This document reviews the pedagogical implications of examination washback. Washback refers to the influence of testing on teaching and learning. The document begins by defining washback and related terms used in research. It discusses how tests can influence what is taught, how it is taught, what is learned, and how it is learned. The document also analyzes 15 hypothetical ways that washback can influence stakeholders like teachers, students, curriculum designers and administrators. It suggests ways for English language teachers to foster positive washback and avoid negative influences of testing.
1) The study investigated the washback effect of the Malaysian University English Test (MUET) on students' and teachers' perceptions of English language learning and teaching.
2) The findings showed that most students felt MUET improved their English skills, especially speaking and reading, but many did not think it prepared them for university. Teachers believed students' English improved due to MUET but were unsure of its purpose.
3) Both students and teachers tended to underestimate the importance of listening skills despite evidence that listening activities were conducted in class. This mismatch indicates a need to better communicate MUET's objectives and how they relate to developing all language skills.
The document discusses the negative impact of Pakistan's Higher Secondary School Certificate exam on English language teaching and learning. It summarizes research showing high-stakes exams can negatively influence what and how teachers teach and students learn, known as washback effect. The author describes their experience teaching English in Pakistan, where students prioritized exam preparation over attending regular classes. They argue the exam system has led to widespread negative washback in Pakistan at both individual and societal levels.
This document discusses the relationship between teachers' academic self-efficacy and other factors such as academic locus of control, tendencies toward academic dishonesty, and test anxiety levels. It reviews previous literature that has examined the effects of these factors on academic self-efficacy. The study aims to test the relationships between these variables and determine the explanatory ratios between them using structural equation modeling. It surveys 256 teacher candidates to measure their levels on scales of academic self-efficacy, locus of control, tendencies toward dishonesty, and test anxiety.
Impact of a Public Examination Change on Teachers’ Perceptions and Attitudes ...iosrjce
The effect of language tests on teaching and learning is described in language education as
“washback”. Highstakes public examinations, thus, are often used as tools of control in the school system.
Recently, the Libyan Education Authority adopted major changes into the existing Basic Education Certificate
Examination (BECE) in English aiming to promote a positive washback effect on classroom teaching. This
paper investigates the kind of relationship between testing and teaching according to teachers’ beliefs and
perceptions of the introduced exam. To address these issues, the mixed method approach was utilized:
questionnaires were distributed to 100 teachers and interviews were conducted with the examination board
director and 11 teachers from the same sample surveyed. The study found that teachers expressed negative
rather than positive views towards the exam. Teachers criticized the exam especially in terms of practicality and
content validity as most teachers declared that congruence between the new exam and the curriculum is
tenuous. However, teachers welcomed the policy regarding exam format and style. While some desired aims
were achieved through the exam, others were not. Findings showed that the exam did exert washback effect in
that teachers experienced and/or implemented changes in their classroom instructional practices. Thus findings
indicated that exams did exert washback on teachers’ attitudes and beliefs towards their classroom teaching.
However, particularly in this study, data was self-reported via questionnaires and interviews, classroom
observations would have provided more tangible evidence on teachers' actual classroom teaching practices as a
result of exam change
The document summarizes an action research paper that examined the effectiveness of intensified grammar review in developing the writing skills of selected learners in Tañong Integrated School. Questionnaires were used to check learners' progress before and after several sessions of daily grammar review conducted by educators. The results showed a significant improvement in learners' grammar knowledge and writing outcomes after the intensified grammar review. It was concluded that intensifying grammar instruction through regular review is an effective way to help learners develop their writing and comprehension skills.
Jordanian teachers' attitudes toward foreign language teaching and their rela...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that explored Jordanian English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers' attitudes toward teaching English and the relationship between those attitudes and their classroom practices. The study involved surveying and observing 20 female EFL teachers. The results showed that the teachers had moderate attitudes toward teaching English as a foreign language. Their actual teaching competencies based on observations were also moderate. A negative correlation was found between the teachers' attitudes and their classroom teaching practices, though it was low. The document provides background on theories of teacher attitude and its relationship to teaching practices and student outcomes.
This document summarizes a study evaluating an English language testing course for future English teachers in Turkey. It provides background on the importance of assessment training for language teachers and discusses previous related research. The current study focuses on evaluating a specific English language testing course at Middle East Technical University in Turkey in terms of content, teaching methodology, and students' perceptions, with the goal of improving language testing education. It utilizes a questionnaire to examine students' views on what topics are most useful and how the course could be enhanced.
The document summarizes a study that investigated the impact of a recent language assessment reform in Iran on English teachers' assessment practices. The study found three main barriers to the success of the reform:
1. A top-down, managerial approach to implementation caused teachers to not take ownership of the reform.
2. Institutional obstacles like a lack of resources and accountability demands that foster grade inflation.
3. Teachers lacked professional competencies in language assessment, having difficulties assessing skills, understanding assessment purposes, and adjusting assessments to be more communicative.
To address these barriers, the study concludes that teachers need to be convinced to support the reform and be given opportunities to improve their language assessment literacy.
1) The study investigated the washback effect of the Malaysian University English Test (MUET) on students' and teachers' perceptions of English language learning and teaching.
2) The findings showed that most students felt MUET improved their English skills, especially speaking and reading, but many did not think it prepared them for university. Teachers believed students' English improved due to MUET but were unsure of its purpose.
3) Both students and teachers tended to underestimate the importance of listening skills despite evidence that listening activities were conducted in class. This mismatch indicates a need to better communicate MUET's objectives and how they relate to developing all language skills.
The document discusses the negative impact of Pakistan's Higher Secondary School Certificate exam on English language teaching and learning. It summarizes research showing high-stakes exams can negatively influence what and how teachers teach and students learn, known as washback effect. The author describes their experience teaching English in Pakistan, where students prioritized exam preparation over attending regular classes. They argue the exam system has led to widespread negative washback in Pakistan at both individual and societal levels.
This document discusses the relationship between teachers' academic self-efficacy and other factors such as academic locus of control, tendencies toward academic dishonesty, and test anxiety levels. It reviews previous literature that has examined the effects of these factors on academic self-efficacy. The study aims to test the relationships between these variables and determine the explanatory ratios between them using structural equation modeling. It surveys 256 teacher candidates to measure their levels on scales of academic self-efficacy, locus of control, tendencies toward dishonesty, and test anxiety.
Impact of a Public Examination Change on Teachers’ Perceptions and Attitudes ...iosrjce
The effect of language tests on teaching and learning is described in language education as
“washback”. Highstakes public examinations, thus, are often used as tools of control in the school system.
Recently, the Libyan Education Authority adopted major changes into the existing Basic Education Certificate
Examination (BECE) in English aiming to promote a positive washback effect on classroom teaching. This
paper investigates the kind of relationship between testing and teaching according to teachers’ beliefs and
perceptions of the introduced exam. To address these issues, the mixed method approach was utilized:
questionnaires were distributed to 100 teachers and interviews were conducted with the examination board
director and 11 teachers from the same sample surveyed. The study found that teachers expressed negative
rather than positive views towards the exam. Teachers criticized the exam especially in terms of practicality and
content validity as most teachers declared that congruence between the new exam and the curriculum is
tenuous. However, teachers welcomed the policy regarding exam format and style. While some desired aims
were achieved through the exam, others were not. Findings showed that the exam did exert washback effect in
that teachers experienced and/or implemented changes in their classroom instructional practices. Thus findings
indicated that exams did exert washback on teachers’ attitudes and beliefs towards their classroom teaching.
However, particularly in this study, data was self-reported via questionnaires and interviews, classroom
observations would have provided more tangible evidence on teachers' actual classroom teaching practices as a
result of exam change
The document summarizes an action research paper that examined the effectiveness of intensified grammar review in developing the writing skills of selected learners in Tañong Integrated School. Questionnaires were used to check learners' progress before and after several sessions of daily grammar review conducted by educators. The results showed a significant improvement in learners' grammar knowledge and writing outcomes after the intensified grammar review. It was concluded that intensifying grammar instruction through regular review is an effective way to help learners develop their writing and comprehension skills.
Jordanian teachers' attitudes toward foreign language teaching and their rela...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that explored Jordanian English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers' attitudes toward teaching English and the relationship between those attitudes and their classroom practices. The study involved surveying and observing 20 female EFL teachers. The results showed that the teachers had moderate attitudes toward teaching English as a foreign language. Their actual teaching competencies based on observations were also moderate. A negative correlation was found between the teachers' attitudes and their classroom teaching practices, though it was low. The document provides background on theories of teacher attitude and its relationship to teaching practices and student outcomes.
This document summarizes a study evaluating an English language testing course for future English teachers in Turkey. It provides background on the importance of assessment training for language teachers and discusses previous related research. The current study focuses on evaluating a specific English language testing course at Middle East Technical University in Turkey in terms of content, teaching methodology, and students' perceptions, with the goal of improving language testing education. It utilizes a questionnaire to examine students' views on what topics are most useful and how the course could be enhanced.
