Optimization of Weld Bead Parameters of Nickel Based Overlay Deposited by Pla...IJERA Editor
Plasma Transferred Arc surfacing is a kind of Plasma Transferred Arc Welding process. Plasma Transferred Arc surfacing (PTA) is increasingly used in applications where enhancement of wear, corrosion and heat resistance of materials surface is required. The shape of weld bead geometry affected by the PTA Welding process parameters is an indication of the quality of the weld. In this paper the analysis and optimization of weld bead parameters, during deposition of a Nickel based alloy Colmonoy on stainless steel plate by plasma transferred arc surfacing, are made and values of process parameters to produce optimal weld bead geometry are estimated. The experiments are conducted based on a five input process parameters and mathematical models are developed using multiple regression technique. The direct effects of input process parameters on weld bead geometry are discussed using graphs. Finally, optimization of the weld bead parameters, that is minimization of penetration and maximization of reinforcement and weld bead width, are made with a view to economize the input process parameters to achieve the desirable welding joint.
Analysis and Weight Optimization of Split Dish Reactor Using Thermo-Structura...IJERA Editor
A vertical split dish reactor with leg supports is modeled using ansys workbench. Thereafter, external loads, such as self –weight, internal pressure and temperature are applied to the model. Pressure and temperature has been continuously a concern which may lead to structural failure if the resulting stresses are severe and excessive. It is a significant study which requires in-depth investigation to understand the structural characteristics. This paper presents and focuses on some Finite Element (FE) analysis of a split dish reactor will be carried out and maximum stresses in the structure will be determined.
Optimization of Metal Removal Rateon Cylindrical Grinding For Is 319 Brass Us...IJERA Editor
Cylindrical grinding is one of the most important metal cutting processes used extensively in the Metal finishing operations. Metal removal rate and surface finish are the important output responses in the production with respect to quantity and quality respectively. The objective of this paper is to arrive at the optimal grinding conditions that will maximize metal removal rate when grinding IS 319 brass. Empirical models were developed using design of experiments by Taguchi L9 Orthogonal Array and the adequacy of the developed model is tested with ANOVA.
Parametric Analysis of Mild Steel Specimens Using Roller Burnishing ProcessIRJESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT:- Burnishing, a cold working process, is a very simple and effective method of improving surface properties, which can easily be carried out using existing machines, such as lathe. With changing trends in manufacturing industry, special attention is given on surface finish along with dimensional accuracy and tight geometrical tolerances. Burnishing comes in mind as one of popular finishing process because it is completely chip-less as compared to other finishing processes such as grinding, honing etc. The purpose of the research was to demonstrate burnishing process on ferrous metals namely mild steel alloy. Parametric analysis was done using speed and feed rate as input parameters and surface roughness & surface micro hardness as response variables. Burnishing was performed using Hindustan machine tools (HMT) power lathe (NH 26 model)
The document summarizes research on solid-state recycling of light metals reinforced with inclusions through Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP). It discusses how ECAP can be used to directly recycle metal scraps and chips to produce finished products with ultrafine grain microstructure and improved mechanical properties. The document reviews factors that influence the ECAP process like die angles, temperature, pressing speed and force. It also summarizes research on using ECAP to produce aluminum matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles like silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, and boron carbide, and how this can enhance properties for applications.
A New Surface Modification Technique and Their Characterisation: Friction Sti...IJERA Editor
This document summarizes research on using friction stir processing (FSP) to modify the microstructure and improve the mechanical properties of an Al-Zn-Mg alloy. FSP is a solid-state technique that uses a rotating tool to plasticize and refine the microstructure of metal surfaces. The study used FSP on an Al-Zn-Mg-Sc alloy with various processing parameters. Microstructural analysis found the stir zone had the finest recrystallized grains of 400-500 nm due to severe plastic deformation. Tensile testing found that FSP significantly improved the alloy's strength and ductility by reducing porosity and refining precipitates through grain refinement. The combined effects of FSP and age-hardening
Surface layer alterations in aisi 4140 steel from turn assisted deep cold rol...IAEME Publication
This document summarizes a study on using turn-assisted deep cold rolling (TADCR) to improve the surface integrity of AISI 4140 steel. TADCR was performed using tungsten carbide balls of varying diameters at different rolling forces and numbers of passes. Microhardness measurements found that TADCR increased hardness in the surface layer by about 36% compared to the bulk material. Microstructure analysis found alteration to a depth of around 300μm, reflecting an increase in residual compressive stress from the initial turned state. Overall, the results indicate that TADCR is an effective method for modifying the surface properties of AISI 4140 steel.
Optimization of Weld Bead Parameters of Nickel Based Overlay Deposited by Pla...IJERA Editor
Plasma Transferred Arc surfacing is a kind of Plasma Transferred Arc Welding process. Plasma Transferred Arc surfacing (PTA) is increasingly used in applications where enhancement of wear, corrosion and heat resistance of materials surface is required. The shape of weld bead geometry affected by the PTA Welding process parameters is an indication of the quality of the weld. In this paper the analysis and optimization of weld bead parameters, during deposition of a Nickel based alloy Colmonoy on stainless steel plate by plasma transferred arc surfacing, are made and values of process parameters to produce optimal weld bead geometry are estimated. The experiments are conducted based on a five input process parameters and mathematical models are developed using multiple regression technique. The direct effects of input process parameters on weld bead geometry are discussed using graphs. Finally, optimization of the weld bead parameters, that is minimization of penetration and maximization of reinforcement and weld bead width, are made with a view to economize the input process parameters to achieve the desirable welding joint.
Analysis and Weight Optimization of Split Dish Reactor Using Thermo-Structura...IJERA Editor
A vertical split dish reactor with leg supports is modeled using ansys workbench. Thereafter, external loads, such as self –weight, internal pressure and temperature are applied to the model. Pressure and temperature has been continuously a concern which may lead to structural failure if the resulting stresses are severe and excessive. It is a significant study which requires in-depth investigation to understand the structural characteristics. This paper presents and focuses on some Finite Element (FE) analysis of a split dish reactor will be carried out and maximum stresses in the structure will be determined.
Optimization of Metal Removal Rateon Cylindrical Grinding For Is 319 Brass Us...IJERA Editor
Cylindrical grinding is one of the most important metal cutting processes used extensively in the Metal finishing operations. Metal removal rate and surface finish are the important output responses in the production with respect to quantity and quality respectively. The objective of this paper is to arrive at the optimal grinding conditions that will maximize metal removal rate when grinding IS 319 brass. Empirical models were developed using design of experiments by Taguchi L9 Orthogonal Array and the adequacy of the developed model is tested with ANOVA.
