This dissertation explores elementary teachers' technology acceptance and integration within a student-supported professional development model, emphasizing the influence of effective training on teachers' perceived ease of use and actual use of technology. Utilizing the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as a theoretical framework, the study identifies key themes in teachers' experiences and the necessity of long-term, supportive professional development. It concludes that there are significant gaps in the current literature regarding effective technology training models that include student support, which hampers integration in classroom instruction.

1. A DESCRIPTIVE CASE STUDY: ELEMENTARY TEACHERS’
TECHNOLOGY
ACCEPTANCE AND CLASSROOM INTEGRATION
by
Jenny Michelle Owens Whitt
Liberty University
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Liberty University

2. 2017
2
A DESCRIPTIVE CASE STUDY: ELEMENTARY TEACHERS’
TECHNOLOGY
ACCEPTANCE AND CLASSROOM INTEGRATION
by Jenny Michelle Owens Whitt
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA
2017

3. APPROVED BY:
Jennifer Courduff, Ph.D., Committee Chair
Amanda Rockinson-Szapkiw, Ed.D, Committee Member
Jillian Wendt, Ed.D, Committee Member
3
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this descriptive case study was to examine
elementary teachers’ technology
acceptance in the context of a student-supported professional
development model in an
elementary school located in the southern part of the United
States. In this study, technology
was defined as Internet, iPad™, or laptop use in a classroom
environment as an instructional and
learning tool. Face-to-face open-ended interviews, a survey,
and archival data in the form of
observations collected yearly as part of program evaluation for

4. professional development were
all used to answer the research questions. Research questions
focused on (a) the impact of a
student-supported professional development model on teachers’
perceived ease of use, perceived
usefulness, and intent to use technology in classroom
instruction; (b) the impact of a student-
supported professional development model on teachers’ actual
use of technology in classroom
instruction; and (c) the impact of sustained, student-supported
professional development of
technology on teachers’ willingness to integrate technology into
classroom instruction. The
theory guiding this study was the technology acceptance model
(TAM), which focuses on user
acceptance of an information system (Davis, 1989). The theory
of reasoned action (TRA) is the
foundation for the TAM (Davis, 1989). Data analysis followed
the process of Yin’s (2011) five-
phased cycle including compiling, disassembling, reassembling,
interpreting, and concluding.
The four themes that emerged during the analysis of this case
study included: skill and
knowledge development, lack of use prior to

5. intervention/professional development, successful
experience with technology, and evidence of acceptance and
integration.
Keywords: technology acceptance model (TAM), perceived ease
of use, perceived
usefulness, intent to use, actual use, and professional
development.
4
Copyright Page
5
Dedication
I want to thank my husband, Vance Whitt, and our five children:
Sura, Aden,
Shelby, Tryston, and Shila for their support during the writing
of my dissertation. I am glad

6. that the six of you not only supported me, but also were willing
to embark on this journey
together. I love you with all of my heart.
I want to thank my parents, John Owens, Sr., and Laura Sue
Freeze, for always
supporting my dreams. I also want to thank my family and
friends who have supported me
on my journey through life.
I want to thank my dissertation Chair, Dr. Courduff, and my
committee members,
Dr. Szapkiw and Dr. Wendt, for their support. I am glad that
they all agreed to be part of
my committee. I would also like to thank Kelli Myers for her
support throughout this
journey.
I want to thank Dr. Fred Davis for allowing me to not only use,
but also modify the
technology acceptance model survey that he used in his 1989
research.
I dedicate this dissertation to my family and to other children
who were likewise
raised in a lower-income family. Remember that you are
capable of doing anything you put

7. your mind to.
6
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT
...............................................................................................
..................................... 3
Copyright Page
...............................................................................................
................................. 4
Dedication
...............................................................................................
........................................ 5
List of Tables
...............................................................................................
................................... 9
List of Abreviations
...............................................................................................
....................... 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
...........................................................................................
11
Overview
...............................................................................................
.................................... 11

8. Background
...............................................................................................
................................ 11
Situation to Self
...............................................................................................
......................... 14
Problem Statement
...............................................................................................
..................... 16
Purpose Statement
...............................................................................................
...................... 17
Significance of the Study
...............................................................................................
........... 17
Research Questions
...............................................................................................
.................... 18
Definitions
...............................................................................................
................................. 20
Summary
...............................................................................................
.................................... 21
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
............................................................................... 23