The document summarizes a study that investigated the impact of a recent language assessment reform in Iran on English teachers' assessment practices. The study found three main barriers to the success of the reform:
1. A top-down, managerial approach to implementation caused teachers to not take ownership of the reform.
2. Institutional obstacles like a lack of resources and accountability demands that foster grade inflation.
3. Teachers lacked professional competencies in language assessment, having difficulties assessing skills, understanding assessment purposes, and adjusting assessments to be more communicative.
To address these barriers, the study concludes that teachers need to be convinced to support the reform and be given opportunities to improve their language assessment literacy.
The paper makes an empirical research on the effect of formative assessment on English learning of higher vocational college students. It finds that: formative assessment attaches importance to the learning process, which is conducive to the development of good English learning habits; formative assessment can enhance students’ confidence in English learning, improve the atmosphere of team cooperative learning and autonomous learning, but cannot change the learning motivation of students. Overall, formative assessment has a greater impact on students with lower English proficiency.
The Impact Of Student Leadership In Classroom Management On Student Achievement norshimhashim
This dissertation examined the impact of student leadership in classroom management on student achievement. A quantitative research design was used to survey 102 high school students about classes with frequent student leadership versus little student leadership. Student achievement was measured by self-reported letter grades and feelings of success. The study aimed to determine if including student leadership in classroom management affected student outcomes. Current research suggests using proven instructional methods and this study sought to provide data on the effects of student leadership in classroom management.
high school students' attitude towards learning Englishahmad faizul shah
This study investigated the attitudes of 600 ninth grade students in Puducherry, India towards learning the English language. A standardized questionnaire was used to collect data on student attitudes. The results showed that student attitudes differed based on gender, locality of the school, type of school, and type of school management. Male students, students from urban schools, students at co-educational schools, and students at government schools had more positive attitudes on average than other groups. The study concluded that developing positive student attitudes through classroom activities can help enhance pupils' motivation to learn English.
1. The document discusses the history and evolution of writing assessment and genre process writing as a teaching methodology. It analyzes different eras of testing including the intuitive, scientific, and communicative eras.
2. It also examines factors that influence writing skills like teaching product writing versus process writing and conditions for valid writing tests. Process writing is considered more effective for developing students' writing abilities.
3. Valid writing tests should require students to construct responses, apply knowledge, use multiple resources, and respond to realistic tasks rather than just recognizing correct answers.
This study aimed to understand the effectiveness of peer tutoring in improving English writing skills among first semester students at a university in Colombia. The researcher conducted interviews and observed tutoring sessions between one sixth semester tutor and four first semester tutees over 10 weeks. Findings indicated that tutoring sessions helped as an extra practice to advance students' knowledge and improve their writing skills, though tutees noted a lack of planning from the tutor as a disadvantage. The study attempted to identify the main advantages and disadvantages of peer tutoring for improving writing skills.
The Responses of Non-English Major Students with Visual Learning Style of Wri...idhasaeful
This research is conducted towards the students of non-English major with visual learning style and writing preference. There are 14 students, which are taken to be the respondents. Questionnaires are the instrument used to gather the data in this research. This research employs descriptive qualitative method in analyzing the data.
The result portrays that 3 major findings: (1) most of the students find it difficult to accomplish the oral English test which is natural and normal due to their preference skill in writing, (2) in spite of the difficulty of the oral English test, the majority of the students consider the test to be challenging, accommodating and satisfying (3) a large number of the students get the benefit from the effectiveness of the feedback that they get in the form of rubrics.
The effect of assessment model and cognitive style on the students’ achieveme...Alexander Decker
This study examined the effects of assessment model (written vs oral skills), cognitive style (field independent vs dependent), and their interaction on high school chemistry students' achievement, controlling for basic knowledge. The results showed that:
1) Students who were assessed via writing performed better than those assessed orally.
2) Students with field-independent cognitive styles performed better than those with field-dependent styles.
3) There was a significant interaction between assessment model and cognitive style affecting chemistry achievement.
A comparison between elt and ell graduates with regard to their perceptions o...Alexander Decker
This document reports on a study that compared the perceptions of effective teacher behaviors between graduates from two English teacher preparation programs in Turkey: the English Language and Literature (ELL) department and the English Language Teaching (ELT) department. The study administered a questionnaire to ELL and ELT pre-service teachers and conducted independent samples t-tests to analyze differences between the groups. Interviews were also conducted with select participants. The results found no significant differences between the groups' perceptions of most categories, except for error correction, where perceptions differed significantly.
STUDY HABITS AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF NINTH STANDARD STUDENTSThiyagu K
The main aim of the study is to find out the relationship between the study habits and academic achievement of ninth standard students. Survey method is employed for this study. The investigator has randomly chosen 210 ninth standard students for the study. The investigator has used the standardized tool for the study habits variable. The investigator has used the some of the statistical calculation for analyzing the data. The findings of the study are (1) there is no significant difference in the mean scores of study habits of ninth standard students with respect to their gender, locality and residency. And there is significant difference in the mean scores of study habits of ninth standard students with respect to their type of school. There is significant difference in the mean scores of academic achievement of ninth standard students with respect to their locality, type of management and residency. There is no significant relationship between study habits and academic achievement of ninth standard students with respect to their gender, locality and residency.
This document provides an introduction to the interfaces between second language pedagogy and assessment. It discusses how language testing grew out of language pedagogy needs, and how the two fields are interrelated and influence each other. One key interface is methodological selection - the tests should assess what is taught in the classroom. The document also examines the influence of communicative language teaching approaches on testing, and emphasizes the concept of washback - how tests can impact teaching and learning.
Student Perspectives of Peer Assessment for Learning in a Public Speaking courseEddy White, Ph.D.
This article was published online in the Asian EFL Journal in January, 2009. It forms part of my doctoral research into assessment for learning (AfL) in an EFL context with adult learners.
IMPROVING PUPIL'S MASTERY LEVEL IN SCIENCE THROUGH...Criztie Blanco
Cristeta B. Blanco proposes conducting an action research study to improve 4th grade students' mastery of science at Tomas Morato Elementary School in Quezon City, Philippines. Science is one of the lowest achieving subjects and is taught in English, which poses difficulties. Blanco aims to use Strategic Intervention Materials (SIM) and other audiovisual aids during intensive remedial instruction from August to March. The study would assess students' mastery before and after the intervention using SIM pre- and post-tests. If successful, the study could benefit students, teachers, parents, administrators, curriculum planners and future researchers.
This document discusses a research paper that examines factors related to dropouts and performance of students enrolled in the Civic Welfare Training Service (CWTS) program at Laguna State Polytechnic University - San Pablo City Campus for the 2010-2011 academic year. The study aims to understand the profile of CWTS students, their performance levels, and how different factors like teaching methodologies, student attitudes, and schedules influence dropout rates. The findings could help improve the CWTS program and reduce dropout risks for at-risk students.
The Effectiveness of Group Work Role Play on EFL Students’ Accuracy in Speaki...AJSERJournal
The document discusses a study on the effectiveness of group work role-play activities in improving English speaking accuracy for students at Dong Nai Technology University in Vietnam. The study was conducted over 8 weeks with 15 students. Data was collected through classroom observation, student diaries, and group interviews. The results showed that students were highly engaged and motivated during the role-play activities. However, while role-play helped improve students' fluency, it did not significantly increase their speaking accuracy. Overall, the study found that role-play can be an effective teaching method to increase student engagement, but may have limitations in developing speaking accuracy.
This document presents a research proposal that compares the influence of instructional supports and teaching practices on the reading skills of Year 2 students in whole language and phonics classes. The study aims to observe students' reading development and errors in both instructional settings. It also seeks to understand how students and teachers respond to phonics learning after two years of implementing the new KSSR curriculum in Malaysia, which emphasizes phonics. The proposal includes an introduction outlining the research problem and questions. It also provides definitions of key terms like whole language approach, phonics, and KSSR. The literature review discusses topics related to phonological awareness, reading instruction approaches, and the whole language method.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the motivation and attitudes towards learning English of 81 petroleum engineering undergraduates at Hadhramout University of Sciences and Technology in Yemen. The study found that students were primarily instrumentally motivated, motivated by practical reasons like career goals. Students were less integratively motivated, motivated by a desire to integrate into English cultures. Students also had positive attitudes towards the social and educational roles of English in Yemen. The study provides insights that can help improve English language teaching for these students.
This document provides background information for a study on stress, stressors, and coping strategies among secondary school students in Malaysia. It includes excerpts from literature reviewing stress as a process, common stressors, the role of optimal stress, individual differences in stress perception, prevalence of stress and mental health issues in secondary education, impacts of chronic stress, need to recognize student stress, and effective coping strategies. The study aims to investigate causes of stress and stress management among Malaysian secondary students. It presents findings that the main stressors were university entrance, exams, peer pressure, and homework. The most common coping strategies were religion, social support, self-management, and acceptance. The discussion cites literature supporting school-related stressors and effective
This document discusses a study on the relationship between students' use of English dictionaries and their vocabulary mastery. The study aims to determine students' frequency and methods of using dictionaries, assess their vocabulary knowledge, and analyze the correlation between dictionary use and vocabulary. The researcher administered questionnaires to measure dictionary use habits and tested students on vocabulary categories like nouns, verbs, adjectives and plurals. Statistical analyses including validity, reliability, correlation and significance tests were used to evaluate the relationship between dictionary use and vocabulary mastery.