Parametric Analysis of Mild Steel Specimens Using Roller Burnishing ProcessIRJESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT:- Burnishing, a cold working process, is a very simple and effective method of improving surface properties, which can easily be carried out using existing machines, such as lathe. With changing trends in manufacturing industry, special attention is given on surface finish along with dimensional accuracy and tight geometrical tolerances. Burnishing comes in mind as one of popular finishing process because it is completely chip-less as compared to other finishing processes such as grinding, honing etc. The purpose of the research was to demonstrate burnishing process on ferrous metals namely mild steel alloy. Parametric analysis was done using speed and feed rate as input parameters and surface roughness & surface micro hardness as response variables. Burnishing was performed using Hindustan machine tools (HMT) power lathe (NH 26 model)
The document summarizes research on solid-state recycling of light metals reinforced with inclusions through Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP). It discusses how ECAP can be used to directly recycle metal scraps and chips to produce finished products with ultrafine grain microstructure and improved mechanical properties. The document reviews factors that influence the ECAP process like die angles, temperature, pressing speed and force. It also summarizes research on using ECAP to produce aluminum matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles like silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, and boron carbide, and how this can enhance properties for applications.
A New Surface Modification Technique and Their Characterisation: Friction Sti...IJERA Editor
This document summarizes research on using friction stir processing (FSP) to modify the microstructure and improve the mechanical properties of an Al-Zn-Mg alloy. FSP is a solid-state technique that uses a rotating tool to plasticize and refine the microstructure of metal surfaces. The study used FSP on an Al-Zn-Mg-Sc alloy with various processing parameters. Microstructural analysis found the stir zone had the finest recrystallized grains of 400-500 nm due to severe plastic deformation. Tensile testing found that FSP significantly improved the alloy's strength and ductility by reducing porosity and refining precipitates through grain refinement. The combined effects of FSP and age-hardening
Surface layer alterations in aisi 4140 steel from turn assisted deep cold rol...IAEME Publication
This document summarizes a study on using turn-assisted deep cold rolling (TADCR) to improve the surface integrity of AISI 4140 steel. TADCR was performed using tungsten carbide balls of varying diameters at different rolling forces and numbers of passes. Microhardness measurements found that TADCR increased hardness in the surface layer by about 36% compared to the bulk material. Microstructure analysis found alteration to a depth of around 300μm, reflecting an increase in residual compressive stress from the initial turned state. Overall, the results indicate that TADCR is an effective method for modifying the surface properties of AISI 4140 steel.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Design and Analysis of Composite CylinderIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and analysis of a composite cylinder using ANSYS software. It begins with an introduction to pressure vessels and the benefits of using composite materials instead of steel, including lower weight. It then details the modeling and analysis process in ANSYS to optimize the winding angle and thickness of the composite cylinder. The results of the ANSYS analysis are compared to experimental data and the structural efficiency of the composite cylinder is evaluated against a steel cylinder of the same dimensions.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION AND MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF A356 BASED COMPO...sathish sak
Recently friction stir processing (FSP) has emerged as an effective tool for enhancing sheet metal properties through microstructure modification. Significant grain refinement and homogenization can be achieved in a single FSP pass leading to improved formability, especially at elevated temperatures.
FSP is a solid-state process where the material within the processed zone undergoes intense plastic deformation resulting in dynamically recrystallized grain structure.
Most of the research conducted on FSP focuses on aluminum alloys. Despite the potential weight reduction that can be achieved using Titanium dioxide(B4C) alloys.
In this work, we examine the possibility of using FSP to modify the microstructure and properties of commercial A356-B4C alloy particles. The effect of various process parameters on thermal histories, resulting microstructure and properties to be investigated.
Investigation on Behaviour of Cold Formed Deep Joist Channel SectionDr. Amarjeet Singh
The application of cold formed steel elements in construction is becoming very popular due to several advantages like Speedy construction, higher strength to weight ratio, dimensional stability and recycled material. Nowadays, CFS is proposed to use as building components as beams, columns, Joists, wall panels etc. The load carrying capacity of cold-formed steel (CFS) joists can be enhanced by employing optimization techniques. Recent research studies have mainly focused on optimizing the bending capacity of conventional channel with and without lips that are used as joists. The objective of the study is to examine the flexural strength, failure mode and load-deflection of the cold formed steel double furred channel section with and without web openings under flexure.
IRJET- Cold Formed Steel Lipped Zed Section with and without Web Holes –Web C...IRJET Journal
1. The study investigated the web crippling behavior of cold-formed steel lipped zed sections with and without circular web holes through theoretical analysis, experimental testing, and finite element analysis using ANSYS.
2. Theoretical analysis was conducted based on IS 801-1975 and BS 5950-1998 design codes, experimental testing involved flexural testing of sections under uniformly distributed loading with and without web holes, and finite element models were developed to analyze web crippling behavior.
3. The results found that the ratio of the web hole depth to the web depth and the distance from the edge of the bearing divided by the flat depth of the web influenced web crippling. Theoretical values were higher than
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Analysis for Stress Prediction in Hot Rolling with Different Process Paramete...IRJET Journal
The document analyzes stress prediction in hot rolling with different process parameters using finite element method. It summarizes previous research that found mill speed and friction coefficient are two major factors that affect rolling quality. A lower friction coefficient requires more mill passes while a higher friction coefficient increases sticking between rollers and metal, leading to defects. The study aims to understand the root causes of cracks in roller mills by analyzing the rolling process and results in terms of equivalent stress and effective plastic strain.
This document discusses several research papers related to mechanical engineering experiments involving high strength steels. It summarizes papers on topics like the role of forming technology for high strength steels in automotive manufacturing, tribology of hot forming tools and steels, evaluating stamping lubricants at different temperatures, and predicting springback in sheet metal forming of high strength steels. The document outlines the objectives, methods, materials, results and conclusions of these research papers in order to review fundamentals of mechanical engineering experiments for graduate study.
A refined energy-based model for friction stir processing of Al- Zn-Mg alloyIJERA Editor
Friction stir processing (FSP) is a promising solid state surface modification technique. Also, considered as an
innovative technique that the FSPwas employed to modify the surface layer of aluminium alloy. The FSP passes
of only two passes were applied on aluminium alloy samples. A rotating tool with a pin and shoulder is inserted
into a single piece of material and results in significant microstructural changes in the processed zone, due to
intense plastic deformation. It has been proved to be an effective way to refine the microstructure of aluminium
alloys, and thereby improve the mechanical properties. In procedural phenomenon there are different parameters
adjustment have been worked out to refine microstructure and several properties characterised to TEM, SEM,
FESEM and mechanical properties. In this study, a refined energy based model that estimates the energy
generated due to friction and plastic deformation is presented with the help ofexperimental and theoretical
results available in many literatures. The model is applied to 7xxx series of aluminium alloys.