9. Overview
...............................................................................................
.................................... 23
Theoretical Framework
...............................................................................................
.............. 23
Related Literature
...............................................................................................
...................... 29
Summary
...............................................................................................
.................................... 53
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
...............................................................................................
.. 54
Overview
...............................................................................................
.................................... 54
7
Design
...............................................................................................
........................................ 54
Research Questions
...............................................................................................
.................... 57

10. Setting
...............................................................................................
........................................ 57
Participants
...............................................................................................
................................. 59
Procedures
...............................................................................................
.................................. 60
The Researcher's Role
............................................................................................ ...
................ 62
Data Collection
...............................................................................................
.......................... 63
Data Analysis
...............................................................................................
............................. 70
Trustworthiness
...............................................................................................
.......................... 72
Credibility
...............................................................................................
.................................. 72
Dependability and Comfirmability
...........................................................................................
74

11. Transferability
...............................................................................................
............................ 75
Ethical Considerations
...............................................................................................
............... 75
Summary
...............................................................................................
.................................... 76
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
...............................................................................................
..... 77
Overview
...............................................................................................
.................................... 77
Participants
...............................................................................................
................................. 78
Results
...............................................................................................
........................................ 83
Summary
...............................................................................................
.................................. 112
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
............................................................................................
114

12. Overview
...............................................................................................
.................................. 114
Summary of Findings
...............................................................................................
............... 115
Discussion
...............................................................................................
................................ 118
8
Implications
...............................................................................................
............................. 127
Delimitations and Limitations
...............................................................................................
. 130
Recommendations for Future Research
.................................................................................. 134
Summary
...............................................................................................
.................................. 134
REFERENCES
...............................................................................................
............................ 136

13. APPENDIX A: TEACHER INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AND
SCRIPT .................................. 163
APPENDIX B: ADMINISTRATOR INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
AND SCRIPT ................... 166
APPENDIX C: TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL
SURVEY .................................... 169
APPENDIX D: IRB APPROVAL
..............................................................................................
171
APPENDIX E: INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE
................................................................... 172
APPENDIX F: INFORMED CONSENT
................................................................................... 174
APPENDIX G: TECHNOLOGY PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT SESSIONS…………177
APPENDIX H: TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL
SURVEY PERMISSION ........... 179
APPENDIX I: SAMPLE OBSERVATION NOTES
................................................................. 181
APPENDIX J: SAMPLE REFLECTIVE
JOURNAL………………………...………………. 182
APPENDIX K: PRIMARY THEMES AND
SUBTHEMES…………………………………. 183

14. 9
List of Tables
Table 1: Teacher and Administrator Participants
……………………………………………. 81
Table 2: Technology Acceptance Survey Results
…………………………………………… 86
Table 3: TAM Component Survey Results
…………………………………….……………. 88
Table 4: Emergent Themes from Research
………………………………………………….. 89
Table 5: Research Questions and Theme Alignment
……………………………………….. 106
10
List of Abbreviations
Generation of Youth and Educators Succeeding (GenYes)
Information and Communities Technology (ICT)

15. Interactive Whiteboard (IWB)
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Investigation for Quality Understanding and Engagement for
Students and Teachers (iQUEST)
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Technology-Based Assessments (TBA)
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Overview
Chapter One provides the foundation for a descriptive case
study on teachers’ technology
acceptance and classroom integration in the context of a
student-supported professional
development model. The technology acceptance model (TAM) is
used as the theoretical
framework, which guided the examination of teachers’
perceived ease of use, perceived
usefulness, intent to use, and actual use of technology. This

16. chapter discusses the problem,
purpose, and significance of the study. Three research
questions are introduced. A discussion on
situation to self, the limitations, and the delimitations of this
study are provided.
Background
Even with the billions of dollars that the United States spends
on educational software
and digital content, technology integration in classroom
instruction is still underutilized
(DeNisco, 2014; Goo, Watt, Park, & Hosp, 2012; Gray, Thomas,
& Lewis, 2010; More & Hart,
2013; Mundy, Kupczynski, & Kee, 2012; Schnellert &
Keengwe, 2012; Teo, 2009). While not a
natural consequence of its availability, meaningful technology
integration in classroom
instruction is indeed important as it has been shown to boost
student achievement and learning
(Machado & Chung, 2015). Delen and Bulut (2011) conducted
research to determine if student
exposure to technology at school and home impacted student
achievement in mathematics and
science. These researchers concluded that students with more
exposure to technology performed