EFFECTS OF CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK ON LEARNERS OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL)ijejournal
This paper attempts to probe the effects of corrective feedback on English as Second Language (ESL) students’ motivation, achievement and performance. After reviewing seven theses and twenty-seven research papers, it has been noticed that corrective feedback has exhibited remarkable effectiveness in
boosting learners’ motivation, achievement and performance when learning second languages. However, other research underscored that corrective feedback impinges learners’ performance and motivation negatively. Hence, further research needs to be conducted to probe the effectiveness of corrective feedback when incorporated in other foreign languages, and various subject matters
This document discusses high-stakes testing (HST), which uses test scores to make important educational decisions. It describes how the No Child Left Behind Act incorporated HST requirements from states into a federal accountability system. While NCLB and state HST programs have similarities, they also differ in aspects like how results are reported and what decisions are based on test scores. The use of HST remains controversial due to concerns about over-reliance on single test scores and questions about their validity and appropriate use.
This document summarizes key differences between formative and summative assessment. Formative assessment involves ongoing feedback to improve performance, while summative assessment measures learning at the end of a stage. It also describes four categories of tests (placement, diagnostic, progress/achievement, proficiency), and characteristics of good tests including validity and reliability. The document outlines direct and indirect test items and considerations for writing, marking, and scoring tests, as well as how to prepare students through practice tests and familiarizing them with test formats and skills.
The paper makes an empirical research on the effect of formative assessment on English learning of higher vocational college students. It finds that: formative assessment attaches importance to the learning process, which is conducive to the development of good English learning habits; formative assessment can enhance students’ confidence in English learning, improve the atmosphere of team cooperative learning and autonomous learning, but cannot change the learning motivation of students. Overall, formative assessment has a greater impact on students with lower English proficiency.
The Impact Of Student Leadership In Classroom Management On Student Achievement norshimhashim
This dissertation examined the impact of student leadership in classroom management on student achievement. A quantitative research design was used to survey 102 high school students about classes with frequent student leadership versus little student leadership. Student achievement was measured by self-reported letter grades and feelings of success. The study aimed to determine if including student leadership in classroom management affected student outcomes. Current research suggests using proven instructional methods and this study sought to provide data on the effects of student leadership in classroom management.
high school students' attitude towards learning Englishahmad faizul shah
This study investigated the attitudes of 600 ninth grade students in Puducherry, India towards learning the English language. A standardized questionnaire was used to collect data on student attitudes. The results showed that student attitudes differed based on gender, locality of the school, type of school, and type of school management. Male students, students from urban schools, students at co-educational schools, and students at government schools had more positive attitudes on average than other groups. The study concluded that developing positive student attitudes through classroom activities can help enhance pupils' motivation to learn English.
1. The document discusses the history and evolution of writing assessment and genre process writing as a teaching methodology. It analyzes different eras of testing including the intuitive, scientific, and communicative eras.
2. It also examines factors that influence writing skills like teaching product writing versus process writing and conditions for valid writing tests. Process writing is considered more effective for developing students' writing abilities.
3. Valid writing tests should require students to construct responses, apply knowledge, use multiple resources, and respond to realistic tasks rather than just recognizing correct answers.
This study aimed to understand the effectiveness of peer tutoring in improving English writing skills among first semester students at a university in Colombia. The researcher conducted interviews and observed tutoring sessions between one sixth semester tutor and four first semester tutees over 10 weeks. Findings indicated that tutoring sessions helped as an extra practice to advance students' knowledge and improve their writing skills, though tutees noted a lack of planning from the tutor as a disadvantage. The study attempted to identify the main advantages and disadvantages of peer tutoring for improving writing skills.
The Responses of Non-English Major Students with Visual Learning Style of Wri...idhasaeful
This research is conducted towards the students of non-English major with visual learning style and writing preference. There are 14 students, which are taken to be the respondents. Questionnaires are the instrument used to gather the data in this research. This research employs descriptive qualitative method in analyzing the data.
The result portrays that 3 major findings: (1) most of the students find it difficult to accomplish the oral English test which is natural and normal due to their preference skill in writing, (2) in spite of the difficulty of the oral English test, the majority of the students consider the test to be challenging, accommodating and satisfying (3) a large number of the students get the benefit from the effectiveness of the feedback that they get in the form of rubrics.
The effect of assessment model and cognitive style on the students’ achieveme...Alexander Decker
This study examined the effects of assessment model (written vs oral skills), cognitive style (field independent vs dependent), and their interaction on high school chemistry students' achievement, controlling for basic knowledge. The results showed that:
1) Students who were assessed via writing performed better than those assessed orally.
2) Students with field-independent cognitive styles performed better than those with field-dependent styles.
3) There was a significant interaction between assessment model and cognitive style affecting chemistry achievement.
A comparison between elt and ell graduates with regard to their perceptions o...Alexander Decker
This document reports on a study that compared the perceptions of effective teacher behaviors between graduates from two English teacher preparation programs in Turkey: the English Language and Literature (ELL) department and the English Language Teaching (ELT) department. The study administered a questionnaire to ELL and ELT pre-service teachers and conducted independent samples t-tests to analyze differences between the groups. Interviews were also conducted with select participants. The results found no significant differences between the groups' perceptions of most categories, except for error correction, where perceptions differed significantly.
STUDY HABITS AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF NINTH STANDARD STUDENTSThiyagu K
The main aim of the study is to find out the relationship between the study habits and academic achievement of ninth standard students. Survey method is employed for this study. The investigator has randomly chosen 210 ninth standard students for the study. The investigator has used the standardized tool for the study habits variable. The investigator has used the some of the statistical calculation for analyzing the data. The findings of the study are (1) there is no significant difference in the mean scores of study habits of ninth standard students with respect to their gender, locality and residency. And there is significant difference in the mean scores of study habits of ninth standard students with respect to their type of school. There is significant difference in the mean scores of academic achievement of ninth standard students with respect to their locality, type of management and residency. There is no significant relationship between study habits and academic achievement of ninth standard students with respect to their gender, locality and residency.
This document provides an introduction to the interfaces between second language pedagogy and assessment. It discusses how language testing grew out of language pedagogy needs, and how the two fields are interrelated and influence each other. One key interface is methodological selection - the tests should assess what is taught in the classroom. The document also examines the influence of communicative language teaching approaches on testing, and emphasizes the concept of washback - how tests can impact teaching and learning.
Student Perspectives of Peer Assessment for Learning in a Public Speaking courseEddy White, Ph.D.
This article was published online in the Asian EFL Journal in January, 2009. It forms part of my doctoral research into assessment for learning (AfL) in an EFL context with adult learners.
IMPROVING PUPIL'S MASTERY LEVEL IN SCIENCE THROUGH...Criztie Blanco
Cristeta B. Blanco proposes conducting an action research study to improve 4th grade students' mastery of science at Tomas Morato Elementary School in Quezon City, Philippines. Science is one of the lowest achieving subjects and is taught in English, which poses difficulties. Blanco aims to use Strategic Intervention Materials (SIM) and other audiovisual aids during intensive remedial instruction from August to March. The study would assess students' mastery before and after the intervention using SIM pre- and post-tests. If successful, the study could benefit students, teachers, parents, administrators, curriculum planners and future researchers.
This document discusses a research paper that examines factors related to dropouts and performance of students enrolled in the Civic Welfare Training Service (CWTS) program at Laguna State Polytechnic University - San Pablo City Campus for the 2010-2011 academic year. The study aims to understand the profile of CWTS students, their performance levels, and how different factors like teaching methodologies, student attitudes, and schedules influence dropout rates. The findings could help improve the CWTS program and reduce dropout risks for at-risk students.
The Effectiveness of Group Work Role Play on EFL Students’ Accuracy in Speaki...AJSERJournal
The document discusses a study on the effectiveness of group work role-play activities in improving English speaking accuracy for students at Dong Nai Technology University in Vietnam. The study was conducted over 8 weeks with 15 students. Data was collected through classroom observation, student diaries, and group interviews. The results showed that students were highly engaged and motivated during the role-play activities. However, while role-play helped improve students' fluency, it did not significantly increase their speaking accuracy. Overall, the study found that role-play can be an effective teaching method to increase student engagement, but may have limitations in developing speaking accuracy.