Extrusion is a manufacturing process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-section. A brief and concise review of the contributions made by the previous researchers in the area of extrusion process has been presented. Steel material and aluminium alloys are mostly used by researchers as die and billet material in extrusion process. FEM modeling of extrusion process is carried out by employing axisymmetric conditions in most cases. Meshing of the work piece is generally done by using axisymmetric quadrilateral elements. Experimental set-up and tools utilized in formation of extrusion process are presented and discussed. FEM results are presented in terms of variation of punch stroke, punch force.
FEA based Dissipation Energy and Temperature Distribution of Rubber BushingIJERA Editor
The document describes a finite element analysis of the dissipation energy and temperature distribution in rubber bushings. It begins with an introduction to rubber bushings and how the heat generated from their viscoelastic damping can lead to degradation over time. It then outlines the development of a finite element method to model viscoelastic structures and calculate their dissipation energy based on strain and stress. The method is applied to analyze how the dissipation energy density and temperature distribution in a rubber bushing core vary with excitation frequency and amplitude. Experimental dynamic testing is also conducted to evaluate the simulation results.
Extrusion process and parameters involved in the experimental and numerical i...IJERD Editor
This document reviews extrusion processes and parameters for investigating aluminum alloys Al6061, Al6063, and Al7075. It discusses experimental and numerical methods used to study the effects of parameters like die angle, billet temperature, speed, and geometry. Taguchi methods were used to optimize parameters for Al6061 extrusion. Numerical analysis found the maximum stresses occur at square tube corners. The document concludes that smaller extrusion ratios and stresses result from thicker products and fixed billet dimensions. Parameters like die angle, temperature, speed, and geometry influence load, strength, and deformation during aluminum extrusion.
This document discusses a study that uses regression analysis techniques to estimate surface roughness values based on tribological parameters during hard turning of AISI 52100 steel. Experiments were conducted using a Taguchi L9 orthogonal array with cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut as parameters. Linear, quadratic, and cubic regression models were developed to correlate the parameters to surface roughness. The results showed that the estimated correlations predicted roughness with 99.5-99.9% accuracy, with only 6.19% uncertainty in the experiments.
This document discusses optimizing process parameters for plasma arc cutting of stainless steel. 30 experiments were conducted varying feed rate, current, voltage, and torch height. Responses like kerf, chamfer, dross, surface roughness, and material removal rate were measured. The experimental data was analyzed using response surface methodology, grey relational analysis, and principal component analysis to develop models relating the responses to the parameters. The results showed that the process parameters significantly affected the grey relational grade and interactions between parameters were also important. This hybrid optimization method provided an effective way to optimize plasma arc cutting for improved cut quality and precision.
Design and analysis of materials and engineering structuresSpringer
This document presents a new procedure for determining the main technology parameters of rolling mills. The procedure is based on the material properties and continuous deformation processes, rather than just static calculations using roll and sheet geometry. Experiments were conducted rolling low-carbon steel and deep-drawing steel sheets. Surface roughness was measured and related to rolling force, speed, and reduction. Regression analysis was used to develop mathematical models linking the material properties and rolling parameters. The models can distinguish between different materials and predict the surface roughness resulting from different rolling conditions.
Surface hybrid nanocomposites via friction stir processingmohammed noor
Friction stir Processing (FSP) is a new innovative technology developed based on the principle of Friction Stir Welding (FSW) technique.
In FSP, the ceramic particulates are reinforced into the base metal by adding it into the groove and Friction Stir Processing (FSP) is performed.
In this study, the aluminum alloy 6061 is chosen as the base metal, alumina and graphite Nano powder as reinforcement.
The process parameters such traverse speed of 64 mm/min and the tool rotational speed of 1060 rpm and tilt angle of 2deg were selected, The Friction Powder Processing was carried out on vertical milling machine.
New parameters such as powder type and number of passes were involved and we also study the effect of heat treatment.
The influence of FSP was checked using some tests such as the microstructure analysis that was carried out using optical microscope (OM) and the mechanical characteristics were analyzed using tensile test and hardness test.
The micrograph results revealed that powder particulates were evenly distributed in the stir zone and reduction in grain size also observed; the reason for the grain size reduction was stirring action of the FPP tool’s pin.
The tensile strength results showed a significant improvement in strength by a percent of
50% compared to base metal but when T6 heat treatment is applied, the tensile strength decreased.
COMPARISON OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS OF COLDWORK AND HOT WORK TOOL STEELS IN HARD ...ijmech
The hard turning process has been attracting interest in different industrial sectors for finishing operations
of hard materials at its hardened state.Surface roughness is investigated in hard turning of AISI D3 and
AISI H13 steels of same hardness 62HRC. In this paper, an attempt has been made to model and predict
the surface roughness in hard turning of AISI D3 and AISI H13 hardened steels using Response Surface
Methodology (RSM). The combined effects of three machining parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate
and depth of cut are investigated for main performance characteristic that is surface roughness. RSM
based Central Composite Design (CCD) is applied as an experimental design. Al2O3/TiC mixed ceramic
tool with corner radius 0.8 mm is employed to accomplish 20 tests with six center points. The acceptability
of the developed models is checked using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).The combined effects of cutting
speed; feed rate and depth of cut are investigated using surface plots.
Pins require very little service and total failure seldom occurs. Wear, pitting, and scoring are the usual troubles
encountered with pins. In this paper, going to apply induction hardening process on pins and its comparison will
be done with existing pins. Different hardening thickness or case depth will be applied and analysis will be done
to interpret the results. Case depth of 1mm, 2mm or 2.5mm will be taken in induction hardening process.
Caterpillar 320dl excavator model is taken for study. Material used for the pins is EN8 grade of steel. And
different material used for the pin for analysis purpose will be bronze alloy, Titanium. The main objective in this
project is to determine the appropriate induction hardening case depth to be used in manufacturing pins.ThreedHiympeenrsmioensh
m aondde Alsn osfy sp iwnisl lu bseed u sined e xtoc aavnaatloyrz ew tihlle bsetr ecsres astteadtu uss oinng t hCea ptiianVs.5 T shoef tmwaarxei,m mumes hdienfgo rwmiallt iboen ,d monaex iumsuinmg
stress point and dangerous areas are found by the stress analysis.
La Unión Europea ha acordado un embargo petrolero contra Rusia en respuesta a la invasión de Ucrania. El embargo prohibirá las importaciones marítimas de petróleo ruso a la UE y pondrá fin a las entregas a través de oleoductos dentro de seis meses. Esta medida forma parte de un sexto paquete de sanciones de la UE destinadas a aumentar la presión económica sobre Moscú y privar al Kremlin de fondos para financiar su guerra.
