A Vietnamese-English cross-cultural study on the use of responding to English greetings.pdf

Vietnam national university, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
PHÙNG THỊ ĐỨC
A VIETNAMESE –ENGLISH CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY
ON THE USE OF RESPONDING TO ENGLISH GREETINGS
(Nghiên cứu Giao thoa Văn hoá Anh- Việt trong việc sử dụng lời
đáp lại các lời chào của tiếng Anh)
Minor Thesis
Field: English Linguistics
Code: 60 22 15
HANOI - 2010

Vietnam national university, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
PHÙNG THỊ ĐỨC
A VIETNAMESE – ENGLISH CROSS-CULTURAL
STUDY ON THE USE OF RESPONDING TO
ENGLISH GREETINGS
NGHIÊN CỨU GIAO VĂN HÓA ANH –VIỆT TRONG VIỆC SỬ DỤNG
LỜI ĐÁP LẠI CÁC LỜI CHÀO CỦA TIẾNG ANH
M.A. Mino Programme Thesis
Major: English Linguistics
Code: 60 22 15
Supervisor: PHAN THỊ VÂN QUYÊN, MA.
HANOI - 2010

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
RETENTION OF THE STUDY PROJECT REPORT...........................i
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS ..........................................................................ii
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................iii
PART I: INTRODUCTION.......................................................................1
I. Rationale ....................................................................................................1
II. Aims of the study......................................................................................2
III. Scope of the study ...................................................................................2
IV. Methodology...........................................................................................3
V. Design of the study..................................................................................3
PART II: DEVELOPMENT......................................................................4
Chapter One: Literature Review..............................................................4
1.1. Language in communication.................................................................4
1.2. Language and culture............................................................................5
1.3. Cross-cultural communication..............................................................6
1.4. Cross-cultural pragmatics .....................................................................7
1.4.1. Speech acts..........................................................................................7
1.5. An overview of greetings in English and Vietnamese..........................12
1.5.1. Definition of greetings ......................................................................12
1.5.2. Functions of greetings........................................................................12
1.5.3. Characteristics of greetings................................................................13
1.5.3.1. Addressing forms in greetings .........................................................14
1.5.3.1.1.Addressing forms in Vietnamese greeting ....................................14
1.5.3.1.2. Addressing forms in English greetings.........................................15
1.5.4. Types of greetings.............................................................................16
1.5.4.1.Greetings in passing..........................................................................17

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1.5.4.2.Greeting before a conversation .........................................................17
1.5.4.3. Greetings in Business......................................................................18
1.5.4.4. Greeting at a social event ( at a party) ............................................19
1.5.4.5. Greetings in the classroom..............................................................20
1.6. Responding to a greeting in the light of Cross-Cultural Pragmatics .....21
Chapter two: RESEARCH AND METHODOLODY............................23
2.1. Hypotheses .............................................................................................23
2.2. Data collection .......................................................................................23
2.2.1. The questionnaire................................................................................23
1.2.2. The informants...................................................................................24
Chapter three: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS.....................................25
3.1. Considerations when responding to greeting.........................................25
3.2. The strategies of responding to greetings .............................................26
3.2.1. Data analysis .......................................................................................26
3.2.3. Findings and results ............................................................................37
3.2.4. Suggestion for using responses to greetings in English......................40
PART III: CONCLUSION.........................................................................42
APPENDIX ..................................................................................................I
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................................................I
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................II

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PART I: INTRODUCTION
I. Rationale
In recent years, English has become an international language used widely all over the
world. It is not only the language of communication and media but also the language of
knowledge and culture. Mastering English is considered an obligated condition for
everyone in Vietnam and it is implied to be a “passport” for a good job because English
serves their job and their promotion. Therefore, people pay more and more attention to
learning English. They no longer do grammar and translation exercises only but listening
skill and speaking skill have been invested more time and better attention as well. As a
result, English has been learnt more properly and used more effectively.
However, in reality, Vietnamese learners of English often make mistakes in
communicating with English speakers. This is mostly caused by the effect of Vietnamese
culture and the limitation of understanding about English culture. One of the most
important parts in almost every conversation is greeting which generally plays an
important role in communication and functions as a start of a conversation or indentify the
appearance of speakers or to express the respect to the listener. In addition, greetings help
to establish, maintain a relationship and facilitates the conversation.
Greeting is the first step of the communication. The continual step is responding to the
greeting, a decisive agent assuring the success of the communicating. Thus, it is essential
to take great interest in not only what and how we greet each other but also what and how
we respond to greetings. Although greetings and responses are, to some extent, formulaic,
choosing a relevant response to a greeting is not an easy job. In fact, many Vietnamese
people failed to continue their conversation in English due to not only language ability but
also understanding about the culture of target language, English. In many cases, when
being greeted by a foreigner, many English learners feel confused to find out a good and
relevant response, some people cannot respond their partner’s greeting immediately.
Realizing the important role of responding to greetings, the author has chosen to study
Vietnamese and English cross-cultural communication in term of responding to greetings
with the expectation of finding out the similarities and differences between Vietnamese
and English responses to greetings then suggest relevant responses to greetings in specific