17. better in science and mathematics (Delen & Bulut, 2011). They
discussed that technology use at
home was a predictor of science and mathematics performance;
however, school usage had a
limited impact because there was a lack of integration in
classroom instruction (Delen & Bulut,
2011).
12
Research conducted by Chacko, Appelbaum, Kim, Zhao, and
Montclare (2015)
demonstrated student success when technology was integrated
into academic content. For two
summers, these researchers studied technology integration
during a bioengineering program
provided for high school students. Chacko et al. concluded that
technology in science instruction
was beneficial for the participants, as student work for lesson
topics one (diabetes) and two
(HIV/AIDS) demonstrated 100% mastery. Cancer, which was
topic three, resulted in 93% of
students mastering the content.

18. A vital factor influencing teachers’ technology acceptance and
integration in the
classroom is effective professional development (DeNisco,
2014; Foughty & Keller, 2011;
Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007; Machado & Chung, 2015).
Professional development is the process
of enhancing the instructional practices and knowledge of
teachers as a means to improve student
learning (Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, &
Orphanos, 2009). Teachers need
relevant and effective professional development support in the
area of technology use as an
instructional tool in the classroom (Wang, Myers, & Yanes,
2010). Unfortunately, professional
development with regard to the use of technology is often
ineffective and does not results in the
acceptance and integration of the technology in classroom
instruction (Akengin, 2008;
Desimone, 2009; Howley, Wood, & Hough, 2011; Machado &
Chung, 2015; Ravitz, 2009;
Smolin & Lawless, 2010).
The majority of technology professional development initiatives
include a one-day,

19. lecture-based approach without any follow-up or additional
support services provided. The
result of this professional development approach is that teachers
feel that they are inadequately
prepared to effectively use technology during classroom
instruction (Dede, Ketelhut,
Whitehouse, Breit, & McCloskey, 2009; DeNisco, 2014; Howley
et al., 2011). Feeling
13
inadequately prepared, teachers do not integrate technology in
their classrooms despite research
supporting the benefits of utilization during instruction
(Machado & Chung, 2015). Ndongfack
(2015) discussed professional development practiced for the
past two decades in Cameroon. It
consisted of one-day training sessions at the end of each term,
resulting in a total of three
sessions per year. The findings, as published in the 2009, 2010,
and 2011 annual reports, support
the fact that one-day training sessions are ineffective in teacher
acceptance and integration of
technology into classroom instruction. The reports concluded

20. that the teachers preferred long
term or ongoing technology professional development
opportunities.
Gray et al. (2010) concluded that 66% of the teachers in their
study spent eight hours or
less on activities or tasks that provided them with technology
professional development within a
12-month timeframe. The one-day model, in addition to the
small portion of time allotment for
technology professional development, suggests teachers’
technology professional development
may need to be restructured to ensure acceptance and effective
integration of technology into the
classroom.
Research has shown that effective technology training should be
characterized by
professional development that is long-term or ongoing, is
embedded into day-to-day practices,
and is accompanied by a mentor or coach (Lutrick & Szabo,
2012; Ndongfack, 2015; O’Koye,
2010). A study by Duran, Brunvand, Ellsworth, and Sendag
(2012) using 218 teachers and
administrators that provided a district-wide, research-based
professional development model

21. focused on the development and usage of wikis in classroom
instruction. The research-based
professional development model included new roles for teachers
such as mentoring and collegial
learning, and was an ongoing process. During the six-month
study, teacher participants received
numerous technology professional development sessions. In
addition to the professional
14
development sessions, follow-up support and one-on-one
instructional opportunities were
provided. The results suggested that professional development
had a significant impact on
teacher technology, specifically as it related to the increase of
knowledge and skills of
participants. Duran et al. also concluded that research-based
professional development enhanced
learning as well as changed technology practices in classroom
instruction. After the study was
completed, Duran et al. noted that 57% of the participants
continued to use wiki sites; however,

22. they stressed that more work was needed to understand
technology professional development
that results in teacher acceptance and is effective in supporting
integration of technology into
classroom practice (DeNisco, 2014; Machado & Chung, 2015;
O’Koye, 2010). This descriptive
case study focused on teacher technology acceptance and
classroom integration in context to a
specific technology professional development model, which
included many elements of effective
professional development including long-term and on-going,
connecting technology to
instruction, and embedding it into day-to-day practices. It
however extends the professional
development knowledge base in that it included another
element, elementary student support,
that has received little to no attention in research.
Situation to Self
My years as a classroom teacher, instructional coach, and
instructional technology
director have led me to recognize an increasing need for teacher
technology acceptance and
integration into classroom instruction, as well as for effective
technology professional