El documento describe las ventajas de la captación de empleados a través de medios digitales como tener costos más bajos que los medios tradicionales, reducir los costos del proceso de captación y selección, agilizar el proceso de contratación, ofrecer más información a los candidatos, permitir una segmentación más amplia. Además, explica que el término Web 2.0 se refiere a la segunda generación de la Web basada en comunidades de usuarios y servicios como redes sociales, blogs, wikis y etiquetas sociales que
1) Shakespeare & Company's production of "The Secret of Sherlock Holmes" in Lenox, Massachusetts will be scrutinized by devoted fans for accuracy.
2) Michael Hammond, who plays Sherlock Holmes in the production, expects feedback and corrections from Sherlockians.
3) The article profiles Hammond and previews the month-long run of the play adapting the relationship between Holmes and Watson.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Design and Analysis of Composite CylinderIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and analysis of a composite cylinder using ANSYS software. It begins with an introduction to pressure vessels and the benefits of using composite materials instead of steel, including lower weight. It then details the modeling and analysis process in ANSYS to optimize the winding angle and thickness of the composite cylinder. The results of the ANSYS analysis are compared to experimental data and the structural efficiency of the composite cylinder is evaluated against a steel cylinder of the same dimensions.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION AND MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF A356 BASED COMPO...sathish sak
Recently friction stir processing (FSP) has emerged as an effective tool for enhancing sheet metal properties through microstructure modification. Significant grain refinement and homogenization can be achieved in a single FSP pass leading to improved formability, especially at elevated temperatures.
FSP is a solid-state process where the material within the processed zone undergoes intense plastic deformation resulting in dynamically recrystallized grain structure.
Most of the research conducted on FSP focuses on aluminum alloys. Despite the potential weight reduction that can be achieved using Titanium dioxide(B4C) alloys.
In this work, we examine the possibility of using FSP to modify the microstructure and properties of commercial A356-B4C alloy particles. The effect of various process parameters on thermal histories, resulting microstructure and properties to be investigated.
Investigation on Behaviour of Cold Formed Deep Joist Channel SectionDr. Amarjeet Singh
The application of cold formed steel elements in construction is becoming very popular due to several advantages like Speedy construction, higher strength to weight ratio, dimensional stability and recycled material. Nowadays, CFS is proposed to use as building components as beams, columns, Joists, wall panels etc. The load carrying capacity of cold-formed steel (CFS) joists can be enhanced by employing optimization techniques. Recent research studies have mainly focused on optimizing the bending capacity of conventional channel with and without lips that are used as joists. The objective of the study is to examine the flexural strength, failure mode and load-deflection of the cold formed steel double furred channel section with and without web openings under flexure.
IRJET- Cold Formed Steel Lipped Zed Section with and without Web Holes –Web C...IRJET Journal
1. The study investigated the web crippling behavior of cold-formed steel lipped zed sections with and without circular web holes through theoretical analysis, experimental testing, and finite element analysis using ANSYS.
2. Theoretical analysis was conducted based on IS 801-1975 and BS 5950-1998 design codes, experimental testing involved flexural testing of sections under uniformly distributed loading with and without web holes, and finite element models were developed to analyze web crippling behavior.
3. The results found that the ratio of the web hole depth to the web depth and the distance from the edge of the bearing divided by the flat depth of the web influenced web crippling. Theoretical values were higher than
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Analysis for Stress Prediction in Hot Rolling with Different Process Paramete...IRJET Journal
The document analyzes stress prediction in hot rolling with different process parameters using finite element method. It summarizes previous research that found mill speed and friction coefficient are two major factors that affect rolling quality. A lower friction coefficient requires more mill passes while a higher friction coefficient increases sticking between rollers and metal, leading to defects. The study aims to understand the root causes of cracks in roller mills by analyzing the rolling process and results in terms of equivalent stress and effective plastic strain.
This document discusses several research papers related to mechanical engineering experiments involving high strength steels. It summarizes papers on topics like the role of forming technology for high strength steels in automotive manufacturing, tribology of hot forming tools and steels, evaluating stamping lubricants at different temperatures, and predicting springback in sheet metal forming of high strength steels. The document outlines the objectives, methods, materials, results and conclusions of these research papers in order to review fundamentals of mechanical engineering experiments for graduate study.
A refined energy-based model for friction stir processing of Al- Zn-Mg alloyIJERA Editor
Friction stir processing (FSP) is a promising solid state surface modification technique. Also, considered as an
innovative technique that the FSPwas employed to modify the surface layer of aluminium alloy. The FSP passes
of only two passes were applied on aluminium alloy samples. A rotating tool with a pin and shoulder is inserted
into a single piece of material and results in significant microstructural changes in the processed zone, due to
intense plastic deformation. It has been proved to be an effective way to refine the microstructure of aluminium
alloys, and thereby improve the mechanical properties. In procedural phenomenon there are different parameters
adjustment have been worked out to refine microstructure and several properties characterised to TEM, SEM,
FESEM and mechanical properties. In this study, a refined energy based model that estimates the energy
generated due to friction and plastic deformation is presented with the help ofexperimental and theoretical
results available in many literatures. The model is applied to 7xxx series of aluminium alloys.
Extrusion is a manufacturing process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-section. A brief and concise review of the contributions made by the previous researchers in the area of extrusion process has been presented. Steel material and aluminium alloys are mostly used by researchers as die and billet material in extrusion process. FEM modeling of extrusion process is carried out by employing axisymmetric conditions in most cases. Meshing of the work piece is generally done by using axisymmetric quadrilateral elements. Experimental set-up and tools utilized in formation of extrusion process are presented and discussed. FEM results are presented in terms of variation of punch stroke, punch force.
FEA based Dissipation Energy and Temperature Distribution of Rubber BushingIJERA Editor
The document describes a finite element analysis of the dissipation energy and temperature distribution in rubber bushings. It begins with an introduction to rubber bushings and how the heat generated from their viscoelastic damping can lead to degradation over time. It then outlines the development of a finite element method to model viscoelastic structures and calculate their dissipation energy based on strain and stress. The method is applied to analyze how the dissipation energy density and temperature distribution in a rubber bushing core vary with excitation frequency and amplitude. Experimental dynamic testing is also conducted to evaluate the simulation results.
Extrusion process and parameters involved in the experimental and numerical i...IJERD Editor
This document reviews extrusion processes and parameters for investigating aluminum alloys Al6061, Al6063, and Al7075. It discusses experimental and numerical methods used to study the effects of parameters like die angle, billet temperature, speed, and geometry. Taguchi methods were used to optimize parameters for Al6061 extrusion. Numerical analysis found the maximum stresses occur at square tube corners. The document concludes that smaller extrusion ratios and stresses result from thicker products and fixed billet dimensions. Parameters like die angle, temperature, speed, and geometry influence load, strength, and deformation during aluminum extrusion.