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situations, which partly helps English learners in Vietnam have more confidence and
achieve more success in communicating in English.
II. Aims of the study
The ultimate goal of this research is
- to investigate the specific situations of responding the greetings among learners of
English with certain variables (i.e. age, gender, social hierarchy, etc.)
- to provide readers general information about English and Vietnamese greetings
and the way they reply a greeting in their own language
- to compare and contrast replying strategies in English and Vietnamese in order to
bring about the similarities and differences in the way Vietnamese and English
people reply a greeting
- Therefore, the research questions are:
 What are the verbal strategies used by Vietnamese and English people to reply a
greeting?
 What are the similarities and differences in responding to greeting in English and
Vietnamese?
III. Scope of the study
- Although the role of paralinguistic and non-verbal factors in real-life
communication is fully conscious, the study focuses on the verbal aspects of the act
of replying a greeting only.
- The study is confined only to strategies of replying a greeting in Vietnamese and
Anglophone culture. The Vietnamese Northern dialect and the English language
spoken in Great Britain are chosen for contrastive analysis.
- Conducting survey questionnaires enables the author to collect the data from a large
population in a short period of time. Recorded and videotaped face-to face
conversations are impossible due to the limitation of time, geographical distance
and financial difficulties.

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IV. Methodology
In order to carry out this study theoretically, the author has based on careful studies and
analysis of linguistic, semantic and pragmatic materials with the great support of my
supervisor through her valuable remarks and comments as well as reference to both
home and foreign publications Thus, in order to achieve the objectives of a cross-
cultural research, the main method of study is the qualitative and quantitative one. The
survey questionnaire is designed for Vietnamese people about their ways of replying
greetings in their target language and English people about their ways of replying
greetings in their mother tongue. The survey was designed with different situations
basing on the routines and daily conversations. Their cultural and linguistic matters
will be analyzed by the statistics, data, and description collected. Besides, some
comments and suggestions are also given by personal observations or consultation with
the supervisor.
V. Design of the study
This study consists of three main parts. Part I - Introduction- In this first part, all the
theoretical background and academic routines are discussed. In part B – Development
focuses on the 3 chapters. In chapter I, cross-cultural and responding to a greeting are
defined cultural pragmatics and replying a greeting are mentioned. In this chapter, the
author distinguishes the differences and the similarities between responding to greeting in
English and Vietnamese. In the next chapter, the research methodology is discussed with
analysis and findings from the survey questionnaires conducted by the Vietnamese and
English. Part III is the conclusion of the study, here, the author summarize all the main
ideas, the important findings as well as some suggestions

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PART II: DEVELOPMENT
Chapter One: Literature Review
1.1. Language in communication
In the history of human’s evolution, language is seen as the most amazing achievement
because it creates the distinguishing between man and beast. Since language has become a
part of the development of man and his society, it is impossible to distance language from
people.
Language includes a system of verbal forms of communication which conveys meaning by
other means of human communication and a system of non-verbal cues such as body
motions, facial expressions, etc. According to Schmidt and Richard (91980:161),
“language is to build bridges, to consolidate political regimes, to carry on arguments, to
convey information from one person to another, to entertain and in short, to communicate”.
Hence, “language is a human system of communication which uses structured vocal
sounds and can be embodied in other media such as writing, print and physical signs” (The
Oxford Companion To The English Language. 1996:523)
Hybels,S. and Weaver, R. (1992) say “communication is any process in which people
share information, ideas and feelings that involve not only the spoken and written words
but also body language, personal mannerisms and style, the surrounding and things that
add meaning to a message”. In this sense, communication is considered a transactional
process of creating and sharing meaning, through verbal and non-verbal behavior, between
two or more persons.
In Malinowski’s words (in Hudson R.A. 1980:109) “language functions as a link in
concerted human activity, as a piece of human behavior”. In this way, communication has
“the phatic function” as communication is used not only for exchanging information but
also establishing, reinforcing and maintaining a social relation to confirm each other’s
presence. In this sense, Verderber (1990:60) claimed 4 uses of language. Firstly, language
is to designate, label and define thoughts, feelings, objects, people and experiences in order
that they may be shared with other people. Secondly, language is used to evaluate what it
defines as language plays a role to control over the perceptions and behaviors of people.

