâconfidence and helping learners become more independent. To increase self
confidence and thereby motivate students, it is important that feedback focus on
comparison with studentsâ previous achievements rather than comparison to others in
the class (Dörnyei, 2001a, p.124). Feedback should also offer praise when appropriate,
acknowledge positive contributions and show how learners can improve in the future
(Dörnyei, 2001a, p.123). It is equally important to help learners attribute lack of
success with lack of effort or use of inappropriate strategies rather than lack of ability.
This is therefore another opportunity to increase learner autonomy by introducing
learners to various learning strategies, which have been defined as âoperations
employed by the learner to aid acquisition, storage, retrieval and use of informationâŠâ
(Oxford, 2001, p.166). Research shows that strategy use and increased proficiency are
related, and although it is recommended that strategy instruction be interwoven with
language lessons, even a oneâoff learning strategy workshop resulted in better final
grades (Flaitz & Feyten, 1996). Learning strategies which could be easily introduced in
class include teaching learners how to take notes or make vocabulary records, giving
them the opportunity to guess unknown words from context, and encouraging
learners to ask when in doubt. The use of such strategies could be included in short
term goals, and when learners perceive that these strategies help them complete a
task more successfully, it can improve their selfâefficacy (Bandura, 1997).
This paper aims to demonstrate what strategies can be used in class to encourage
learners to set their own learning goals, improve linguistic selfâconfidence and
encourage them to become more autonomous learners. The goal setting and self/
5. 5
teacher assessment strategies used in class will be detailed and results of selfâreport
questionnaires distributed to students will be discussed.
METHODOLOGY
Respondents
The learners involved in this small scale project were 17 teenage students between the
ages of 13 and 16 who attended a 3 hour class on Saturday morning at B1 level , i.e.
preâintermediate level, in the British Council, Lisbon. This group was chosen for the
study as it became obvious in term 1 that many students in the group were very
reticent about trying to use English orally in class, and some had no understanding of
the need to do so. It was therefore decided that during terms 2 and 3, a number of
strategies would be used in class, principally to try to encourage them to speak more
English, but also to develop autonomy and linguistic confidence.
In week one of term 2, a group discussion task (Appendix 1) was used to consider ideas
such as what extrinsic benefits they could gain from lessons, the importance of using
English in classes and the role of mistakes. It also asked students to discuss some broad
behavioural goals in class such as doing homework, arriving on time etc, and out of this
discussion a class contract of goals to work towards was drawn up, signed by all
(including the teacher) and posted on the classroom wall.
Goal Setting and Evaluation
To be effective, goals must be specific. However, writing specific goals can be difficult,
and left to their own devices, learners will often write very vague goals such as
âimprove my grammarâ, or âlearn more wordsâ. For this reason it can be useful to
initially set studentsâ goals for them, so they learn from example. Short term goals for
the lesson were used as they are more immediate and therefore easier for teenagers
to focus on. After some time, when learners are more familiar with goal setting, they
can be asked to set their own goals and encouraged to challenge themselves by setting
more and more ambitious goals on a weekly basis. Appendices 2 and 3 show examples
6. 6
of selfâassessment, goal setting handouts used with this class. Such handouts were
distributed at the beginning of class, learners worked on achieving their goals during
class, and then either assessed themselves or one of their peers at the end of the
lesson. These assessment sheets were then collected in, comments made on student
performance during class that week and redistributed to learners at the beginning of
the following weekâs lesson. This continued over a period of 20 weeks, although in 4
randomly chosen lessons, students were not asked to set goals or assess their
performance.
Questionnaire procedure and analysis
An 11âitem questionnaire was designed (Appendix 4) based on a similar questionnaire
used by Kato (2009) and a 5 point Likert scale used to analyse statements. The
questionnaire, which was confidential but not anonymous, was administered in class at
the end of term 2, and students took approximately 10 minutes to respond, results
being expressed as percentages. The same questionnaire was also distributed to
students at the end of term 3, i.e. after a total of 20 week, and in addition students
were asked to complete 6 open ended questions about goal setting and assessment
(Appendix 5) at the end of term 3. It should be noted that the results obtained are
representative merely of the sample involved.