This document discusses a study that uses regression analysis techniques to estimate surface roughness values based on tribological parameters during hard turning of AISI 52100 steel. Experiments were conducted using a Taguchi L9 orthogonal array with cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut as parameters. Linear, quadratic, and cubic regression models were developed to correlate the parameters to surface roughness. The results showed that the estimated correlations predicted roughness with 99.5-99.9% accuracy, with only 6.19% uncertainty in the experiments.
This document discusses optimizing process parameters for plasma arc cutting of stainless steel. 30 experiments were conducted varying feed rate, current, voltage, and torch height. Responses like kerf, chamfer, dross, surface roughness, and material removal rate were measured. The experimental data was analyzed using response surface methodology, grey relational analysis, and principal component analysis to develop models relating the responses to the parameters. The results showed that the process parameters significantly affected the grey relational grade and interactions between parameters were also important. This hybrid optimization method provided an effective way to optimize plasma arc cutting for improved cut quality and precision.
Design and analysis of materials and engineering structuresSpringer
This document presents a new procedure for determining the main technology parameters of rolling mills. The procedure is based on the material properties and continuous deformation processes, rather than just static calculations using roll and sheet geometry. Experiments were conducted rolling low-carbon steel and deep-drawing steel sheets. Surface roughness was measured and related to rolling force, speed, and reduction. Regression analysis was used to develop mathematical models linking the material properties and rolling parameters. The models can distinguish between different materials and predict the surface roughness resulting from different rolling conditions.
Surface hybrid nanocomposites via friction stir processingmohammed noor
Friction stir Processing (FSP) is a new innovative technology developed based on the principle of Friction Stir Welding (FSW) technique.
In FSP, the ceramic particulates are reinforced into the base metal by adding it into the groove and Friction Stir Processing (FSP) is performed.
In this study, the aluminum alloy 6061 is chosen as the base metal, alumina and graphite Nano powder as reinforcement.
The process parameters such traverse speed of 64 mm/min and the tool rotational speed of 1060 rpm and tilt angle of 2deg were selected, The Friction Powder Processing was carried out on vertical milling machine.
New parameters such as powder type and number of passes were involved and we also study the effect of heat treatment.
The influence of FSP was checked using some tests such as the microstructure analysis that was carried out using optical microscope (OM) and the mechanical characteristics were analyzed using tensile test and hardness test.
The micrograph results revealed that powder particulates were evenly distributed in the stir zone and reduction in grain size also observed; the reason for the grain size reduction was stirring action of the FPP tool’s pin.
The tensile strength results showed a significant improvement in strength by a percent of
50% compared to base metal but when T6 heat treatment is applied, the tensile strength decreased.
COMPARISON OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS OF COLDWORK AND HOT WORK TOOL STEELS IN HARD ...ijmech
The hard turning process has been attracting interest in different industrial sectors for finishing operations
of hard materials at its hardened state.Surface roughness is investigated in hard turning of AISI D3 and
AISI H13 steels of same hardness 62HRC. In this paper, an attempt has been made to model and predict
the surface roughness in hard turning of AISI D3 and AISI H13 hardened steels using Response Surface
Methodology (RSM). The combined effects of three machining parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate
and depth of cut are investigated for main performance characteristic that is surface roughness. RSM
based Central Composite Design (CCD) is applied as an experimental design. Al2O3/TiC mixed ceramic
tool with corner radius 0.8 mm is employed to accomplish 20 tests with six center points. The acceptability
of the developed models is checked using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).The combined effects of cutting
speed; feed rate and depth of cut are investigated using surface plots.
Pins require very little service and total failure seldom occurs. Wear, pitting, and scoring are the usual troubles
encountered with pins. In this paper, going to apply induction hardening process on pins and its comparison will
be done with existing pins. Different hardening thickness or case depth will be applied and analysis will be done
to interpret the results. Case depth of 1mm, 2mm or 2.5mm will be taken in induction hardening process.
Caterpillar 320dl excavator model is taken for study. Material used for the pins is EN8 grade of steel. And
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project is to determine the appropriate induction hardening case depth to be used in manufacturing pins.ThreedHiympeenrsmioensh
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stress point and dangerous areas are found by the stress analysis.
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La señora Gisselle Rojas R. es tutora. El documento proporciona su nombre y título académico como tutora sin dar más detalles sobre su experiencia, áreas de especialización u otra información relevante.
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Finite Element Analysis of Connecting Rod for Two Wheeler and Optimization of...IRJET Journal
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5th LF Energy Power Grid Model Meet-up SlidesDanBrown980551
5th Power Grid Model Meet-up
It is with great pleasure that we extend to you an invitation to the 5th Power Grid Model Meet-up, scheduled for 6th June 2024. This event will adopt a hybrid format, allowing participants to join us either through an online Mircosoft Teams session or in person at TU/e located at Den Dolech 2, Eindhoven, Netherlands. The meet-up will be hosted by Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), a research university specializing in engineering science & technology.
Power Grid Model
The global energy transition is placing new and unprecedented demands on Distribution System Operators (DSOs). Alongside upgrades to grid capacity, processes such as digitization, capacity optimization, and congestion management are becoming vital for delivering reliable services.
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What to expect
For the upcoming meetup we are organizing, we have an exciting lineup of activities planned:
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1. Dr. Chinnaraj K. et al. Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications www.ijera.com
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 4, Issue 4( Version 5), April 2014, pp.162-169
www.ijera.com 162 | P a g e
Investigation of Manufacturing Residual Stresses in Cold Formed
Truck Frame Rail Sections
Dr. Chinnaraj K. *, Dr. Sathya Prasad M. **, Prof. Lakshmana Rao C.***
and Nantha Kumar M.*
*(Product Development – Technical Centre, Ashok Leyland, Chennai, India)
** (Advanced Engineering – Technical Centre, Ashok Leyland, Chennai, India)
****(Department of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology Madras , Chennai, India)
ABSTRACT
Series of manufacturing processes such as coiling-uncoiling, cold forming and hole cutting processes involved
in the making of truck frame rail sections leave certain amount of manufacturing imperfections into the frame
rail. As the manufacturing imperfections in the form of residual stresses play a significant role in determining
the dynamic structural behavior of truck frame rail members, a careful assessment of residual stresses resulting
from coiling-uncoiling and cold forming processes is needed. In the present investigation, non-linear Finite
Element (FE) simulation of coiling-uncoiling and cold forming processes were carried out and the resulting
residual stresses in frame rail corner, flat web and flange sections were compared with the experimentally
measured residual stress values using X-ray diffraction technique. It is observed that in corner sections, the
numerically predicted residual stresses are in close agreement with the experimentally measured residual
stresses in forming (transverse) direction. In the direction perpendicular to forming (longitudinal direction),
while the trends of numerical and experimental residual stresses are observed to follow the same pattern, some
deviation in stress values are observed in the inner half of the corner sections. As the coiling-uncoiling process
is the main cause for the residual stress presence in flat web and flange sections, the computed coiling-uncoiling
residual stresses in longitudinal directions are compared with experimentally measured residual stresses in frame
web sections and the trends are observed to be in good agreement. Whereas the magnitudes of coiling-uncoiling
residual stresses in transverse direction are found to be very low and considered to be insignificant for the
comparative analysis. These residual stresses along with corresponding equivalent plastic strains and virgin
material properties in terms of stress-strain relationships can be considered as initial conditions for the accurate
prediction of truck frame rail fatigue behavior.