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Thirdly, we use language to discuss things outside our immediate experience. Finally, we
can use language to reflect on or to talk about language because it is self- reflexive.
Talking about the functions of communication, Verderber also defined three functions of
communication i.e. psychological function, social function and decision-making function.
In brief, it is difficult to distance language from communication. Thanks to language,
communication becomes more successful and effective. In turn, communication helps
language express all features and characteristics.
1.2. Language and culture
Language and culture are the two factors which are interrelated because people share not
merely language but also culture. Thus, “What is culture?” It is difficult to define this
concept. Culture normally refers to the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and
behavior, language, ideas, customs and so on. However, culture is the way we act, the
context in which we exist, think, feel and relate to others. In Kottak’s words (1979:4)
culture that complex whole which include knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, custom,
and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Another
definition that is the most widely –cited by Goodenough (1992:217)
A society’s culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate
in a manner acceptable to its members, and to do so in any role that they accept for any one
of themselves
In this definition, culture is seen as a shared background (e.g. national, ethic, religious)
resulting from a common language and communication style, customs, beliefs, attitudes
and values. Therefore, culture is also absorbed through the socialization process.
Goodenough stated “the relation of language to culture is that of part to whole” and
according to Goshgarian, “Language shapes our perception of reality”
The socio-cultural context reflects the social and cultural practices of a community through
language. It is not difficult to interpret culture through language because language reflects
cultural identity which people meet daily in their lives. Additionally, thanks to language,
cultural values and ideas, human culture would be persevered by generations to
generations. In its turn, culture has a great influence on the way in which language is used.
Culture itself navigates guidelines or practices for linguistic behavior. To add this sense,

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William Frawley (1992:45) says: “Culture is the final arbiter of meaning, or linguistic
meaning is entirely determined by the cultural context in which the language occurs”
In Bromfit’s words (C.J et al: 1995), language is one of the most important symbol systems
in any culture, thus, there is no surprise that language and culture should be taught and
learned in the foreign or second language classrooms as learning a new language means
learning a new culture.
1.3. Cross-cultural communication
Obviously, cultural components play an important role in conveying the message of
communication. People living in a cultural environment gradually learn the language,
beliefs and behavior of the group in which they re nurtured. They know and understand the
manners which are acceptable in their society. Thus, there is an understanding between
those who share the same culture. However, when people from different cultural
backgrounds, cross-cultural communication occurs. Jose, P (1992) states:
Things happen as entities from different cultures directly and constantly communicate.
This, obviously, will lead to changes of the original patterns, or in other words, cross-
cultural communication is the exchange of cultures and also the results of these changes.
Sooner or later they will experience a period of curiosity, frustration, anger, alienation,
depression and other such reactions that have come to be labeled “culture shock”. It is the
reaction of the person from his culture to the visitor’s behavior coming from other culture.
It seems that no matter how well a person has prepared himself, some degree of “shock” is
inevitable and, some would say, necessary for better adjustment. What is important is to
recognize these feelings and to know how to respond to them. (Condon and Yousef. 1996).
In order to cope with this problem, we should adopt openness, a receptive attitude towards
other cultures, never see them as awkward or meaningless. Mentioning what makes
communication successful, Byram and Flemin (1998:12) stated “acquisition of abilities to
understand different modes of thinking and living, as they are embodied in the language to
be learnt, and to reconcile or mediate between different modes present in any specific
interaction”