RESULTS
Results for the questionnaire distributed at the end of term 2 and 3 can be seen in
Table 1, with results expressed as percentages. Students were generally very positive
about setting goals and using self assessment with almost two thirds of learners (55%
in term 2 and 59% in term 3) agreeing that they spoke more English in class because
they set goals for speaking. The percentage of students who agreed that they felt
more confident about using English rose in Term 3 (23% in term 2 to 59% in term 3)
and students also agreed that trying to achieve their goals helped improve their
English (47% term 2 in comparison to 67% in term 3). More than half the students
disagreed that focusing on goals each week was a waste of time or unnecessary and
7. 7
the percentages of those who strongly agreed that self assessment and teacher
comments were useful rose by 12 and 19% respectively over the 20 week period.
However, percentages of students who strongly agreed or agreed that comments from
the teacher gave them more confidence to try harder in class fell during term 3 (94%
to 75% respectively). This could be because the teacher often repeated the same type
of comments, which could begin to lose impact over time. In addition there was also a
decrease in the percentages of those who agreed that they took a more active part in
class because they set goals for
8. 8
Table 1 Results for questionnaire distributed at the end of terms 2 and 3 with results expressed as a percentage of total number of responses (N= 17).
Statement
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Term 2 Term 3 Term 2 Term 3 Term 2 Term 3 Term 2 Term 3 Term 2 Term 3
a) I speak more English in class because I
set goals for speaking in lessons.
23% 25% 55% 59% 15% 8% 7% 8% 0% 0%
b) I took a more active part in classes
because I set goals for participation .
0% 0% 70% 59% 15% 33% 15% 8% 0% 0%
c) I feel I learned more vocabulary because
I set goals for learning words each week.
23% 25% 63% 33% 7% 34% 7% 8% 0% 0%
d) I felt more confident about using English
because I worked towards my goals.
23% 0% 23% 59% 47% 16% 7% 25% 0% 0%
e) Trying to achieve the goals helped me to
improve my English.
23% 25% 47% 67% 30% 8% 0% 0% 0% 0%
f) Focusing on goals each week was a waste
of time.
0% 0% 0% 17% 23% 8% 54% 58% 23% 17%
g) Focusing on goals each week was
unnecessary.
0% 0% 7% 8% 7% 8% 55% 67% 31% 17%
h) Selfâassessment was useful because it
helped me think about what I did in class.
30% 42% 63% 50% 7% 8% 0% 0% 0% 0%
i) Comments from my teacher each week
were helpful.
23% 42% 87% 8% 0% 25% 0% 0% 0% 0%
j) Comments from my teacher gave me
more confidence to try harder in class.
31% 42% 63% 33% 6% 25% 0% 0% 0% 0%
k) Comments from my teacher were
unimportant.
0% 0% 0% 0% 6% 25% 31% 33% 63% 42%
9. 9
participation (70% to 59%) and percentages of those who felt they learned more
vocabulary because they set goals for learning words each week (63% to 33%). This
could be explained by the fact that more emphasis was given to such goals in term 2.
A sample of answers to the open questions asked (Appendix 5) can be seen in Table 2
below. All students responded positively to these questions, except one, who
responded negatively to questions 1 and 2 and who felt that goal setting was useless
as he would work to try to improve his English irrespective of setting goals. A number
of students seemed to feel morally bound to try to achieve goals, once they had been
set, others because it helped them focus on what was necessary to work on in class. It
is also interesting to note that all students reported honestly assessing themselves at
the end of lessons, and that a number mentioned that the idea of improving from one
week to another was important to them. The most common reasons for not using
English were, as would be expected, difficulty in expressing themselves in English, the
ease of using their L1 and the fact that Portuguese was being used by other students in
pair and group work.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Many previous studies (Meader, 2000, Yang, 1998) have reported that student
learning and achievement are enhanced by integrated goalâsetting and selfâassessment
procedures. Results here show that approximately three quarters of students in this
group strongly agree or agree that they spoke more English in class, took a more active
part in class and improved their English because they set goals each week. Similarly,
approximately three quarters strongly agreed or agreed that selfâassessment was
useful because it helped them think about what they did in class, and that comments
from the teacher were helpful and gave them more confidence to try harder. Only one
student surveyed had negative comments to make about goalâsetting, and all were
positive in their comments on self/teacher assessment. Typical comments made on
goal setting stated that, if they wrote their own goals, then they had to try to achieve
10. 10
them, that setting goals gave them a focus for the lesson and that trying to achieve
these goals helped them improve their English.