23. development. Having experienced technology integration
firsthand, I also know and understand
that there are obstacles to achieving both acceptance and usage
of technology by teachers.
As a qualitative researcher, my philosophical assumption that
guided this study was the
paradigm of constructivism. I chose this paradigm because
reality focused on interpretations of
15
each individual (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Constructivism is a
paradigm that is used when one
wants to provide each participants perception as they will each
vary. This study implemented
three data collection methods where I was fully immersed, thus
adhering to the constructivism
framework (Charmaz, 2014).
Ontological assumptions, which address multiple realities and
attempt to discover the
nature of the reality, were a part of this case study (Creswell,
2013; Guba & Lincoln, 1989). The
words of each participant were voiced through interviews, a

24. survey, and archival data consisting
of classroom observations conducted during the 2013-14 and
2014-15 school year as part of
program evaluation.
This study relied on epistemological assumptions, wherein I am
“trying to get as close as
possible to the participants being studied” (Creswell, 2013, p.
20). As a means of striving to
achieve an accurate picture of what each participant was saying
(Creswell, 2013), I conducted all
professional development sessions in participants’ classrooms.
All professional development
sessions had occurred during the 2013-14 and 2014-15 school
years as part of a district
technology integration rollout plan, which included a
professional development program
evaluation component that I both created and implemented. My
active involvement in
professional development sessions provided additional
opportunities to learn and understand the
level of technology integration of participants as well as their
experiences with technology in
classroom practices.

25. This study revealed rhetorical assumptions, which addressed my
need to write in a
manner that was personal and based on the findings that are
credible, transferable and
dependable to provide a holistic view (Creswell, 2013; Feagin,
Orum, & Sjoberg, 1991). My job
was to accurately report all observations in an objective manner
(O’Neil, 1998). To do so, I used
16
open-ended interview questions for teachers (Appendix A) and
administrators (Appendix B),
transcribed the responses, and then provided participants with
the opportunity to review and
clarify the responses in order to member check. In addition,
participants reviewed the findings.
This ensured that the recorded answers were both objective and
a direct reflection of the
responses provided by each participant.
Problem Statement
Despite researchers’ support for the advantages of technology
inclusion in the classroom

26. (e.g., increase in student achievement), technology integration
in classroom instruction has not
changed much in the last decade (DeNisco, 2014; Morgan,
2014; Navidad, 2013; Schnellert &
Keengwe, 2012; Tamim, Bernard, Borokhovski, Abrami, &
Schmid, 2011). This lack of
increased use of technology is primarily the consequence of
ineffective technology professional
development for teachers (DeNisco, 2014; Goo et al., 2012;
Gray et al., 2010; Howley et al.,
2011; Machado & Chung, 2015; More & Hart, 2013; Ravitz,
2009; Schnellert & Keengwe, 2012;
Tamim et al., 2011). While numerous research studies on
technology professional development
exist, research on an effective model resulting in an increase of
teacher acceptance and
integration of technology in elementary classroom instruction is
limited (DeNisco, 2014;
Schnellert & Keengwe, 2012; Skoretz, 2011). While some
research exists on using a coach or
mentor and providing continuous educational support as a tool
to increase technology acceptance
and integration in the classroom, they are neither commonly
used, nor cost effective (Machado &

27. Chung, 2015). There is a gap in the literature that addresses
elementary student-supported
technology professional development. This case study included
students as a support for
professional development to raise teacher technology
acceptance and integration into classroom
instruction.
17
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this descriptive case study was to examine
teachers’ technology
acceptance and classroom integration in the context of a
student-supported professional
development model at an elementary school located in the
southern part of the United States. In
this descriptive case study, technology was defined as using the
Internet on an iPad™ or laptop in
a classroom environment as an instructional and learning tool.
Student-supported professional
development was defined as teachers receiving and participating
in nine sessions of technology