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1.4. Cross-cultural pragmatics
In the eyes of linguists, language is considered a social product which should be examined
in a context to find out the meaning in relation of the language and the context. Thus, it is
impossible to interpret an utterance without the context in which it is used. The term
“Pragmatics” is defined as “The study of language from the point of view of users,
especially of the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in
social interaction, and the effects the use of language has on other participants in the act of
communication. In other words, pragmatics is the study of communicative action in its
sociological context. Communicative action includes not only speech acts – such as
requesting, greeting, and so on; but also participation in conversation engaging in different
types of discourse and sustaining interaction in complex speech events” (Kasper:1996).
Pragmatics focuses on the actual language used in specific communicative situations.
Therefore, speakers must be sensitive to potential as well as actual meaning because
pragmatics refers to the meaning implied in individual words and the order of words to
consider how we use utterances when we talk. To be more specific, making meaning is a
dynamic process which involves different contributions of both speaker and hearer as well
as the context and the potential meaning of an utterance. Besides, in Richard’ opinion
(1992:284), when mentioning pragmatics, it is obvious that researchers have to answer the
three questions as the followings: “How do the interpretation and use of utterances depend
on knowledge of the real world?, How do speakers use and understand speech acts? And
How is the structure of sentences influenced by the relationship between the speaker and
the hearer?” Briefly, world knowledge and social knowledge of participants in
communication are so important that they can be distance from interpreting the real
meaning of each utterance.
1.4.1. Speech acts
In attempting to express themselves, people do not only produce utterances containing
grammatical structures and words, they perform actions via those utterances. If you work
in a situation where a boss has a great deal of power, then the boss’s utterance: “You’re
fired” is more than just statement. This utterance can be used to perform the act of ending
you employment. However, the actions performed by utterances do not have to be as
dramatic or as unpleasant as in this example. The action can be quite pleasant, as in the

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compliment performed by the acknowledgement of thanks in or the expression of surprise
for instance, “You’re so delicious”, “You’re welcome” or even “You’re crazy”. So,
Action performed via utterances are generally called speech acts and in
English are commonly given more specific labels, such as apology,
complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request and greetings.
(George Yule, 1996)
These descriptive terms for different kinds of speech acts apply to the speaker’s
communicative intention in producing an utterance. The speaker’s normally expects that
his or her communicative intention will be recognized by the hearer. Both speaker and
hearer are usually helped in this process by the circumstances surrounding the utterance.
This circumstances, including other utterances, are called the speech event. In many ways,
it may be the nature of the speech event that determines t he interpretation of an utterance
as performing a particular speech act.
On any occasion, the action performed by producing an uttereance will consist of three
related acts. There is first a locutionalry act, which is the basic act of utterance, or
producing a meaningful linguistic expression. If you have difficulty with actually forming
the sounds and words to create a meaningful utterance in a language, then you might fail to
produce alocutionary act.
Mostly we don’t just produce well-formed utterances with no purpose. We form an
utterance with some kind of function in purpose. This is the second dimension, or the
illocutionary act. The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an
utterance . We might utter “I’ve just made some coffee” to make a statement, an offer, an
explanation, or for some other communicative purpose. This is also generally known as the
illocutionary force of the utterance.
We do not, of course, simply create an utterance with a function without intending it to
have an effect this is the third dimension, the perlocutionary act. Depending on the
circumstances, you will utter “I’ve just made some coffee” on the assumption that the
hearer will recognize the effect you intended (for example, to account for a wonderful
smell, or to get the hearer to drink some coffee). This is also generally known as the
prlocutionary effect.

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Of these three dimensions, the most discussed is illocutionary force. Indeed, the term
“speech act” is generally interpreted quite narrowly to mean only the illocutionary force of
an utterance. The illocutionary force of an utterance is what is “counts as”. The same
locutionary act, as shown as “I’ll see you later”, can count as a prediction “I predict that
I’ll see you later”, a promise “I promise you that I’ll see you later” or a warning “ I warn
you that I see you later”. These different analyses of the utterance in the examples above
represent different illocutionary forces.
Speech act classification
Serle (1969&1970), suggests one general classification system of five types of general
functions performed by speech acts: declarations, representatives, expressive, directives,
and commissives.
* Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance.
The examples below illustrate that the speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a
specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately.
E.g.
Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.
Referee: You ‘re out.
* Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be
the case or note. Statements of fact assertions, conclusions, and descriptions, as illustrated
in the following examples:
E.g.
(a) The earth is flat.
(b) It was a warm sunny day.
* Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. They express
psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow.
As illustrated in the following examples, they can be caused by something the speaker does
or the hearer does, but they are about the speaker’s experience
E.g.
(a) I’m really sorry!
(b) Congratulations!
(c) Oh, yes, great, mmmm, ssahhh!