11. 11
Table 2. A selection of comments made in answer to open questions.
Questions Comments
1. Do you think you spoke more English in classes when
you set goals for speaking in lessons? Why? Why not?
ï· Yes, because itâs important to try to improve from one lesson to another.
ï· Yes, because it gave me an objective, made me think more about speaking English
ï· Yes, if we set goals we have to try to achieve them
ï· No, because I want to improve my English, not because of goals.
2. Do you think trying to achieve your goals helped you
improve your English more than when you didnât set
goals? Why? Why not?
ï· Yes, because I focus on my goals and take a more active role
ï· Yes, we have to do what we set out in our goals
ï· Yes, I try to achieve my goals by speaking more, then I know my difficulties better and try
to improve
ï· No, because all I want is to be betterâ goals are unimportant
3. Do you think selfâassessment at the end of the class
helped you think about what you did or didnât do in
class? Why? Why not?
ï· Yes, itâs like a summary of what we did in class.
ï· Yes, because I know what I do well and not so well and can improve next lesson
4. Did you always assess yourself honestly at the end of
classes? Why? Why not?
ï· Yes, because it would be a waste of time, useless to lie
ï· Yes, I need to be honest to the teacher but I need to me honest to myself more
5. Did you usually, sometimes, never achieve all your
goals in class? Why?
ï· Usually/ sometimes
ï· Sometimes my goals are too ambitious
6. When did you speak more Portuguese in class? If
you didnât achieve your English speaking goals, why did
this happen?
ï· In pair and group work because Iâm not focused
ï· When someone speaks to me in Portuguese
ï· When I have trouble expressing myself in English
ï· When I didnât set goals
ï· Itâs easier, faster to speak Portuguese.
12. 12
A popular response to selfâassessment was that assessing themselves at the end of the
lesson made them more aware of what they could and couldnât do and this helped
them focus on areas for improvement in subsequent lessons. This very positive
response to goalâsetting and selfâassessment could be due to the lower level of these
students, as it has been shown that advanced level learners find such intervention
much less helpful than beginner, elementary and intermediate level learners (Kato,
2009, p.192).The fact that the researcher was also the teacher of this group could also
have influenced their responses.
This dual role of teacher/researcher has an advantage in that it puts the teacher in an
ideal situation to observe the learners in class each week, and a number of such
observations are worthy of comment. Firstly, the teacher agreed with students that
more English was used in class when students set goals than in those classes where
goalâsetting was not employed. Secondly, it was felt that goalâsetting and selfâ
assessment was a useful tool that the teacher could use to encourage students, and
reference to their goals was a way to remind and motivate students to use English in
class. As mentioned at the beginning of this article, motivation is an extremely complex
area of human behaviour, and therefore what motivates one student will be unlikely to
motivate the whole class. Although most students were positive in their comments on
goalâsetting and selfâassessment, and although most students are thought to have
benefited to a certain extent in that they generally used more English, participated
more in class, and were more systematic about keeping vocabulary notes, a significant
difference in use of English occurred with 4 students in the group. These students ( 2
boys and 2 girls) either set very ambitious goals and then tried hard to achieve them in
class, or set increasingly more ambitious goals over a period of time and worked over
the 20 week period to achieve them. The fact that all students in this study reacted
positively to self/teacher assessment and that all but one was positive in relation to
goal setting is encouraging. In addition, the fact that students were as positive in their
attitudes towards these motivational strategies after 20 weeks as they were after 10 is
interesting, and suggests that such strategies could be of use when implemented
systematically over the academic year. One way of motivating more students could be
to try a variety of motivational strategies over a period of time, implementing those
13. 13
which appear most successful, until they become an automatic part of teaching
(Dörnyei, 2001a, pp.137â144).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bandura, A. (1997). SelfâEfficacy: The Exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Clement, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. (1994). Motivation, SelfâConfidence and Group
Cohesion in the Foreign Language Classroom. Language Learning, 44 (3), 417â448.