This document presents a research proposal that compares the influence of instructional supports and teaching practices on the reading skills of Year 2 students in whole language and phonics classes. The study aims to observe students' reading development and errors in both instructional settings. It also seeks to understand how students and teachers respond to phonics learning after two years of implementing the new KSSR curriculum in Malaysia, which emphasizes phonics. The proposal includes an introduction outlining the research problem and questions. It also provides definitions of key terms like whole language approach, phonics, and KSSR. The literature review discusses topics related to phonological awareness, reading instruction approaches, and the whole language method.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the motivation and attitudes towards learning English of 81 petroleum engineering undergraduates at Hadhramout University of Sciences and Technology in Yemen. The study found that students were primarily instrumentally motivated, motivated by practical reasons like career goals. Students were less integratively motivated, motivated by a desire to integrate into English cultures. Students also had positive attitudes towards the social and educational roles of English in Yemen. The study provides insights that can help improve English language teaching for these students.
This document provides background information for a study on stress, stressors, and coping strategies among secondary school students in Malaysia. It includes excerpts from literature reviewing stress as a process, common stressors, the role of optimal stress, individual differences in stress perception, prevalence of stress and mental health issues in secondary education, impacts of chronic stress, need to recognize student stress, and effective coping strategies. The study aims to investigate causes of stress and stress management among Malaysian secondary students. It presents findings that the main stressors were university entrance, exams, peer pressure, and homework. The most common coping strategies were religion, social support, self-management, and acceptance. The discussion cites literature supporting school-related stressors and effective
This document discusses a study on the relationship between students' use of English dictionaries and their vocabulary mastery. The study aims to determine students' frequency and methods of using dictionaries, assess their vocabulary knowledge, and analyze the correlation between dictionary use and vocabulary. The researcher administered questionnaires to measure dictionary use habits and tested students on vocabulary categories like nouns, verbs, adjectives and plurals. Statistical analyses including validity, reliability, correlation and significance tests were used to evaluate the relationship between dictionary use and vocabulary mastery.
EFFECTS OF CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK ON LEARNERS OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL)ijejournal
This paper attempts to probe the effects of corrective feedback on English as Second Language (ESL) students’ motivation, achievement and performance. After reviewing seven theses and twenty-seven research papers, it has been noticed that corrective feedback has exhibited remarkable effectiveness in
boosting learners’ motivation, achievement and performance when learning second languages. However, other research underscored that corrective feedback impinges learners’ performance and motivation negatively. Hence, further research needs to be conducted to probe the effectiveness of corrective feedback when incorporated in other foreign languages, and various subject matters
This document discusses high-stakes testing (HST), which uses test scores to make important educational decisions. It describes how the No Child Left Behind Act incorporated HST requirements from states into a federal accountability system. While NCLB and state HST programs have similarities, they also differ in aspects like how results are reported and what decisions are based on test scores. The use of HST remains controversial due to concerns about over-reliance on single test scores and questions about their validity and appropriate use.
This document summarizes key differences between formative and summative assessment. Formative assessment involves ongoing feedback to improve performance, while summative assessment measures learning at the end of a stage. It also describes four categories of tests (placement, diagnostic, progress/achievement, proficiency), and characteristics of good tests including validity and reliability. The document outlines direct and indirect test items and considerations for writing, marking, and scoring tests, as well as how to prepare students through practice tests and familiarizing them with test formats and skills.
The document outlines different types of language tests: proficiency tests measure general language ability regardless of training; achievement tests relate to language courses and assess whether objectives were achieved; diagnostic tests identify strengths and weaknesses; placement tests determine what language level is appropriate. It also distinguishes between direct and indirect testing, discrete point and integrative testing, norm-referenced and criterion-referenced testing, and objective and subjective scoring. The document concludes by mentioning computer adaptive testing and communicative language testing.
The document discusses authentic assessment and compares it to traditional assessment. It defines authentic assessment as evaluating students' ability to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate their knowledge and skills. Some key differences between authentic and traditional assessments highlighted include authentic assessments involving tasks for students to perform while being evaluated using rubrics, and authentic assessments driving the curriculum design rather than just assessing knowledge acquisition. The document also provides guidance on creating authentic assessments, such as identifying standards, selecting authentic tasks, criteria, and using rubrics.
This document discusses principles of language assessment, including practicality, validity, reliability, authenticity, and washback/backwash. It provides definitions and examples for each principle. Practicality considers cost, time, administration, and scoring of a test. Validity includes content, criterion, construct, consequential, and face validity. Reliability examines consistency of scores and includes student-related reliability, rater reliability, test administration reliability, and test reliability. Authenticity aims to correspond test tasks to real-world language use. Washback/backwash refers to how a test impacts teaching and learning.
This document discusses key concepts related to validity and reliability in measurement devices. It defines validity as measuring what the device is intended to measure, and reliability as consistency of measurement. The document outlines several types of validity including content, construct, criterion (concurrent and predictive), and face validity. It also discusses reliability in terms of equivalency, stability, internal consistency, and interrater reliability. Validity and reliability are closely related but a test can be reliable without being valid. The document also notes sources of error in measurements and the backwash effect of test design on teaching.
The document discusses key qualities of measurement devices: validity, reliability, practicality, and backwash effect. It defines each quality and provides examples. Validity refers to what a test measures, and includes content, construct, criterion-related, concurrent, and predictive validity. Reliability is how consistent measurements are, including equivalency, stability, internal, and inter-rater reliability. Practicality means a test is easy to construct, administer, score and interpret. Backwash effect is a test's influence on teaching and learning.
This document provides an outline for a course on testing for language teachers. It covers various topics related to language testing including the purposes of different types of tests, approaches to testing, ensuring validity and reliability, and achieving beneficial backwash effects. The key points covered are the types of tests (proficiency, achievement, diagnostic, placement), approaches to testing (direct vs indirect, discrete point vs integrative), factors of validity and reliability, and how to design tests that motivate effective teaching practices.
This document discusses validity, reliability, and washback in language testing. Validity refers to a test measuring what it intends to measure, which includes content validity (testing relevant skills and concepts) and criterion-related validity (how test results agree with other assessment results). Reliability means a test is repeatable, which can be measured through reliability coefficients. Washback refers to how a test influences teaching and learning, with the goal of achieving positive washback that encourages effective preparation. Ensuring validity, reliability, and beneficial washback requires careful test construction and use of techniques like setting test specifications, direct testing of objectives, and providing clear scoring criteria.
Formative assessment and contingency in the regulation of learning processes ...Iris Medrano
This document discusses the origins and definitions of formative assessment. It begins by exploring different perspectives on the relationship between instruction and learning. It then reviews the origins of formative assessment, tracing it back to Michael Scriven in 1967 and Benjamin Bloom in 1969. The document examines debates around defining formative assessment, looking at perspectives from Black and Wiliam, Sadler, the Assessment Reform Group, and others. It proposes a definition of formative assessment as any assessment that is used to make decisions about next steps in instruction that are likely to improve learning outcomes compared to decisions made without the assessment evidence.
This document summarizes a research study that investigated the washback effect of the General Secondary English Examination (GSEE) on teaching and learning in Yemen. The study collected data from English teachers in Yemen through interviews and questionnaires. The results showed that the GSEE exam has a significant influence on teaching methodology and student learning styles. Specifically, it was found that teachers focus their instruction on test preparation and students adapt their learning approaches to match what is tested. This provides evidence that the high-stakes exam shapes the English language education process in Yemen by impacting both what and how teachers teach and how students learn.
A Comparison Of The Mystery Motivator And The Get Em On Task Interventions F...Addison Coleman
This study compared the effectiveness of two positive behavior support interventions, Mystery Motivator and Get 'Em On Task, in decreasing off-task behaviors in fifth grade classrooms. Both interventions were implemented using an alternating treatments design. Results showed that both interventions effectively decreased off-task behavior at the class-wide level compared to baseline. The Mystery Motivator intervention used weekly behavior charts and unknown rewards to motivate on-task behavior as a group contingency. The Get 'Em On Task intervention used a computer program to signal and reward individual students for on-task behavior.
Action Research In Second Language Teacher EducationCynthia King
This chapter discusses action research (AR) in second language teacher education. AR combines action and research, with the goal of improving social situations like classrooms. It involves developing and testing plans to improve a situation, observing the effects of changes, and reflecting to plan further actions. AR has been used in teacher education to address problems, innovate curriculum, reduce gaps between research and practice, develop teacher reflection, and teach research skills. While AR can support professional development, many teachers have not heard of it or lack support for conducting it. Barriers to AR include lack of time, resources, and research training as well as school structures.
The document discusses assessment and language testing. It defines assessment as making a judgment after considering something carefully. It discusses different forms of assessment including tests, activities, and self-assessment. It also discusses the impact that tests can have on teaching (washback effect) and lists some hypotheses about how high-stakes tests may influence what and how teachers teach. The document also discusses issues in language testing like standards, politics, and the use of alternative forms of assessment.
This study investigated the relationship between teacher-student interaction and student performance. A survey was conducted of bachelor students to collect data on interaction levels (measured by teacher availability, student-teacher meetings, and class participation) and performance levels (measured by grades and attendance). Statistical analysis found a positive correlation between interaction and performance, supporting the hypothesis that increased interaction leads to higher student performance. The study concludes greater teacher-student interaction is important for student achievement and makes recommendations to encourage more interaction through classroom discussions, informal contact, and notifying students of interaction benefits.