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* Directives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to do
something. They express what the speaker wants. They commands, orders, requests,
suggestions, and, as illustrated in the below examples, they can be positive and negative
E.g.
(a) Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black.
(b) Could you lend me a pen, please?
(c) Don’t touch that.
* Commissives: commit the speaker to do something such as promises, threats, etc. In
using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words via the speaker
In short, speech act is the act we perform when we speak. The speech act theory helps to
interpret the function of language to communicate, which operates in a particularly
interesting way in interaction.
Bach and Harnish (1984) mention 4 groups which are not different and paradox to those
identified by Searle and Austin. They are constatives, directives, commissives and
acknowledgements which are defined clearly in the below table
Constatives Directives Commissives Acknowledgements
Assertive
Predictive
Retrodictives
Descriptives
Ascritptives
Informatives
Confirmatives
Concessives
Retractives
Assentives
Dissentives
Disputatives
Responsives
Suggestives
Suppositives
Requestives
Questions
Requirments
Prohibitive
Permissives
Advisories
Promises
Offers
Apologise
Condote
Congratulate
Greet
Thank
Bid
Accept
Reject

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Direct and indirect speech acts
A different approach to distinguishing types of speech acts can be made on the basis of
structure. A fairly simple structural distinction between three general types of speech act is
providing, in English, by the three basic sentence types. As shown in the below examples,
there is an easily recognized relationship between the three structural forms (declarative,
interrogative, and imperative) and the three general communicative functions (statement,
question, and command/request):
For example:
You wear a seat belt (declarative)
Do you wear a seat belt? (interrogative)
Wear a seat belt (imperative)
Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a direct
speech act. Whenever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and a function,
we have an indirect speech act. Thus, a declarative used to make a statement is a direct
speech act, but a declarative used to make a request is an indirect speech act. As illustrated
in “It’s cold outside” is a declarative. When it is used to make a statement, as paraphrased
in ‘I hereby tell you about the weather”, it is functioning as a direct speech act. When it is
used to make a command/ request, as paraphrased in “I hereby request of you that you
close the door”, it is functioning as an indirect speech act.
Different structures can be used to accomplish the same basic function, as in the below
examples, where the speaker wants the addressee not to stand in front of the TV. The basic
function of all the utterances is a command/request, but only the imperative structure in the
first example represent a direct speech act. The interrogative structure in the second
example is not being used only as a question, hence it is an in direct speech act. The
declarative structures in the third and fourth example are also indirect requests.
The examples are:
Move out of the way!
Do you have to stand in front of the TV?
You’re standing in front of the TV.
You’d make a better door than a window.

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One of the most common types of indirect speech act in English, as shown in “ Could you
pass the salt?” or “Would you open this?”, has the form of an interrogative, but is not
typically used to ask a question (i.e. we don’t expect only an answer, we expect action).
The examples are normally understood as requests.
Indeed, there is typical pattern in English whereby asking a question about the hearer’s
assumed ability “Can you?”, “Could you?” or future likelihood with regard to doing
something “Will you?” or “Would you?”) normally, counts as a request to actually do
that something.
Indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness in English than direct
speech acts. In order to understand why, we have to look at a bigger picture than just a
single utterance performing a single speech act.
Speech events
We can look at the set of utterances produced in this kind of situation as a speech event. A
speech event is an activity in which participants interact via language in some conventional
way to arrive at some outcome. It may include an obvious central speech act, such as “I
don’t really like this” as in a speech event of “complaining” but it will also include other
utterances leading up to and subsequently reacting to that central action. In most cases, a
“request” is not made by means of a single speech act suddenly uttered.
1.5. An overview of greetings in English and Vietnamese
1.5.1. Definition of greetings
Greeting is one of the most frequently and openly speech acts used in everyday
conversation. In all languages, it has the same purpose: to establish contact with
another person, to recognize his or her existence and to show friendliness. (Tillitt,
1965:5).
1.5.2. Functions of greetings
According to Goody (1972: 40) greetings have three major functions. First, they open a
sequence of communicative acts between two persons, irrespective of their positions.
Second, they are a means of defining and affirming both identity and rank. Third, a mode
of deference manipulates a relationship in order to achieve a specific result because the
standardized forms of greeting contain an element of difference which is status enhancing.
Briefly, greetings in almost every language generally help to establish and maintain a