28. professional development with the students in their classroom.
Student-supported technology
professional development occurred in the 2013-14 and 2014-15
school year as part of a two-year
district technology integration rollout plan; therefore, it was
only conducted for two years. A
specific agenda (Appendix G) was implemented, which included
specific tasks and a homework
component. Student support included enhancing teacher
technology knowledge and application;
motivation; exposure; comfort level; and ability to explore,
demonstrate and recall skills.
Students exhibit technology expertise, are more competent with
technology, and have a higher
set of technology skills than teachers (Bajt, 2011; Gu, Zhu, &
Guo, 2013). The theory guiding
this study was the TAM, as it was used to explain teacher
technology acceptance and integration
into classroom instruction (Davis, 1989).
Significance of the Study
Empirical research targeting elementary student-supported
professional development
does not exist. Research beginning as early as the 1990s
discussed elementary students as

29. technology troubleshooters, but not as support during
professional development (Corso &
Devine, 2013). The research that is available focuses on middle
school and college students
18
taking on technology leadership roles resulting in integration
into classroom instruction, but not
in an elementary setting (Breiner, 2009; Corso & Devine, 2013;
Gu et al., 2013).
Although researchers have identified effective elements of
professional development,
there was a gap in the literature addressing the potential of
elementary student-supported
professional development (Duran et al., 2012; Gayton &
McEwan, 2010; Koh & Newman, 2009;
Neuman & Cunningham, 2009; Potter & Rockinson-Szapkiw,
2012). Furthermore, effective
technology professional development models are needed,
especially at the elementary level.
Examining teachers’ technology acceptance and classroom
integration in the context of a

30. student-supported professional development model, through a
longitudinal study, could possibly
answer how. This study offers an effective professional
development model that school
personnel can adopt to enhance teacher technology acceptance
and use in the classroom.
An in-depth examination of teachers’ perspectives pertaining to
long-term technology
professional development occurred in this study, thus adding to
the literature as researchers have
discussed the importance of conducting ongoing or long-term
technology professional
development (Lutrick & Szabo, 2012; Matherson, Wilson, &
Wright, 2014). Rather than
implementing one-day technology professional development,
which has been shown to be
generally ineffective, this study provided support for the
implementation of long-term programs
(Blackmon, 2013; Borthwick & Pierson, 2008; Dede et al.,
2009).
Research Questions
Technology professional development plays a role in teacher
acceptance and integration
of technology in classroom instruction (DeNisco, 2014; Ertmer,

31. Ottenbreit-Leftwich, Sadik,
Sendurur, & Sendurur, 2012). Research supports effective
elements of professional development
that enhance teachers’ acceptance of technology and integration
into classroom instruction
19
(Lutrick & Szabo, 2012; O’Koye, 2010); however, additional
studies are needed to develop
effective models for supporting it, especially at the elementary
level (DeNisco, 2014; Machado
& Chung, 2015; O’Koye, 2010). Three research questions were
used to study teachers’
technology acceptance and classroom integration in the context
of a student-supported
professional development model. Research Question One
focused on teachers’ beliefs that
technology will be effort-free and good for their job, along with
their plan to use technology as
an instructional tool in classroom instruction.
RQ 1: How will the integration of a student-supported
professional development model

32. impact teachers’ perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness,
and intent to use technology in
classroom instruction?
Because it has been available throughout their lives, today’s
elementary students have an
understanding of technology that previous generations lacked
(Bajt, 2011; McAlister, 2009).
Therefore, they also tend to have well-developed technology
skills, knowledge, and
competencies (Bajt, 2011; Gu et al., 2013). Research supports
the need for teachers to rely on
the technology expertise that their students possess (Corso &
Devine, 2013; Krier, 2008).
Research Question Two addresses how student-supported
professional development impacts
teachers’ ability to use technology in the classroom.
RQ 2: How will the integration of a student-supported
professional development model
impact teachers’ actual use of technology in classroom
instruction?
Research supports that professional development is the primary
factor impacting teacher
acceptance of technology and technology integration in the
classroom (DeNisco, 2014; Ertmer et

33. al., 2012). The process of studying the impact on teachers’
technology use in classroom
instruction provided an understanding of teacher acceptance.
Research Question Three studies
20
the relationship between a student-supported professional
development model and teachers’
technology integration in the classroom.
RQ 3: What evidence suggests that student-supported
professional development for
technology is responsible for the encouragement of teachers’
technology integration into
classroom instruction?
Most of the literature discussing technology professional
development focuses on
ineffective models (DeNisco, 2014; Gray et al., 2010; Schnellert
& Keengwe, 2012; Skoretz,
2011). There are certain effective elements of professional
development supported by research,
such as professional development learning that is embedded into
day-to-day practices, is long-