This document summarizes a research proposal that examines the impact of organizational climate on teacher commitment in schools. The proposal discusses previous research showing that school climate influences teacher motivation, commitment, and job satisfaction. It aims to identify the relationship between school climate and teacher commitment using the Organizational Climate Descriptive Questionnaire. The proposal outlines the background, problem statement, objectives, literature review on organizational climate and teacher commitment, proposed quantitative research methodology using questionnaires, and references.
International Journal of Choice Theory and Reality Therapy • F.docxnormanibarber20063
International Journal of Choice Theory and Reality Therapy • Fall 2011 • Vol. XXXI, number 1 • 109
ACHIEVEMENT AMONG SECOND GRADE STUDENTS WHO RECEIVED INSTRUCTION
FROM EITHER TEACHERS TRAINED IN CHOICE THEORY/REALITY THERAPY OR
TEACHERS WHO WERE NOT SO TRAINED
Jane V. Hale, Ph.D, Assistant Professor of Counselor Education, Department of Counseling
and Development, Slippery Rock University
Joseph Maola, Ph.D, Professor (retired) of Counselor Education, Department of Counseling,
Psychology, and Special Education, Duquesne University
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine if second grade students who were taught by
teachers trained in choice theory/reality therapy (CT/RT) methods had higher achievement
scores in mathematics and reading compared to students who were taught by teachers who
were not trained in CT/RT methods. This study was descriptive in nature and used
retrospective data. The participants (N=83) consisted of second grade students who took
the TerraNova, Multiple Assessments test in April 2008. An analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was conducted to measure the main effect of achievement in mathematics/reading and
CT/RT training status of teachers. A separate ANOVA was utilized to measure the
interaction effect of gender on mathematics/reading achievement and training status of
teachers. No significance was found in both analyses. Based on existing research, there is
substantial support for using CT/RT methods in education to improve the social climate
(Glasser, 2010), which ultimately has a positive effect on achievement (Brookover, Beady,
Flood, Schweitzer, & Wisenbaker, 1977; Haynes, Emmons, & Ben-Avie, 1997; Hoy &
Hannum, 1997; Niehbur & Niehbur, 1999; Rutter & Maughan, 2002). The American School
Counseling Association (ASCA) National Model suggests that school counselors need to be
active in the systemic processes of the school to provide comprehensive services to a large
number of students (ASCA, 2005). Training teachers in CT/RT is an example of an activity
that is consistent with ASCA‘s proposition. Concurrent with other research studies on
teacher trainings, lack of intensity (Jacob & Lefgran, 2004) emerged as an issue. The
teacher training program in this study was only six hours in duration and did not offer
follow-up trainings, or a collective plan to put new knowledge into practice. The findings are
discussed related to current research, limitations, and recommendations for future studies.
_______________________
It is difficult to dispute the fact that measures of achievement are an integral component of
the educational system. Measurement of learning helps students, parents, and teachers to
identify if a student is progressing and gaining knowledge. There are many ways student
learning is measured such as school grades, content of projects, conduct reports, portfolios,
curriculum-relevant tests, and standardized achiev.
This document summarizes a study on misconceptions in chemistry among freshmen students at Mindanao University of Science and Technology (MUST). The study aims to determine which chemistry topics students have misconceptions about, the reasons for these misconceptions, and how misconceptions compare between male and female students. It outlines the problem statement, research questions, hypothesis, significance of the study, assumptions, limitations, and definition of key terms. The theoretical framework discusses prior research on students' understanding of concepts like solutions, molecular models, and multiple representations.
The document discusses how school culture impacts change efforts. It defines school culture as the interplay between attitudes/beliefs, cultural norms, and relationships. The attitudes and beliefs of teachers, students, and the community shape the culture and can facilitate or impede changes. Cultural norms, or unwritten rules of behavior, also influence changes efforts and are shaped by attitudes. The extent that staff internalize the school culture also affects improvement efforts. Overall, understanding and addressing the school's unique culture is important for successful change initiatives.
This study explored the stress levels, causes, and coping strategies of student teachers during their teaching practice. The researchers surveyed 95 student teachers who had recently completed teaching practice. The key findings were:
1) Most student teachers reported moderate levels of stress during teaching practice.
2) The major causes of stress identified were heavy workload, being evaluated by supervisors, difficulties with classroom management, and preparing detailed lesson plans.
3) The main coping strategies used were communicating with teachers/supervisors, talking to friends and family, and using self-management skills like planning and preparation.
Running head: EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 1
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 2
Translating Educational Research into Practice
Problem
For a long time, education research has not been able to impact classroom instructional practices and educational policies. Educational based researchers argue that their primary work is to research the various aspects of learning and teaching to then present their findings at various conferences and publishing them in different educational journals. Their busy schedule does not allow them to train practitioners (Powney & Watts, 2018). On the other hand, practitioners are busy concentrating on there, and they do not have time to review new literature. This brings up the question as to who is responsible for this gap. In the real sense, there should be a connection between the two, and both parties should play a role in bridging this gap.
Practices, Policies, and Procedures That Have Led to the Problem
There are various reasons for this persistent gap between the teaching practices that teachers use and the guidance that educational research provides. However, three of them stand out. They include the trustworthiness issue, teacher preparation issues, and the research practice issue. The trustworthiness issue comes in because much of the published educational research and disseminated to teachers, policymakers and researchers are often not good and of uneven quality. Research is incredibly demanding, and it is not always possible to choose the most appropriate methodological approach. It is essential that the methodology is applied rigorously whether it is for qualitative or quantitative research (Suter, 2012).
Teachers, on the other hand, want to provide quality education to their children. When they turn into research to aid in teaching, their main expectation is that the information they get is trustworthy. If the information is not trustworthy both the teacher and the student will fail terribly. The teachers also have to be prepared. The applicability and relevance of a research finding will be minimal if the administrators and teachers are unable to access the data, unable to develop strategies for implementing the research findings and do not understand or are unable to interpret the research findings in a meaningful and accurate manner (Fenwick, Edwards, & Sawchuk, 2012).
While teacher preparation and research trustworthiness play significant roles in determining the extent to which research informs instructional practices and educational policies, a fundamental problem is our inability to understand and identify an environment where the research findings can be applied in complex school systems as well as classrooms. While specific strategies, instructional models and approaches may be useful in a setting that is controlled, there is scanty information about the factors that impede or foster application of these modalities under varying contexts and among diverse teachers and students' pop.
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
This document outlines Tarisai Mudzatsi's research proposal examining the development of topic specific pedagogical content knowledge (TSPCK) in stoichiometry among three practicing teachers through a lesson study. The purpose is to determine how TSPCK in stoichiometry improves through teacher interactions in a lesson study context and how this newly developed knowledge translates to teaching practice. Poor student performance in physical science, especially topics involving stoichiometry, provides rationale for the research. The proposal includes an introduction, purpose, rationale, literature review, research questions, methodology, data analysis, ethics statement, and references.
The differential impact of various assessment parameters on the medical stude...lukeman Joseph Ade shittu
This study was designed to assess the convergent validity of the professional anatomy (a multifaceted examination) with other markers of success (the various interactive assessment components of the curriculum) in determining the overall performance of third-year medical students. The aim was to isolate area of academic weakness among the students and to readjust the curriculum content to balance the weakness. A total of 66 third year medical students with records of their grades in the various assessments criteria were analyzed. Parameters on the average End-in course assessment, Short Essays Question (SEQ), Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQ), and Practical (Steeple-chase) were considered. The Practical significantly correlated with overall performance (r = 0.89, P< 0.01). The Practical, MCQ, SEQ and End incourse showed an overall rank order of relative performance in assessment tasks and therefore indicate that, in general, students performance in the Professional examination was better than in the End-incourse examination.
7. wiliam 2011 what is assesssment for learningCate Atehortua
This document discusses the concept of assessment for learning. It traces the idea back to early experiments in individualizing instruction in the early 20th century. It then discusses Benjamin Bloom's work in the 1960s exploring how instruction can be adapted to individual learners' needs. The document reviews nine studies from 1986-1998 that found assessment practices can positively impact student learning when used to inform instructional decisions. It defines assessment for learning as using evidence from assessment to guide instructional decisions and support learning.
Applied behavior analysis for educators teacher centered and classroom basedEducational Psychologist
This document discusses applying behavior analysis techniques in educational settings. It notes that while behavior analysis has proven effective in research studies, these techniques are rarely adopted by teachers. The document advocates for developing more teacher-centered and classroom-based approaches to behavior analysis that are sensitive to the realities of classroom environments and that empower teachers. It proposes strategies like collaborating with teachers, conducting classroom-wide interventions, and providing tiered levels of support to increase the relevance and adoption of behavior analysis in schools.
Similar to A review of the pedagogical implications of examination washback (20)
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This document presents a framework for evaluating the usability of B2C e-commerce websites. It involves user testing methods like usability testing and interviews to identify usability problems in areas like navigation, design, purchasing processes, and customer service. The framework specifies goals for the evaluation, determines which website aspects to evaluate, and identifies target users. It then describes collecting data through user testing and analyzing the results to identify usability problems and suggest improvements.