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relationship and to facilitate the conversation. However, the formulas for greetings are very
specific and usually do not carry any literal meaning. People say: “Good morning!” even
if it is a miserable day and may reply to “How are you?” with “Fine, thanks!” even if they
are not feeling well.
Firth (19972:2) in studying functions of greetings remarks “what is of prime relevance is
the establishment or perpetuation of a social relationship, the recognition of the other
person as a social entity, a personal element in a common social situation”. Therefore, the
refusal of a greeting to someone known is a denial of him as a social entity.
1.5.3. Characteristics of greetings
Although greetings are used differently in each situation, they are formulaic. Laver (1981)
remarks that “the choice of formulaic terms often depends almost as much on the
characteristics of the speaker as those of the listeners”. Coulmas (1979) introduces the term
“routine formulae” for such kinds of expressions as greeting or thanking. Richard
(1983:129 ff) later uses conversational routines to refer to the same notion
Routine formulae are expressions whose occurrence is closely bound to specific
social situations and which are, on the basis of the evaluation of such situations,
highly predictable in the communicative course of events. Their meaning is
pragmatically conditioned and their usage is motivated by the relevant
characteristics of such social situations
Coulmas also defines two main related functions of which have much to do with greeting
and address terms. The first function is that routine formulae maintain orderliness of
communication by helping to reduce social interaction complexity. For example, people
may say the formula “How are you?” to a neighbor only on a normal speaking terms
without meaning to sincerely inquire after his health, or we can say “Good morning!” to
someone while it is raining outside, but the use of the helps to create a normal or unhostile
atmosphere. Besides, routine formulae facilitate the decision process in choosing
communicative means by offering ready-made units. Finally, they organize the reactions to
social situations for example, how, what to say in response to a thank-you, a greeting or
how to address one’s teacher, etc., so that these responses are apt to become spontaneous.
The second function of routine formulae us to support group identity by serving as a means
for establishing and developing rapport, reinforcing self-awareness as a group identity,

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perpetuating, emphasizing values, norms, customs of the group, indicating the speaker’s
conformity with the group and being a means of defining social status of the interlocutors,
e.g., in forms of address.
1.5.3.1. Addressing forms in greetings
Firstly, it is stated that addressing forms is an interesting phenomenon in the study on
cross-cultural communication. There exist numerous addressing systems in different
cultures and languages.
1.5.3.1.1. Addressing forms in Vietnamese greeting
Like many other Eastern languages, Vietnamese language has a so complicated one that
makes foreigners get confused when using Vietnamese addressing forms. Many foreigners
say that accessing to Vietnamese addressing forms is not much different from entering to a
maze. It is partly true and understandable because Vietnamese addressing system is one of
the most complicated features in Vietnamese language that even its people find it difficult
to. Normally, every form of addressing is based on a relationship such as family
relationship and job relationship. However, choosing a term to address someone in greeting
is a complicated job, which depends on the speaker-hear relative power such as age, status,
societal hierarchy and so on is strict in its application. Unlike many languages which have
T and V forms for formal and informal situations or the use of the only term “you’ in
English. The use of one term, furthermore, is not given a firm consideration of formality.
The term “d ” (aunt) for example, can be very formal as it is used to represent a
relationship similar to family relationship. The impact of power and solidarity is obviously
found in the use of addressing terms, and hence, there is a great variation of address forms
that can be traced in Vietnamese, such as the use of title, kinship term, name, etc.
In Vietnamese, address terms are widely used in greetings. We can easily realize that a
greeting in Vietnamese is commonly begun with the greeting phrase. The next is an
address term which is selected basing on the relationship between the speakers and the
context of the greetings. As mentioned above, address terms in Vietnamese are “kinship”,
“title”, “full name” and “last name”.
It should be noticed that the use of first name in greetings is often found in common cases.
In fact, the construction of Vietnamese names are not similar to most of the Western
names, which consist of first name and then family name or surname. They family name in
Vietnamese comes first. Rarely do Vietnamese call each other by the family name, maybe