Crookes, G., & Schmidt, R. (1991). Motivation: Reopening the Research Agenda.
Language Learning, 41(4), 469â512.
Dickinson, L. (1995). Autonomy and Motivation A Literature Review. System, 23 (2),
165â174.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001a). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001b). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Harlow: Pearson
Education.
Flaitz, J. & Feyten, C. (1996). A twoâphase study involving consciousness raising and
strategy use for foreign language learners. In R.L. Oxford (ed.), Language Learning
Strategies Around the World (pp.211â343). Maona: University of Hawaiâi Press.
Gabb, S.( 2001). Authentic goal setting with ABE learners: Accountability for programs
or process for learning. Adventures in Assessment, 13, 17â23.
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W.E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language
Learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House
Kato, F. (2009). Student preferences: Goalâsetting and selfâassessment activities in a
tertiary education environment. Language Teaching Research, 13, 177â199.
Locke, E., & Latham, G.(1990). A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Meader, P. (2000). The effects of continuing goalâsetting on persistence in a math
class. Focus on Basics, 4(A), 7â10.
14. 14
Oxford, R. (2001). Language Learning Strategies. In Ronald Carter & David Nunan
(eds.), Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (pp.166â172). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R., & Shearin, J. (1994). Language Learning Motivation: Expanding the
Theoretical Framework. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 12â28.
Senior, R. (1997). Transforming language classes into bonded groups. ELT Journal, 51
(1), 3â11.
Schunk, D.H., & Swartz, C.W. (1993). Goals and progress feedback: Effects on selfâ
efficacy and writing achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 337â354.
Tremblay, P.F., & Gardner, R., C. (1995). Expanding the Motivation Construct in
Language Learning. The Modern Language Journal, 79 (4), 505â518.
Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, Theories and Research. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Yang, N.D. (1998). Exploring a new role for teachers: promoting learner autonomy.
System, 26, 127â135.
15. 15
Appendix 1 SB1 Classroom Resolutions
Class
1. Why do you come to English classes?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
2. Is it important to know English? Why/Why not?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
3. If you speak English well, what benefits will this bring to you personally?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
Classroom/Teacher/Students
1. Is it a good idea to come late to class? Why? Why not?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
2. Why does your teacher ask you to do homework? Is it a good or bad idea?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
3. Do you think you should do homework every lesson? Miss 1 per term? .........?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
4. Is it a good idea to eat chewing gum in class? Why does the teacher ask you not to
do this?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
5. What should you bring to class? Why?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
6. Why is learning to SPEAK English especially important? What is the best way to
learn to speak English in class?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
16. 16
7. How much English do you think you should speak in class? With the teacher? With
other students in pair and group work? All the time?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
8. Is it a bad thing if you make a mistake when you speak? Why/why not?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
9. Why does your teacher ask you to listen to him/her and the others when they
speak? Do you agree? Why/Why not?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
10. What is the best thing to do if you donât know or donât understand something?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
11. Why is a good idea to try to help each other? Is it a good idea to laugh if someone
makes a mistake?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
12. Do you think itâs a good idea for the teacher to speak to you individually about
your progress? Why/why not? How often? Once a term? Once a year?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
13. If you give the teacher homework to mark, when should you get it back? After 1
lesson, 2 lessons...?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
14. Do you think computers help you learn English? How often would you like to use
computers in lessons per term?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
15. Do you think reading in English helps you learn? How often would you like to go to
the library to choose a book per term?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
16. What other activities would you like to do in class to help you learn English?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
17. 17
Appendix 2 Example of goal setting/selfâassessment handout.