Keywords - coiling-uncoiling, cold forming, plastic strain, residual Stress, Truck frame rail, x-ray diffraction.
I. INTRODUCTION
The increasing demand for improved vehicle
performance and fuel efficiency have forced
commercial vehicle manufacturers to look into finer
design aspects in order to reduce vehicle weight and
at the same time improve the life of vehicle systems.
While the availability of high speed computing
hardware and finite element) simulation tools support
the designers with all virtual test simulations being
carried out in the early design stage, they often ignore
the effect of manufacturing process induced
variations and tend to use only the virgin material
properties in their numerical models to predict the
mechanical behavior of vehicle structures such as
frame rails.
The use of virgin material properties in numerical
simulations would not replicate the actual structural
behavior of frame rail sections. Normally, the frame
rails are subjected to number of manufacturing
processes such as coiling-uncoiling, cold forming and
hole cutting processes before attaining its final shape,
which invariably modify the frame rail material
properties and its mechanical behaviour. Since all
these manufacturing processes leave some amount of
residual stresses in frame rail sections due to
excessive cold working, based on its magnitude and
direction they have serious influence on its overall
structural behavior. In order to consider these
residual stresses and modified material properties as
initial conditions for further numerical analysis, a
thorough understanding of all the processes is
needed.
Although there were no specific literatures
available pertaining to the assessment of residual
stresses in automotive frame rail structures, some
experimental studies were found on cold formed steel
sections employed in general steel structural
applications. Quach [1] and Moen et al. [2] have
attempted to quantify the residual stresses resulting
from coiling-uncoiling process in cold formed carbon
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
2. Dr. Chinnaraj K. et al. Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications www.ijera.com
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 4, Issue 4( Version 5), April 2014, pp.162-169
www.ijera.com 163 | P a g e
steel sections through finite element and analytical
models. While Weng and White [3, 4] have measured
surface residual stresses and through thickness
residual stresses on thick cold bent steel plates using
sectional method. It was reported that through
thickness residual stress distribution was zigzag type
and the maximum residual stress either occurs at
inside surface of the bend or near the neutral surface
of the plate.
Longitudinal residual stresses in press-braked and
roll formed carbon steel channel sections were
measured using strip-sectioning method by Batista
and Rodrigues [5]. Similar approach was used to
measure residual stresses in longitudinal direction of
cold formed carbon steel sections by Weng and
Peckoz [6] and in stainless steel square hollow
sections by Young & Lui [7]. Key and Hancock [8]
have showed complex variation of through thickness
residual stress measured in thick cold rolled square
hollow sections. A recent experimental work
concerning X-ray diffraction measurements on square
hollow sections were published by Li et al [9]
showing variation of through-thickness residual
stresses as bi-linear in both transverse and
longitudinal directions. Yet, the experimental
methods are not the only possibility of residual stress
determination, there are analytical and numerical
models [10, 11] conveniently used to predict the
residual stress distribution in cold formed sections.
All these studies found in literature gave focus on
static steel column structures and the effect of
manufacturing processes on their column buckling
behavior. There were no specific literatures found in
the area of truck frame rail structures, which
considers the effect of manufacturing processes on
the dynamic fatigue behavior of frame rails. Through
this work, an attempt was made to investigate the
residual stresses and the associated plastic strains
resulting from coiling-uncoiling and press forming
processes through numerical simulations and
compared the numerically predicted residual stresses
with the experimentally measured residual stresses in
truck frame rail sections.
1.1 Frame Material Properties
The frame rail material chosen for this study is
BSK46, a widely used micro alloyed carbon steel in
truck frame rails with chemical composition of C -
1.4%, Mn - 0.03%, Nb - 0.05%, P - 0.03%, S - 0.1%
and Si - 0.03%. The mechanical properties of BSK46
material in terms of nominal stress-strain curve that
gives Young’s modulus of the material E - 210
GPa and Yield strength σy - 460 MPa is as shown in
Fig. 1.
Fig.1. BSK46 material properties
The Poisson ratio measured is ν - 0.29. As the
material non-linearity requires true stress-logarithmic
plastic strain curve, it was derived from nominal
stress-strain data up to the ultimate point and input
data points were generated for numerical analysis.
1.2 Frame Section Dimensions
Fig. 2 depicts the sectional dimensions of frame
rail sections chosen for numerical and experimental
investigations in this work.
Fig. 2. Frame section dimensions
The dimensions w, f and t denote web height,
flange width and thickness of frame rail sections
respectively. While D is diameter of coil at which the
steel sheet is extracted for frame rail section and r is
inner radius of corner section.
II. COILING-UNCOILING SIMULATION
The steel sheets are normally transported as
compact coils from steel mills to frame rail
manufacturers. The coils received at frame rail
manufacturing locations are first uncoiled and then
subjected to cold forming process to attain final
shape of the frame rail sections. These steel sheets
prior to coiling in steel mill is normally subjected to
annealing process, hence the residual stress state in
steel sheet before the cold forming processes is
mainly due to the coiling-uncoiling process the sheet
undergoes. In order to capture these residual stresses
and associated equivalent plastic strains, the coiling-
uncoiling process is simulated in Finite Element (FE)
environment. The input data points from non-linear
strain hardened material properties of BSK46 steel
grade considered for the FE simulation is shown in
Fig. 1. In order to capture the non-linear through
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thickness residual stresses more accurately in BSK46
grade steel sheets of 6 mm thickness, a minimum of
16 layers CPE4R elements (which are 2D plane strain
4 noded elements with reduced integration and hour
glass control for controlling deformation of elements
during sudden loading) were chosen through the
thickness and the final mesh size is arrived. Also for
capturing the exact coil diameter, analytical rigid
surface of equivalent diameter is modeled and surface
contact pairs available in ABAQUS [12] are used to
define contact between the sheet blank and the
analytical rigid surface during the first step of coiling
simulation. In this step, one end of the steel strip is
fixed and the other end of the steel blank is pulled
towards the analytical rigid surface with required
displacement load in such a way that the steel blank
takes the shape of analytical rigid surface,
representing the actual coil diameter.