15
except for “ ncle H ” to refer to the President H Ch Minh or “ ncle T n” to refer to
the President T n c Th ng. Full names are sometimes used in very formal situations and
accompanied by a title.
For example:
Ch o Hoa nh !
in k nh ch o ng guy n V n ang.
Another interesting point of using address terms in Vietnamese greeting is the “title and
kinship term. The title is often used only in formal greetings uttered by those who are at
work. In a less formal situation, the use of kinship term in greetings is replaced when there
is a closer relationship between interact ants. Usually, the greetings formed by title or
kinship terms for the superior, especially when someone who is superiors at work but
inferior in age, because then the kinship term means respect for age.
1.5.3.1.2. Addressing forms in English greetings
Compared with some other languages, the system of addressing forms used in English
greetings is more simple with the use of title and names only which commonly come after
a greeting phrase. Most English people have three names (Tillitt & Bruder: 15): a first
name is called given name, a middle name is an initial and a last name is family name or
surname. The use of title and full name is not found in the responses, perhaps, because the
respondents found them too formal to use. In fact, the English prefers to use title and last
name instead. However, title and first name is not the right way of addressing in England
and thus is never used.
1.5.3.2. Greeting phrase+
Title +Last name
Good morning Dr. John.
1.5.3.3. Greeting phrase+ Full
first name
Hello Robert!, Hi Stephen!
Short first name
Hi Sue! (for Susan), Morning Rob! (for
Robert)
Multiple name
(diminutive name, nick
name, other names)
How’w goin , usie ( usan)?
How’s everything ,guys?

16
1.5.4. Types of greetings
There are many ways to say “hello”. Generally, according to Bruce Tillitt (2006), the
author of the book “Speaking naturally”, greetings can be classified into two major types
basing on the formality of the communicating contexts: formal greetings and informal
greetings. A greeting seen as a formal or informal one is determined by the particular
context in which the greeting is uttered. Besides, the formality of a greeting is dependent
on the choice of vocabulary and structure. Sometimes, you say a quick hello as you are
passing somebody. At the other times, a greeting can lead to a conversation. In addition,
friends and family members greet each other in a casual way. Business greetings are more
formal.
It can be defined that greetings forms in the Vietnamese culture is a long-established aspect
that could be viewed from different angles of culture, including the direct greetings and
indirect greetings. Besides, like other languages where greeting forms are uttered with the
direct greeting words such as “Hello!”, “Salut”, “Ciao”etc. or according to different times
of the day “Good morning!”, “Good afternoon!” “Good evening!”, greetings in
Vietnamese use of “direct” greeting words phrases “Ch o”, “ in ch o” widely. In deed,
an addressing term, an announcement, a request, a complement, a remind or questions for
direction, health, meal, work etc. are used as the substitutes for a direct greeting in
particular contexts.
English greetings are similar to greetings in almost every language because they are
formulaic and used in each case with different purposes. Furthermore, English greetings
are varied including “Hi!”, “Hello”, “Good morning!”, “How are you?”, “How do you do?
”etc., in other words, there are many ways to say “Hello” in English to lead to a
conversation. Thus, it is difficult to make a format for English greetings. Firth (1972)
categorizes greetings in English into three linguistic forms: an interjection, a question or
an affirmation. On the other hand, they can be divided into two types of greetings: formal
greetings and informal greetings. The formal greetings like “How do you do?” or “How
are you?” are mainly used by the members of elder people or when meeting someone the
first time. The less formal (informal) greetings are used more commonly in the younger
generations or routines.

17
In addition, when discussing the functions of languages, many linguists agree that there are
many language devices to express a communicating purpose. For example, to express a
greeting, people do not have to greet directly with “hello! , Hi! Or Good morning!’. They
can greet indirectly via thanking, questioning, reminding, congratulating, complimenting,
inviting and so on. The “indirect greetings” are mostly used in informal contexts. As a
result, greetings might be classified basing on the situations, where the greetings are
uttered. Therefore, the classification of greetings should be based on the contexts which
can be named as follows:
1.5.4.1. Greetings in passing
This is an informal case because you do not always have time to stop and have a
conversation. Just remember to smile as you say hello. A small wave is also polite.
Sometimes you pass the same person a second time on the same day. You can say "hello
again" or just smile. However, it is polite to greet a person you know formally or
informally, which depends on your relationship with him/her.
 Hello
 Hi
 Good morning
 Good afternoon
 Good evening
 Hey, John.
 How's it goin'?
Besides, using slang in a greeting is typical between close friends or teenagers”:
 Howdy
 Hiya
 Whazzup?
 Yo
1.5.4.2. Greeting before a conversation
You sometimes stop and talk for a minute as you say hello. This type of greeting is
followed by a conversation. Close friends often hug when they greet each other, especially
after a long time without seeing one other. This situation can happen to those who meet
each other for the first time or those whose relationship is close. Between very close