Name...................................... Saturday, 16th
Jan, 2010
In class this week your goals are:
To discuss with our group how we think technology will change our future and report
ideas to the rest of the group USING ONLY ENGLISH.
To make vocabulary notes on 7 new words of your choice from the authentic reading
text.
To ALWAYS listen to the teacher and classmates when they speak.
Use the following to assess yourself and the teacher in this lesson. Circle the correct
option for you.
1. I did my homework Yes No
2. I brought all the necessary material to class Yes No
3. I spoke English 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100% of the time.
4. I listened to the others when they spoke Never Sometimes Usually Always
5. I asked for help when I didnât know/understand Never Sometimes Usually Always
6. The teacher explained the work clearly Never Sometimes Usually Always
7. The teacher gave me help when I asked Never Sometimes Usually Always
8. I took an active part in class activities Never Sometimes Usually Always
9. I DID/DIDNâT achieve the goals above because I
âŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠ
âŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠ
10. Teacherâs comment
18. 18
Appendix 3 Example of goalâsetting/assessment handout.
NameâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠ.. Saturday 24th
April, 2010â04â23
This is what we will be doing in class today:
ï· Listening to an authentic news report
ï· Noting the type of words and phrases used in news reports
ï· Working in pairs to produce your own news report, using only English
ï· Practising the report, so you can present to the class without notes
ï· Listening to other reports for specific information and for interest value
ï· Assessing yourself on achievement of your goals today.
Now letâs set your GOALS for the lesson today.
1. To use English during the preparation and presentation of your news report
with your partner.
Now think of another 3 goals of your own. Think about how important it is to listen to
your partner, to try to work well with your partner, to ask questions when you donât
know a word or donât understand, to note down any new words in your vocabulary
records, to use your time in class to improve your English as much as possible.
BE AMBITIOUS! YOU CAN DO IT IF YOU TRY!
2.
3.
4.
Did you achieve your goals for the lesson today? Why/why not?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Teacherâs comment
19. 19
Appendix 4 SB1 QUESTIONNAIRE
CONFIDENTIAL NameâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠâŠ
This questionnaire is designed to survey strategies in learning English. The information
will be used to assist students to learn English and improve the course.
Here are some statements about the activities we have done in class recently. Please
decide if you agree or disagree with the statements and tick (â) ONE of the boxes
according to how you feel. Remember there are no right or wrong answers.
Strongly
agree
Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
disagree
a) I spoke more English in class because I set
goals for speaking in lessons.
b) I took a more active part in classes
because I set goals for participation in
lessons.
c) I feel I learned more vocabulary because I
set goals for learning words each week.
d) I felt more confident about using English
because I worked towards my goals in class
each week.
e) Trying to achieve the goals helped me to
improve my English.
f) Focusing on goals each week was a waste
of time.
g) Focusing on goals each week was
unnecessary.
h) Selfâassessment was useful because it
helped me think about what I did in class
each week.
i) Comments from my teacher each week
were helpful.
j) Comments from my teacher gave me more
confidence to try harder in class.
k) Comments from my teacher were
unimportant.
20. 20
Appendix 5 Goal setting and assessment open ended questions
Please take a few minutes to make a comment about the following points. Remember,
there are no right or wrong answers.
1. Do you think you spoke more English in classes when you set goals for speaking in
lessons? Why? Why not?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Do you think try to achieve your goals (for speaking, vocabulary, participation etc,)
helped you improve your English more than when you didnât set goals? Why? Why
not?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. Do you think selfâassessment at the end of the class helped you think about what
you did or didnât do in class? Why? Why not?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Did you always assess yourself honestly at the end of classes? Why? Why not?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
5. Did you usually, sometimes, never achieve all your goals in class? Why?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
6. When did you speak more Portuguese in class? If you didnât achieve your English
speaking goals, why did this happen?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________