In the second step, the uncoiling process is
simulated by reverse bending of steel blank to the
initial zero curvature with required displacement load
defined in the opposite direction. During the
uncoiling process, the surface contact defined in the
previous step is deactivated in order to simulate the
uncoiling process more closely. At the end, a spring
back analysis is performed in order to capture the
presence of any residual curvature as the steel blank
coming out from uncoiling machine is free from all
the constraints imposed earlier. The simulation
sequence captured during coiling-uncoiling process is
depicted pictorially in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Sequence of FE simulation steps in coiling-uncoiling
process
The through-thickness residual stresses in
longitudinal and transverse directions of frame rail
web and flange sections obtained through FE
simulation from various coil diameter locations due
to coiling-uncoiling processes (as they are unaffected
by cold forming process) are shown in Fig. 4 and 5. It
is very important to note that as a manufacturing
practice, the inner surface of steel coil becomes the
outer surface of frame rail section and the outer
surface of steel coil becomes the inner surface of
frame rail sections during the making of frame rail
sections.
Fig. 4 Longitudinal through-thickness residual stresses in flat web
sections derived from various coil diameter locations
Fig. 5 Transverse through-thickness residual stresses in flat web
sections derived from various coil diameter locations
From the figures, it is observed that the coiling-
uncoiling residual stresses in longitudinal directions
are predominant in frame web and flange sections
and it increases with decrease in coil diameter.
Among the stress values observed through the
thickness, the outer surface longitudinal tensile
residual stress plays a significant role in deciding
dynamic fatigue cracking behavior of truck frame rail
web and flange sections, subjected to extreme road
operating conditions.
Fig. 6 Through-thickness equivalent plastic strains in flat web
sections derived from various coil diameter locations
Similarly, through-thickness equivalent plastic
strains due to coiling-uncoiling process on frame rail
flat web sections derived from various coil diameter
locations were calculated using FE simulation and
depicted in Fig. 6. From the figure, it is observed
that there are no plastic strains in the elastic core
area. As the coil diameter increases, the elastic core
thickness also increases with subsequent reduction in
plastic strain.
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III. PRESS FORMING SIMULATION
Among the three cold forming processes
such as roll forming, angle braking and press forming
process employed for making truck frame rail
sections, the press forming process that helps to
obtain final desired shape in a single pressing process
is considered for the simulation study in this work.
The sequence of steps involved in a typical press
forming simulation is described pictorially in Fig. 7.
In the finite element model, the analytical surfaces of
punch, die and blank support were modeled by
capturing the required outer section dimensions
physically. The steel blank of 6 mm thick was
modeled with 2-D plane strain 4 noded CPE4R
element as it can handle both large strains and
rotations. The interaction between punch & steel
blank, die & steel blank and support & steel blank
were modeled with surface contact pairs available in
ABAQUS.
Fig. 7. Truck frame rail press forming process steps
Both geometrical and material non-linearities were
considered in the numerical analysis. In order to
replicate the physical loading conditions in the
forming simulation, the die maintained in a fixed
position and the tool along with support are moved
(with a support load of 40 kN acting in direction
opposite to tool motion) to required forming depth
during the press forming process. Modeling of steel
blank with 16 layers of CPE4R elements through the
thickness helps to capture the varying through-
thickness residual stresses very accurately. FE
simulation was carried out for various frame sections
with corner radius to thickness (r/t) ratios of 1, 1.5,
2.5 and 3.5 by changing tool and die section
dimensions in FE models.
Fig. 8. Typical transverse residual stress contour plot in corner
section with (r/t) ratio - 3.5
Fig. 9. Typical longitudinal residual stress contour plot in corner
section with (r/t) ratio - 3.5
Typical contour residual stress plots obtained in
transverse and longitudinal directions of a frame rail
section corner with (r/t) ratio of 3.5 and BSK46 grade
steel material are shown in Fig. 8 and 9 respectively.
The through thickness transverse and longitudinal
residual stresses obtained from non-linear finite
element simulation for varying corner radius to
thickness (r/t) ratios are shown in Fig. 10 and 11
respectively.
From the figures, it is observed that the change in
direction of residual stresses doesn’t occur exactly on
the mid-surface but at a section slightly away from
mid-surface of the steel sheet. The section at which
the residual stress changes its direction is the new
location of neutral axis for the corner section. It could
also be observed that the shift in neutral axis from
mid-surface for higher corner radius to thickness (r/t)
ratios is minimum and for lower corner radius to
thickness (r/t) ratios it is observed to be maximum.
There exists a corner radius to thickness ratio (r/t >8),
beyond which the shift in neutral axis is almost zero
and these corner sections are known as long radius
corner sections.
Fig. 10 Transverse through-thickness residual stresses in corner
sections with different corner radius to thickness (r/t) ratios
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Fig. 11. Longitudinal through-thickness residual stresses in corner
sections with different corner radius to thickness (r/t) ratios
It is also observed that the peak residual
stress values in inner corner sections with lower (r/t)
ratios are maximum and tends to drop with the
increase in (r/t) ratio. The spring back effect is also
found to be maximum for the corner sections with
lower (r/t) ratios and hence the resulting tensile
residual stresses in inner corner surface are always
maximum for corner sections with lower (r/t) ratios.
These inner surface tensile residual stresses play a
significant role in deciding dynamic fatigue cracking
behavior of truck frame rail corner sections,
subjected to extreme road operating conditions [13].
In the outer half of corner sections, the peak
residual stress values are found to be maximum for
the corner sections with higher (r/t) ratios and lower
for the corner sections with lower (r/t) ratios. Also
the spring back effect is found to be maximum for the
corner sections with higher (r/t) ratios. This
phenomenon of reducing peak and surface residual
stresses in inner corner sections and increasing peak
and surface residual stresses in outer corner sections
are expected because at a particular point where r/t
>8, the peak and surface residual stress values at
inner and outer half sections becomes equal.
Similarly, typical through-thickness equivalent
plastic strains predicted from cold forming simulation
of frame rail corner sections with (r/t) ratio of 1.5 -
3.5 are depicted in Fig. 12.
Fig.12. Through-thickness equivalent plastic strains in corner
sections with different corner radius to thickness (r/t) ratios
IV. EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
4.1 X-ray Diffraction Measurement
Residual stress measurements were carried out by
keeping saw cut press formed frame rail samples on a
Rigaku make X-ray diffractometer employing
chromium radiation to acquire the diffraction peak at
an angle of 1560
as shown in Fig. 13. Sin2
Ψ technique
was used to measure lattice spacing for multiple Ψ
angle tilts and the residual stress is calculated from
the slope of best fit straight line obtained by least
squares regression method. The measurement of
through thickness longitudinal and transverse residual
stresses on corner and flat web sections was
accomplished with the support of spot layer removal
method described below.