18
friends, it is common to use names in an informal greeting. Sometimes, nicknames or short
forms are used.
The below conversation is a well-illustrated example to know more about this greeting in
this situation. Between very close friends it is uncommon to use names in a casual
greeting. Sometimes nicknames or short forms are used. (Cor and Jen instead of Corey and
Jennifer)
A: Hi Corey.
B: Hey, Jennifer. Good to see you. (hug)
A: You too. How've you been?
B: Busy, you?
A: Pretty good. How's your new job?
B: It's okay. There's a lot to learn. What's new with you?
A: Not much. The kids are back at school.
1.5.4.3. Greetings in Business.
Proper etiquette is important in business greetings, thus, using formal and polite language
for greeting should be noticed. Formal greetings are suggested as below:
Good morning, Mr. Evans!
Good morning, Dr. Conners!
How do you do?
Good morning! How are you?
These following expressions should be useful in conversations
 Please have a seat.
 Thanks for agreeing to meet with me.
 He'll be right with you.
 Can I offer you something to drink?
 My pleasure
In the below conversation, the readers may find more interesting things about using the
greeting and responses to greeings:
A: Hello. I'm Mia Conners.
B: Hi Mia. I'm David Sinclair, and this is my partner Gina Evans. (hold out hand to shake)
A: Nice to meet you Mr. Sinclair and Ms Evans. Thank you for taking the time to meet with
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19
me today.
B: It's our pleasure. And please, call us David and Gina. Can I take your coat?
A: Thank you.
B: No problem. Please take a seat and we'll be right with you. I just have to take make a
quick phone call.
1.5.4.4. Greeting at a social event ( at a party)
At a social event (a party) it is necessary to open your networking. Therefore, it is polite to
greet many people. This is called “mingling”. You may greet those you know and those
you will meet for the first time.
 Who are you here with?
 How do you know Jane? (party host)
 I don't think we've met.
 Have you been here long?
 Have you tried the cheese dip/dessert/punch?
 Where did you get your costume?
 The food looks great. I can't wait to try the dip.
 I love your dress/shirt/hat. It really suits you. (looks good on you)
 These decorations are wonderful. I love the table cloth/balloons/flowers.
Let’s see the greetings in the following conversation
A: I don't think we've met. I'm Stacey.
B: Hi Stacey. I'm Carl.
A: Hi Carl. So, how do you know Jane?
B: Oh, Jane and I used to work together at a coffee shop.
A: Oh, you mean when you were working in Japan?
B: That's right. And how do you know her?
A: Actually, Jane is my cousin. Our moms are sisters.
B: No way! You two don't look anything alike.
1.5.4.5. Greetings at a friend’s house
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20
When you go into a friend’s home, it is polite to greet not only the host but also other
people. You may meet your relatives, your friends or your roommates. You sometimes
greet those whom you have never met before. Say hello and introduce yourself. A
conversation may or may not follow.
 You can call me...
 Thanks for coming.
 Thanks for having me.
 I've heard so much about you.
 It's nice to put a face to a name.
 You have a beautiful home.
The following conversation illustrates the greetings used in a friend’s house
A: Hi Mike. I've heard all about you. Jesse says you love to play guitar.
B: Yes I do, Mrs. Simpson. Nice to meet you.
A: We're glad to finally be able to meet you. Dinner will be ready in about twenty minutes.
B: Is there anything I can do to help?
A: No, everything is pretty much ready. We're just waiting on the roast. I hope you like
roast beef.
B: Yes, of course. Jesse tells me you are a fabulous cook.
1.5.4.6. Greetings in the classroom
In the classroom, you are to greet your teachers and classmates. Generally, studying
environment does not always require formality in communicating, even with teachers but
for newcomers to the class, greeting them formally rather than informally. It is polite to
greet a new student that joins your class. Introductions immediately follow this type of
greeting.
 I'm from...(city or country)
 I hear it's beautiful/hot/expensive there.
 How do you like it here?
 How long have you been here?
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A Vietnamese-English cross-cultural study on the use of responding to English greetings.pdf