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A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dAlexander Decker
This document presents definitions and properties related to generalized D*-metric spaces and establishes some common fixed point theorems for contractive type mappings in these spaces. It begins by introducing D*-metric spaces and generalized D*-metric spaces, defines concepts like convergence and Cauchy sequences. It presents lemmas showing the uniqueness of limits in these spaces and the equivalence of different definitions of convergence. The goal of the paper is then stated as obtaining a unique common fixed point theorem for generalized D*-metric spaces.
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceAlexander Decker
This document provides a review of trends in Salmonella and antibiotic resistance. It begins with an introduction to Salmonella as a facultative anaerobe that causes nontyphoidal salmonellosis. The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella is then discussed. The document proceeds to cover the historical perspective and classification of Salmonella, definitions of antimicrobials and antibiotic resistance, and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella including modification or destruction of antimicrobial agents, efflux pumps, modification of antibiotic targets, and decreased membrane permeability. Specific resistance mechanisms are discussed for several classes of antimicrobials.
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This document discusses a transformational-generative approach to understanding Al-Istifham, which refers to interrogative sentences in Arabic. It begins with an introduction to the origin and development of Arabic grammar. The paper then explains the theoretical framework of transformational-generative grammar that is used. Basic linguistic concepts and terms related to Arabic grammar are defined. The document analyzes how interrogative sentences in Arabic can be derived and transformed via tools from transformational-generative grammar, categorizing Al-Istifham into linguistic and literary questions.
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This document summarizes a study on the determinants of savings in Namibia from 1991 to 2012. It reviews previous literature on savings determinants in developing countries. The study uses time series analysis including unit root tests, cointegration, and error correction models to analyze the relationship between savings and variables like income, inflation, population growth, deposit rates, and financial deepening in Namibia. The results found inflation and income have a positive impact on savings, while population growth negatively impacts savings. Deposit rates and financial deepening were found to have no significant impact. The study reinforces previous work and emphasizes the importance of improving income levels to achieve higher savings rates in Namibia.
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the importance of exercise in maintaining physical and mental fitness for school children. It discusses how physical and mental fitness are developed through participation in regular physical exercises and cannot be achieved solely through classroom learning. The document outlines different types and components of fitness and argues that developing fitness should be a key objective of education systems. It recommends that schools ensure pupils engage in graded physical activities and exercises to support their overall development.
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This document summarizes a study examining efficiency in managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was examined through the lenses of Kaizen theory (continuous improvement) and efficiency theory. A survey of 303 marketing executives from Nigerian banks found that management plays a key role in identifying and implementing efficiency improvements. The document recommends adopting a "3H grand strategy" to improve the heads, hearts, and hands of management and marketing executives by enhancing their knowledge, attitudes, and tools.
This document discusses evaluating the link budget for effective 900MHz GSM communication. It describes the basic parameters needed for a high-level link budget calculation, including transmitter power, antenna gains, path loss, and propagation models. Common propagation models for 900MHz that are described include Okumura model for urban areas and Hata model for urban, suburban, and open areas. Rain attenuation is also incorporated using the updated ITU model to improve communication during rainfall.
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This document discusses contraceptive use in Punjab, Pakistan. It begins by providing background on the benefits of family planning and contraceptive use for maternal and child health. It then analyzes contraceptive commodity data from Punjab, finding that use is still low despite efforts to improve access. The document concludes by emphasizing the need for strategies to bridge gaps and meet the unmet need for effective and affordable contraceptive methods and supplies in Punjab in order to improve health outcomes.
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...Alexander Decker
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This document surveys trust architectures that leverage provenance in wireless sensor networks. It begins with background on provenance, which refers to the documented history or derivation of data. Provenance can be used to assess trust by providing metadata about how data was processed. The document then discusses challenges for using provenance to establish trust in wireless sensor networks, which have constraints on energy and computation. Finally, it provides background on trust, which is the subjective probability that a node will behave dependably. Trust architectures need to be lightweight to account for the constraints of wireless sensor networks.
This document discusses private equity investments in Kenya. It provides background on private equity and discusses trends in various regions. The objectives of the study discussed are to establish the extent of private equity adoption in Kenya, identify common forms of private equity utilized, and determine typical exit strategies. Private equity can involve venture capital, leveraged buyouts, or mezzanine financing. Exits allow recycling of capital into new opportunities. The document provides context on private equity globally and in developing markets like Africa to frame the goals of the study.
This document discusses a study that analyzes the financial health of the Indian logistics industry from 2005-2012 using Altman's Z-score model. The study finds that the average Z-score for selected logistics firms was in the healthy to very healthy range during the study period. The average Z-score increased from 2006 to 2010 when the Indian economy was hit by the global recession, indicating the overall performance of the Indian logistics industry was good. The document reviews previous literature on measuring financial performance and distress using ratios and Z-scores, and outlines the objectives and methodology used in the current study.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
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A review of the pedagogical implications of examination washback
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A Review of the Pedagogical Implications of Examination
Washback
Saeed Ahmad1*, Congman Rao2
1. Institute of International and Comparative Education, Northeast Normal University, 5268 Renmin
Street,Changchun 130024, China
2. Faculty of Education, Northeast Normal University, 5268 Renmin Street,Changchun 130024, China
*Email: saeed_board@yahoo.com
Abstract
Tests are the primary source of change in the centralized educational systems. ‘Washback’ is the term used to
express the effects of examination or testing on the process of teaching and learning. Till now, much has been
said about the pedagogical influences of tests. However, the washback phenomenon is complex in its kind and
the researchers have reported a gap between the hypothetical impact of washback and the empirical evidences
collected from the ongoing research in this field. This was a review study with the focus to explore the
pedagogical implications of washback on the stakeholders. For this purpose, different definitions of the term
‘washback’ and the like terminologies were elaborated. Secondly it drew on the empirical research taken in this
direction. In the end, it suggested to the English language teachers some remedies to avoid negative influences of
testing in the light of empirical findings from the previous research.
Key Words:Examination, washback effect, teaching and learning
1. Introduction
Testing is crucial to see the effectiveness of teaching and learning. Consequently, the teachers, students, testers,
curriculum designers, policy makers, institutions and administration, all are affected by testing. In other words,
society as a whole is influenced by testing in some way. High stakes test results are used as an engine to
introduce desirable changes in teaching and learning around the world. Davies (1990:24) asserted that, ‘Testing
is always used in teaching, in the sense that much teaching is related to the testing which is demanded of the
students’. Hence, tests become an integral part of teaching and learning. Focusing on the importance of testing,
Cheng, L. (1997) wrote that, ‘Traditionally, tests come at the end of teaching and learning process. However,
with the advent of high stakes public examinations testing nowadays, the direction seems to be reversed. Testing
usually comes before the teaching and learning processes’. Madaus (1988:84, as cited by Spratt, 2005:05)
asserted that, ‘It is testing not the official stated curriculum that is increasingly determining what is taught, how
is taught, what is learnt, and how it is learnt’. The teachers and students have been reported to change their
teaching and learning strategies according to the demands of tests. Buck (1988:17 as quoted in Bailey, 1996:257)
wrote that,
There is a natural tendency for both teachers and students to tailor their classroom activities to the
demands of the test, especially when the test is very important to the future of the students, the pass
rates are used as a measure of teacher success. This influence of the test on the classroom is, of course,
very important, which is termed as washback.
Though it looks like a paradox, yet its significance in shaping the lives of the people cannot be neglected. This
study attempts to give a brief review of literature available on washback effect. For a clear understanding of the
related issues, it will focus on the following research objectives:
i. To analyze various definitions on washback effect and the like terminology given by different scholars.
ii. To analyze the hypothetical influences of the washback effect on teaching and learning.
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iii. To explore the implications of washback effect and give suggestions to the English language teachers on
how to foster positive washback effect.
2. Definitions of the Term ‘washback’
2.1 The Term ‘washback’
Although most of the educationists and scholars are agreed on the basic definition that ‘washback’ is the
influence of test on the classroom practices which can be either beneficial or harmful, yet there is found a variety
of definitions indicating slight differences in meaning. Hughes (1989:01) wrote that the effect of testing on
teaching and learning is washback. Spolsky (1994:02, as mentioned in Pan, Y 2009:257) asserted that washback
deals with the side effects of examinations. Biggs (1995:03) stated that washback controls teaching methods and
the students learning strategy besides curriculum. Messick (1996) also affirmed the verdict given earlier by
Alderson and Wall (1993) that tests influence teachers and learners to do things which they would not otherwise
necessarily do. He adds further (as quoted by Bailey, 1996:259) that, ‘the evidence of teaching and learning
effect should be interpreted as washback…only if that evidence can be linked to the introduction and use of the
test. These definitions clearly indicate that washback denotes influence that a test or exam can exert on teaching,
learning and all stake holders involved in this process. Bailey (1996: 259, as cited in Spratt, 2005) wrote that
washback is known as the ‘influence of testing on teaching and learning’. Pearson (1988:07) asserted that,
Public examinations influence the attitudes, behaviors and motivation of teachers, learners and parents,
and because examinations often come at the end of a course, this influence is seen working in a
backward direction, hence the term ‘washback (as quoted by Pan, Y. 2009).