4.2 Spot Layer Removal Method
X-ray diffraction method is employed for
measuring residual stresses on component surface;
hence for measuring through-thickness residual
stress, removal of material to required depth is
needed. Unlike regular layer removal method where
rough machining was employed for initial removal of
material in entire surface followed by electrolytic
polishing [9], in this work a spot layer removal
method was adapted for selected area electrolytic
etching purpose. In spot layer removal method, the
test specimen is completely masked, leaving only a
small area of 1cm2
getting exposed to electrolyte for
layer removal during etching process.
Fig. 13 X-ray diffraction measurement setup
(Courtesy: Central X-ray diffraction lab, IIT Madras, India)
The material removal to required depth is achieved
by exposing the surface to a preset time period in
95% brine solution used as electrolyte. As residual
stress measurement in a small area at increased depth
would be inconvenient for X-ray diffraction
measurement, only half thickness residual stresses are
measured from outside surface of the section and the
remaining half thickness residual stresses are
measured from inside surface at the same location.
During electrolytic etching process, enough care
was taken to ensure that electrolyte was not heated up
and maintained at atmospheric temperature. As the
material removal was only though electrolytic
etching process, rough machining was completely
eliminated and hence there are no machining induced
residual stress left in component subsurface.
Moreover, in spot layer removal method, the material
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removal is limited to a small surface area locally
thereby it achieves very minimal stress relaxation,
Whereas in regular layer removal method, the entire
specimen surface is subjected to rough machining
followed by electrolytic polishing process.
IV. NUMERICAL VS. EXPERIMENTAL
ANALYSIS RESULTS
The comparative numerical vs. experimental
analysis of through thickness residual stresses in
longitudinal direction of web sections derived from
Φ1200 mm and Φ1800 mm are shown in Fig. 14 and
15 respectively.
Fig. 14 Experimental vs. numerical longitudinal residual stresses in
flat web section derived from Φ1200 mm coil location
Fig. 15 Experimental vs. numerical longitudinal residual stresses in
flat web section derived from Φ1800 mm coil location
From the figures, it is observed that the non-linear
variation of through-thickness FE residual stresses in
coiling direction is closely in agreement with
experimental results. Although the experimentally
measured residual stresses at depths are observed to
be lower than FE predicted residual stresses, the inner
and outer surface FE residual stresses are closely
matching with experimental results. The drop in
experimental residual stresses could be attributed to
some amount of stress relaxation during electrolytic
polishing process, albeit enough care was taken to
minimize the effect. Whereas the magnitudes of
coiling-uncoiling residual stresses in transverse
direction are found to be very low and hence
considered to be insignificant for the comparative
analysis.
Similarly, the through thickness residual stress results
obtained from numerical simulation of press formed
corner sections in transverse as well as longitudinal
directions are compared with the experimentally
measured residual stress results of formed corner
sections with (r/t) ratios of 2.5 and 3.5 are shown in
Fig. 16 - 19 respectively.
Fig. 16 Experimental vs. numerical transverse residual stresses for
corner section with (r/t) ratio - 2.5
Fig. 17 Experimental vs. numerical longitudinal residual stresses
for corner section with (r/t) ratio - 2.5
Fig.18. Experimental vs. numerical longitudinal residual stresses
for corner section with (r/t) ratio - 3.5
Fig.19. Experimental vs. numerical longitudinal residual stresses
for corner section with (r/t) ratio - 3.5
From the figures, it is observed that the non-linear
zigzag variation in through-thickness residual stresses
from FE simulation is closely in agreement with
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experimentally measured residual stresses; although
the experimentally measured peak transverse residual
stresses at depths are slightly lower than finite
element predicted peak residual stress results. Again
this could be attributed to the stress relaxation due to
layer removal during electrolytic polishing process.
In both numerical and experimental methods, the
maximum compressive residual stresses in transverse
and longitudinal directions are observed to be
occurring at a location slightly away from neutral
axis towards the inner corner surface. The magnitude
of maximum compressive stress in inner half
thickness is observed to be more than the magnitude
of maximum tensile stress in outer half thickness of
corner section.
Further, it is observed that the change in direction
of residual stresses do not occur on the mid-section,
but on the section slightly towards inner corner
surface due to the effect of neutral axis shift in bends
with small radius of curvature. It is observed that in
both numerical and experimental methods, the shift
in neutral axis towards inner corner surface is much
severe for lower corner radius to thickness ratio
sections while comparing with higher corner radius to
thickness ratio sections.
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In this investigation, coiling-uncoiling and press
forming process were numerically simulated with the
help of ABAQUS software and the numerically
predicted residual stresses were validated with the
experimentally measured stress values.
The study results in frame rail web and flange
sections revealed that the through-thickness residual
stresses follow non-linear distribution with maximum
stresses occurring at plastic region away from the
elastic core and at the surface.
Similarly, the study results in frame corner section
revealed that the longitudinal and transverse residual
stresses follow non-linear distribution with maximum
stresses occurring at a depth close to neutral axis.
Hence it is concluded that the consideration of
surface residual stresses alone would not be sufficient
for the structural behavior analysis of cold formed
frame sections.
From the residual stress distribution, it is worth to
note that the mid-section residual stress changes it
direction at a section slightly away from mid-section
towards inner corner and not exactly at mid-section
due to natural shift in neutral axis during press
forming process. Also the change in residual stress
directions in inner and outer quarter thickness of
corner sections is mainly due to elastic spring back
effect after forming process.
It is also found that the maximum transverse and
longitudinal residual stresses in inner half thickness
of corner sections are always higher than the
maximum residual stresses observed in outer half
thickness of corner sections. The excessive cold
working in inner half thickness due to smaller bend
radius than the outer half thickness is one of the
reasons for this observation. It is observed that the
trends and values of experimentally measured
residual stresses in forming direction (transverse
direction) for different corner radius to thickness
ratios (r/t) are in agreement with numerically
predicted residual stresses.
Whereas in the longitudinal direction
(perpendicular to forming direction), while the trends
of experimental and numerical residual stresses were
observed to follow the same pattern, slight deviations
were observed in longitudinal residual stress values
and its direction in the inner surface of corner
sections.
Apart from the residual stresses, the associated
equivalent plastic strains due to coiling-uncoiling and
cold forming processes also found to be increasing
with decrease in coil diameters and (r/t) ratios
respectively. Since these residual stresses along with
corresponding equivalent plastic strain values reveal
the deformed state of web, flange and corner
sections, these parameters in combination with virgin
material stress-strain relationships would be useful
for defining initial conditions of frame rail sections
for further fatigue behavior analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thank Prof. Kesavan Nair and
Mr. Chari, XRD Lab, Indian Institute of Technology
Madras for their invaluable support extended during
X-ray diffraction measurement. The authors also
thank Dr. N.Saravanan, Head - Engineering and
Dr.Venkat Srinivas, Platform Director - Trucks,
Ashok Leyland Technical Centre for their continuous
support and allowing the authors to carry out this
work at Ashok Leyland Technical Centre.
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