4. +
History – the basics 1
Maintain empathy at all times, no matter how tired
you are
Parents are anxious and worried – don’t let this
frustrate you
Open ended questions to start – let the parents
speak, don’t interrupt early
Acknowledge that they might be exhausted,
especially if they have been transferred from
another hospital and have had a long day
Age appropriate engagement of child
5. +
History – the basics 2
History of pain – if child is old enough can ask
them
Temporal history important
Associated symptoms
Red flags
Bile stained vomiting
Flank or back pain
Waking at night
Not walking
6. +
History – tips
Ask about journey to hospital – when the car went
over bumps
When asking about nature and severity let the
child know that the questions are hard and not to
worry too much if they can’t answer
If the history is long try to establish if they had any
days when they were well
Ask about stool frequency (beware assuming
“constipation”)
Ask about family history of appendicits
7. +
Examination – the basics
Distraction, be non-threatening, keep parents close
Positioning
Observation – RR (measure yourself), work of
breathing, movement, level of distress “well v
unwell”, Sa02 if monitored
Vital signs – measure HR, CR
All systems including ENT
Inspection, Palpation, Percussion, Auscultation
8. +
Examination - tips
Don’t stand over child, kneel or sit next to bed
Keep arm horizontal, palpate with palm not tips of fingers
Look at their face
Distraction
Ask about age, siblings, school, movies, parents, pets
If you think the abdomen is distended measure
Don’t forget hernia, testes
Mobility, don’t be afraid to try to walk them but don’t push
9. +
Examination – the abdomen
Superficial palpation away from site of
reported pain – look at face
Deep palpation
Liver, spleen, kidneys
Masses
Percussion
10. +
Appendicitis in Children
Most common non-traumatic surgical
emergency
Peak 12-18 yrs
Classic appendicitis easy
“Atypical” appendicitis common in
children
Beware false localising signs – diarrhoea,
dysuria
12. +
Appendicitis - Investigations
No single diagnostic test
Aim:
high sensitivity/specificity
minimise missed appendicitis
minimise normal appendicectomy rate
minimise delay to OT
13. +
Appendicitis - Investigations
• Urinalysis
– Pyuria in ~ 30%
• FBC
– Neither sensitive nor specific
• U/S
– Sensitivity 87%, Specificity 89%
– Not visualised 10%
• CT
– Sensitivity 91%, Specificity 94%
– RIM risk (single CT in 5yo -> 20-25:100000)
•Klein, M. D. (2007). "Clinical approach to a child with abdominal pain who might have appendicitis."
Pediatric Radiology 37(1): 11-14
•Doria, A. (2009). "Optimizing the role of imaging in appendicitis." Pediatric Radiology 39(Suppliment 2):
S144-148.
14. + Appendicitis scores – Alvarado
Score
Clinical Feature Score
M Migration of pain to RIF 1
A Anorexia 1
N Nausea 1
T Tenderness in RLQ 2
R Rebound pain 1
E Elevated temperature 1
L Leukocytosis 2
S Shift to left of WBC 1
10
<5: Rule out
>7: Rule in
Probably - good at ruling out, not great at ruling in,
overestimates appendicitis in children with intermediate
scores
16. +
Intussusception
• Mostly idiopathic but consider lead point
• Vomit / pain / blood [classic triad < 30%]
• Most common 5-10mths – “any age”
• M:F 3:1, 1-4:1000
• X-ray may show signs
• US (sensitivity ~ 100%)
• Air enema
• Consider pathological lead point in very young or older
children
Del-Pozzo et al (1996). “Intussusception: US findings with pathologic correlation – the cresent in doughnut sign. Radiology
199: 688-792
17. + Intussusception
Liver edge not well defined
“Cresent” in right upper quadrant
Paucity of gas on right side of abdomen
Distended loop of transverse colon
19. +
Meckel’s Diverticulum
“Rule of 2s”
2% population
2% symptomatic (actually ~ 4%)
2 inches long
2 ft prox to terminal ileum
2 times more common in boys
2 types of ectopic tissue (gastric and pancreatic)
Pain, bleed, perforation, obstruction
Classic presentation -> painless bleeding
Can be lead point for intussusception
Meckel’s scan
~ 80% sensitivity, 95% specific
Surgical excision
20. +
Ovarian Torsion
• Rare in children
• Usually seen with ovarian pathology
• Usually colicky lower pain
• Acute onset
• Right > Left
• May be associated nausea, vomiting,
raised WCC
• Ultrasound has high specificity /
sensitivity
21. +
Formulating a provisional and
differential diagnosis
Be systematic
Most likely to least likely
Anatomical
Most serious
Surgical v Non-surgical
Abdominal v extra-abdominal
Pnemonic
V Vascular
I Inflammatory/infectious
N Neoplastic
D Drugs
I Iatrogenic
C Congenital
A Autoimmune
T Traumatic
E Endocrine / Environmental
M Metabolic
22. +
Formulating a provisional and
differential diagnosis
Constipation is not a diagnosis
Rare but serious
Discitis
ALL
Intra-abdominal abcess
Tumour
Anatomical approach
Systems approach
26. +
Neonates and Infants
• Hernia
• Torsion
• Appendicitis
• NEC
• Volvulus
• Intussusception
• Hirschprung
27. +
Management in ED - Analgesia
Assessment of pain
• Can be difficult – pain vs anxiety
• Age dependent
• Pain scales,Visual analogue scale
28. +
Management in ED - Analgesia
• Simple analgesia as appropriate
• Are opioids contra-indicated?
• No RCT
• Practice is to not withhold analgesia
• Intranasal Fentanyl (1-2mcg/kg)
• Intravenous Morphine (0.1-0.2mg/kg)
Sharwood, L. N. and F. E. Babl (2009). "The efficacy and effect of opioid analgesia in undifferentiated abdominal pain in
children: a review of four studies." Paediatric Anaesthesia 19(5): 445-451.
29. +
Disposition
Admission v Discharge
Solid plan for discharge and follow up
“Obs admit” – try to avoid prolonged observation admission
Admission for observation and serial examination is a good
option in equivocal cases
31. +
Essentials
1. Only a small percentage have surgical
cause
2. Age influences diagnostic possibilities
3. Abdominal examination critical
4. Don’t withhold analgesia
5. Aetiology may be intra or extra abdominal
6. Serial examination useful
7. Definitive diagnosis not always possible
8. Clear follow up important
Editor's Notes
Severity
Constant
Movement
Radiation
Nature – beware of putting words in their mouth
Severity
Constant
Movement
Radiation
Nature – beware of putting words in their mouth
There is some evidence of familial predisposition, especially in children under 6 yrs of age (Nelson Paediatrics). A prospective study found that children who ended up having appendicitis were more likely to have a first degree relative with appendicitis [1]
1.Gauderer MW, Crane MM, Green JA, DeCou JM, Abrams RS. Acute appendicitis in children: the importance of family history. J Pediatr Surg. 2001 Aug;36(8):1214–7.
Normal appendicectimy rate previously accepted as ~ 10%, now ~ 2-5%
RIM risk - a single abdominal CT study in a 5-year-old child, the lifetime risk of radiation-induced cancer would be 26.1 per 100,000 in female and 20.4 per 100,000 in male patients, based on probabilistic models designed with data from atomic bomb survivors
WCC and inflammatory markers more likely to be elevated if long history
Bowel segment invaginates into the lumen of the more distal lumen
Invaginated segment carried more distally by peristalsis, mesentry and vessels squeezed -&gt; venous congestion
Specific lead point to consider -&gt; meckels, HUS, CF, HSP, lymphoma/leukaemia [esp in children &gt; 3 yrs]