Cheng (2008:08) claimed that washback is ‘an intended or intended direction and function of curriculum change
on aspects of teaching and learning by means of a change in public examinations’. This definition covers more
aspect than merely teaching and learning as advocated by most of the researchers. It focuses on the change of
curriculum in the wake of teaching and learning styles.
2.2 The Other Similar Concepts
A review of the related literature reveals that there are found other similar concepts to explain this phenomenon.
The term washback (as used by Buck 1988, Wall and Alderson 1993, Messick 1996, Bailey 1996, Pearson 1988,
Cheng 2005) has been referred to as ‘backwash’ by Hughes 1989, Spolsky 1994, and Biggs 1995. Some
scholars termed it as ‘test impact’, like Bachman and Palmer 1996, Wall 1997, McNamara 2000 and, Andrews
2004. Wall (1997:11, as cited in Pan, 2009) wrote that , ‘Test impact can refer to any of the effects that a test may
have on individuals, policies or practices within the classroom, the school, the educational system or society as a
whole’. Similarly, McNamara (2004:10) also asserted on the significance of test impact beyond the classroom
settings. ‘Systemic Validity’ is the term used by Frederickson and Colling, 1989. They used to examine systemic
validity influencing education system and curricular changes in fostering cognitive skill which a test intends to
measure. Messick, 1989 termed the same phenomenon as the ‘Consequential Validity’ which encompasses
concepts ranging from the uses of tests, the impact of testing on test takers and teachers, the examination of
results by decision makers, and the potential misuse, abuse and unintended usage of tests (Pan, Y. 2009). Marrow
(1986) referred to this phenomenon as the ‘washback validity’. He asserted that, ‘In essence, an examination of
washback validity would take testing researchers into the classroom in order to observe the effect of test in
action’.
The study shows that the same phenomenon has been explained using different terminology. The difference is
that of the impact of washback on micro and macro levels. At micro level, the influences of test can be seen
within the classroom; to the extent a test influences teaching methodology by the teacher and learning strategy
by the learners. At macro level, the influence of test can be gauged from the point of view of program,
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curriculum, institutions, administration, test developers, counselors and parents. In a nut shell, washback effect
refers to the influences of a test has on all individual stake holders, like students and teachers and, society as a
whole. All of the above mentioned definitions focus classroom settings involving teacher, learner, attitudes,
learning, curriculum, teaching methodology and materials. These definitions tell little about whether washback
effect is positive or negative.
3. The Hypothetical Influence of Washback
Alderson and Wall’s (1993) hypothesis on washback effect, indeed, laid the foundation for the currently ongoing
discussion in this field. To specify the phenomenon, they posed 15 possible hypothesis:
1) A test will influence teaching.
2) A test will influence learning.
3) A test will influence what teachers teach; and
4) A test will influence how teachers teach; and therefore by extension from (2) above:
5) A test will influence what learners learn; and
6) A test will influence how learners learn.
7) A test will influence the rate and sequence of teaching; and
8) A test will influence the rate and sequence of learning.
9) A test will influence the degree and depth of teaching; and
10) A test will influence the degree and depth of learning.
11) A test will influence attitudes to the content, method, etc., of teaching and learning.
12) Tests that have important consequences will have washback; and conversely
13) Tests that do not have important consequences will have no washback.
14) Tests will have washback on all learners and teachers.
15) Tests will have washback effects for some learners and some teachers, but not for others.
A number of empirical studies on washback effect verify theses hypotheses fully or partially. Alderson and Wall
(1993) have insisted on the necessity of more research on washback effect. According to them, an ethnographic
investigation with, at the least, classroom observation should be incorporated with other methodologies
employed for research and, the areas of motivation and performance should be explored with others.
Hughes’ (1993 ) framework (Appendix 1) on washback is, however, somewhat different from the above
mentioned 15 hypothesis on washback. He asserted on the changes washback effect can bring on the
participants, process and products of teaching and learning. He said that:
The tracheotomy into participants, process and product allows us to construct a basic model of
backwash (washback). The nature of a test may first affect the perceptions and attitudes of the
participants towards their teaching and learning tasks. The perceptions and attitudes in turn may affect
what the participants do in carrying out their work (process), including practicing the kind of items that
are to be found in the test, which will affect the learning outcomes, the product of the work.
Mostly, the empirical researches on washback effect have encompassed the participants, process and product
tracheotomy of Hughes’ framework. The participants to be influenced by washback effect are recognized as
language testers, teacher trainers, teachers, learners, parents, counselors, administrators, material developers,
curriculum designers sponsors and funding bodies, government bodies, the public, various national and
international examination authorities , ‘all of whose perceptions and attitudes towards their work may be affected
by a test’. The process includes ‘any action taken by the participants which may contribute to the process of
learning’. And, the product includes ‘what is learnt (facts, skills etc.) and the quality of learning (fluency, etc.).
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Washback affects differently to its stakeholders. The major impact receivers however, are recognized as
teacher and learners. Whereas, teaching and learning change with the thought of testing. Shohamey (1993)
reported in her study different changes taking place in classroom instructions as the exams drew nearer. The
teacher started reviewing the text instead of teaching new text. The textbook was replaced with the worksheets of
the previous year. The classroom atmosphere was all ‘test-like’. Some extra sessions were added to the class
instructions hours to review thoroughly the material already covered. The students were motivated by the teacher
to have mastery on the exam material.
The learners’ strategy is also reported to change with the idea of examination. Eckstein and Noah (1993)
wrote that, ‘They (the students) have had little incentive to study anything that will not be on examination paper.
There is no time in their classes to explore questions that are unlikely to come up in the test’. Bailey (1996)
wrote that confronted with an important examination, the students may be involved in one or all the following
practices (but not limited to them, of course):
• Practising items similar in format to those on the test.
• Studying vocabulary and grammar rules.
• Participating in interactive language practice (e.g., target language conversations).
• Reading widely in the target language.
• Listening to non-interactive language (radio, television, etc.).
• Applying test-taking strategies.
• Enrolling in test-preparation courses.
• Requesting guidance in their studying and feedback on their performance.
• Enrolling in, requesting or demanding additional (unscheduled) test-preparation classes or tutorials (in
addition to or in lieu of other language classes).
• Skipping language classes to study for the test.
All of the above mentioned changes in teaching and learning process affect either positively or negatively to the
participants, processes and products of teaching and learning. The following is a brief detail of these two types of
washback effect.
3.1 Positive and Negative Washback Effect
Wash back operates differently in different situations. In itself, washback is a neutral term which can infer
positively or negatively on the stakeholders (Buck, 1988 and Shohamy, et al, 1996). Bailey (1996:269) said,
‘Washback can either be positive or negative to the extent that it either promotes or impedes the accomplishment
of educational goals held by learners and/or program personnel (as quoted by Spratt, 2005). Most of the
prevalent research, however, seems to be done to trace the so called negative washback effect of testing. Tests
have their effects on the stakeholders, there is no doubt in it, yet what is the direction of these effects and how
much influential these effects are, is still hard to trace. More research is needed in this direction to decide clearly
the intensity and direction of it. Some researchers, however, have set a rough criterion and demonstrated some
apparent symptoms to decide whether the test influence is positive or negative. Alderson and Wall (1993, as cited
in Djuric, 2008:17) indicated that if teachers use tests to make their students pay more attention to learning, it is
positive influence of testing. If the teachers narrow curriculum to make their students more sharp on the exams,
it will be a negative influence of testing on the students learning. And normally, these will be a result of the
teachers’ fear of their students’ poor results. Alderson and Wall (1993) asserted that,
If there were no conflicts in the aims, activities, or the marking criteria of the textbook and the exam,
and if teachers accepted these and worked towards them, then a positive washback could be assumed to
have occurred. Teachers would be teaching the textbook because they would realize that any of the text
types or tasks therein might appear in the final exam.
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Pan (2009) however, summarized the positive washback effect in the following points:
i. Tests induce teachers to cover their subjects more thoroughly, making them complete their syllabi within
the prescribed time limits.
ii. Tests motivate students to work harder to have a sense of accomplishment and thus enhance learning.
iii. Good tests can be utilized and designed as beneficial teaching-learning activities so as to encourage
positive teaching-learning processes.
Shohamey (1992, as quoted by Bailey, 1996:266) indicated some conditions which can promote negative
washback. She writes that:
After all, when reliance is on tests to create change; when emphasis is mostly on proficiency and less on
the means that lead to it (i.e., what takes place in the classroom as part of the learning process); when
tests are introduced as authoritative tools, are judgemental, prescriptive, and dictated from above; when
the writing of tests does not involve those who are expected to carry out the change—the teachers; and
when the information tests provide is not detailed and specific and does not contain meaningful
feedback and diagnosis that can be used for repair, it is difficult to expect that tests will lead to
meaningful improvement in learning.
Anderson, et al (1990) mentioned the habit of rote memorization in learners as a negative washback effect.
Major discrepancies have been reported between test developers’ intentions and that of the classroom practices
which lead to create negative washback effect. Drawing on the possibility of negative washback effect, Alderson
and Wall (1993) wrote that,
There was always a possibility that the exam and the textbook would be pulling in different
directions…the most obvious danger was that teachers might concentrate on reading and writing rather
than listening and speaking, since the oral skills were not to be tested. There were several other ways in
which the examination could work against the textbook if it did not reflect the goals as fully as it should
have. This would constitute negative washback’.
The following summarized hints, however, were forwarded by Pan (2009) to indicate negative washback effect:
i. Tests encourage teachers to narrow the curriculum and lose instructional time, leading to “teaching to the
test.”
ii. Tests bring anxiety both to teachers and students and distort their performance.
iii. Students may not be able to learn real-life knowledge, but instead learn discrete points of knowledge that
are tested.
iv. Cramming will lead students to have a negative washback toward tests and accordingly alter their
learning motivation.
In a nut shell, positive washback induces meaningful and effective learning activities in classroom. The teachers
will focus on completing the syllabus. The learners will feel incentive in a thorough learning of all language skills.
On the higher level educational settings, the school authority will use testing to achieve educational goals. But it
will turn to negative washback effect if the authority uses these tests to get power and create anxiety among school
stall and students.
3.2 How to Foster Positive Washback Effect?
Shohamy (1993:515) emphasized on the timely and detailed provision of test scores which are easily
interpretable to foster positive washback effect from testing. Test scores should be credible for the test-takers
(Spratt, 2005). Cheng (1997) wrote that teachers’ selection of methodology is affected by the thought that the
students have to take a certain test. The teacher has been recognized as the most prominent figure to reduce the
negative washback effect from testing. Bailey (1996) holds that the objectives and goals of examination should
be clearly articulated to foster beneficial washback, make sure whether the test measures what the program
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intends to measure, … and must be based on sound theoretical principles which are widely accepted in the field
since a narrow view of linguistic competence has been replaced by a broader perspective on communicative
competence. Similarly, Hughes (1989, p44-46) asserted that those skills should be tested which are intended to
promote in students, through direct testing and criterion-referenced. Hughes (1989: 1) wrote that those abilities
of the learners should be tested whose development is to be encouraged. The testers should be unpredictable in
testing and, a wide array of samples should be considered while modeling the tests. Moreover, direct testing can
be better than an indirect one. The objectives of learning should be kept in mind in testing the learning outcomes.
The testers should be prudent enough in making understandable tests for both, the teachers and the learners. A
co-ordination between the teacher and testers can also prove helpful in fostering positive washback effect. Bailey
(1996:276-277) posed the following eight questions to find out whether testing will bring positive washback
effect on teaching and learning, or not:
1) Do the participants understand the purpose(s) of the test and the intended use(s) of the results?
2) Are the results provided in a clear, informative and timely fashion?
3) Are the results perceived as believable and fair by the participants?
4) Does the test measure what the program intends to teach?
5) Is the test based on clearly articulated goals and objectives?
6) Is the test based on sound theoretical principles which have current credibility in the field?
7) Does the test utilize authentic texts and authentic tasks?
8) Are the participants invested in the assessment processes?
4. Some Pedagogical Implications of the Washback Effect
Parents’ involvement in the process of assessment has also been reported to affect positively. Cheng, et al (2011)
study included the parents’ perspectives on students’ examinations. His two surveys, one with the students and
the other with the parents’ show a close relationship with each other on the issue of school based assessment.
Rea-Dicken (1997: 311) emphasizes on an active involvement of all stake holders in the assessment system. She
wrote that,
The benefits of enhancing fairness through stakeholder approaches to assessment are clear. If teachers
are given opportunities, starting through dialogue and working with the materials to develop a greater
understanding of assessment process, then they in turn, will become better skilled in constructing tests.
Learners should learn to become better test takers. Stakeholders’ involvement promotes
democratization, and it leads to more local control, thus promoting greater fairness within assessment
and teaching practices.
4.1 Teacher’s Role
The teacher’s role has been emphasizes throughout the literature on washback to reduce its negative influences
on teaching and learning. Bailey (2005) wrote that, ‘We may have limited power to influence high stakes
national and international examinations, but we do have tremendous power to lead students to learn, to teach
them language and how to work with tests and test results’. The beliefs of teachers play crucial role in
determining the impact of washback. Spratt (2005) assertd that the role of teacher, indeed, decides the intensity
and direction of the washback effect. Spratt (2005:17) stated that:
The type and amount of washback on teaching methodology appears to vary from context to context and
teacher to teacher. It varies from no reported wash back to considerable washback. The variable in
these differences appears to be not so much the exam itself as the teacher…Nevertheless, the empirical
studies reviewed (on washback effect) indicate strongly that an exam cannot of itself dictate what and
how teachers teach and learners learn. Degree and kinds of washback occur through the agency of
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various intervening bodies and are shaped by them. An important and influential agent in this process is
the teacher.
Teacher Assessment Literacy (TAL) is another idea forwarded by some scholars (Kiomers, 2011). It is argued
that teachers are normally not much aware of the philosophy of evaluation which brings negative impact to the
students’ learning. If teachers possess appropriate knowledge of testing, they can hinder the negative washback
effect on their teaching and students’ learning. Inbar-Lourie (2008) also asserted that the traditional assessment
training to the teachers has led to produce negative impact of testing on the teaching and learning process.
Teachers’ fear of the poor results of students’ exam can be reduced by involving them in the process of high
stakes testing along with teaching. Exam-specific teacher’s training has been suggested by some researchers
which can improve communication between testers and teachers. Likewise, the testers should get course-specific
training (Djuric, 2008).
4.2 How to Investigate Washback
How to investigate washback effect has remained a matter of concern for the researchers. The intensity and
direction of washback effect is not easy to determine since numerous personal and contextual factors interact in
determining the impact of testing on the classroom practices (Watanabe 2004, Alderson and Hamp-Lyons 1996).
Some researchers seem to be skeptical about its occurrence even. Alderson and Wall (1993) pointed out in their
study that,
what we did not know… was just how difficult it would be to determine whether washback has occurred
at all, and to decide, if there were no evidence for it, whether this was because there was no such thing
or because there were conditions in the educational setting that were preventing it from getting through
(as cited in Cheng, 1997).
Alderson and Wall (1993) advocate ‘a series of proposals for research’ which indicates the necessity of further
research in this filed. Spratt (2005) has emphasized on classroom observation and a triangulation of data source.
This seems appropriate since the prevailing empirical research has used either classroom observation, or learners,
teachers’ or parents’ perception, or experimental design with pre-test/post-test, etc. Very few researchers have
combined the research methodologies to evaluate the phenomenon.
5. Discussion and Conclusion
“Washback is presented as a stimulus for a change and as a bridge for efficient communication between
teachers and testers” (Djuric, 2008). Though washback effect is not a new concept in the annals of educational
assessment and its history can be traced in as early as Latham (1877), yet empirical evidence to this effect is
comparatively new (Cheng, 2011). There is found a lack of understanding as to how washback works (Alderson
and Wall, 1993). The focus of most of the studies has remained to investigate positive or negative washback
effect on teachers, students, teaching methodology, learning strategies, students and teachers’ attitudes and
beliefs, course content or teaching materials, etc. The researchers have emphasized on the congruity between
tests and curriculum objectives, learners’ self evaluation, meaningful feedback, authentic tasks, a variety of
testing and tasks, an increased understanding of testing criterion by the teachers and students, detailed score
reporting by the testers, etc. (Bailey, 1996; Hughes, 1989; Messick, 1996; Shohamy, 1992; Bachman and Palmer,
1996).
Washback is not inevitable and also that it is malleable (Spratt, 2005). The test scores being used as accurate
information of the students’ learning is also not very credible in all cases. The ethical issues are also subject to
public questioning (Smith, 1991). Spratt (2005) concluded that, ‘an exam cannot of itself dictate what and how
teachers teach and learners learn. Degrees and kinds of washback occur through the agency of various
intervening bodies and are shaped by them.’
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This study does not claim to include all empirical research till now done on washback effect. Examinations
are crucial and all efforts should be directed to bring out positive washback effect from testing. The variety of
terminology used for it does not indicate difference of meaning since the focus of every term used for it has one
focus of studying the influences of testing on the process of teaching and learning. The prevailing empirical
research lacks in leading towards any specific direction or indicating intensity of the washback effect. Still many
vague ideas prevail which make washback a speculative phenomenon. Most of the researches taken till now fail
to include multifarious perspectives involved in shaping washback and, all efforts have been put to prove the so
called negative washback effect from examinations without considering complexity of the phenomenon.
Teachers’ assessment literacy is acomparatively new idea which should be rooted in the pre-service and
post-service teachers training programs. There is a need to undertake larger studies to bring about generalizable
results.
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Appendix 1 Washback model on Hughes (1993) framework
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