34. term or ongoing, and uses a mentor or coach; however, no
research exists that targets elementary
student support for professional development (Lutrick & Szabo,
2012, O’Koye, 2010).
Definitions
1. Actual use - The genuine utilization of a specific technology
a person exhibits based on
the person’s perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and
intent towards using.
Actual use is actual computer adoption behavior (Davis,
Bagozzi, & Warsaw, 1989).
2. Intent to use - Based on perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness. Intent to use is
the calculated goal a person has towards technology application.
User intention is the
actual plan that a user will employ technology (Davis et al.,
1989).
3. Perceived ease of use - A construct of the TAM focusing on a
person’s belief that
technology will be effortless (Davis, 1989). Perceived ease of
use is an influence on
perceived usefulness based on the thought that if technology is
easier to integrate, then it

35. is convenient.
21
4. Perceived usefulness - A construct of the TAM that focuses
on the extent that a person
believes the system will be good for his or her job (Davis,
1989).
5. Professional development - The process of enhancing teacher
instructional practices and
knowledge as a means to improve student learning (Darling-
Hammond et al., 2009).
Furthermore, professional development includes providing
group instruction and/or
activities focusing on specific skills, attitudes, and extending
professional knowledge
(Guskey, 2000).
6. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) - A model
introduced by Davis (1989) based
on theory of reasoned action. The TAM provides information
regarding a person’s
perception of technology and usage behavior (Davis et al.,
1989). Four of the TAM

36. constructs are user perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use,
intent to use technology
and actual use of technology or technology devices.
Summary
This study examined teachers’ technology acceptance and
classroom integration in the
context of a student-supported professional development model.
Specifically, describing how
student-supported professional development influences
teachers’ technology acceptance and
integration in the classroom. The theoretical framework for this
case study was based on the
TAM (Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989), which was introduced in
Chapter One and then discussed
in depth throughout Chapter Two. The problem statement,
purpose for conducting the study,
significance of the study, and research questions were discussed
in this chapter. A presentation
of the gaps in literature provided a framework for this study.
A descriptive case study was selected because an understanding
of an intervention
consisting of student-supported professional development as it
pertains to a real-life context,

37. 22
teacher technology acceptance, and integration was obtained
(Stake, 1995, Yin, 2013).
Specifically, using multiple methods to avow an in-depth
investigation. The data collection
methods for this study included a survey, open-ended face-to-
face interviews, and archival data
consisting of classroom observations collected yearly, during
2013-14 and 2014-15 school years,
as part of program evaluation. Participants consisted of five
elementary school teachers located
in the southern part of the United States who received the
student-supported technology
professional development model and two administrator
participants who observed student-
supported technology professional development at least three
times during the 2013-14 and/or
2014-15 school years.

38. 23
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview
In several studies that focuse on teachers’ use of technology
conducted in various
settings ranging from kindergarten through higher education,
less than half of the teachers
across all the studies reported that they used technology
regularly in their classroom instruction
(DeNisco, 2014; Gray et al., 2010; Schnellert & Keengwe,
2012). Teachers report that a lack of
professional development focusing on technology for
instructional purposes was the main
reason for limited technology inclusion in classroom
instruction. This suggests the need for an
effective technology professional development model.
This chapter provides a review of literature discussing (a) the
theoretical framework; (b)
technology integration in the classroom; (c) professional
development; (d) issues that impede
professional development and technology integration; and (f)
students as support for technology
integration in classrooms. A summary of the selection leading

39. to the research gap concludes the
chapter.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this research study was the
technology acceptance model
(TAM), which is based on the theory of reasoned action (TRA).
TAM focuses on the
interactions that occur between a person’s perception of
technology and the person’s computer
usage behavior (Davis et al., 1989). Knight (2012) discussed
the importance of teachers’
perceptions as a main factor in research on technology
integration. TAM is based on the central
beliefs that using technology is effortless and good for a
person’s profession, resulting in
technology use (Davis, 1989).
24
Theory of Reasoned Action
TRA focuses on a person’s performance of a specific behavior

40. as primarily determined
by that person’s behavioral intention (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980).
Ajzen and Fishbein further
explained that a person’s behavioral intention is jointly
determined by the person’s attitude and
the subjective norm concerning the behavior in question.
Attitude refers to a person’s
mannerisms towards a behavior and specific performance of the
behavior with limited regard to
the overall performance (Fishbein & Azjen, 1980). Subjective
norm is based on the opinions of
others and consists of a person’s perception about whether to
perform or not perform a specific
behavior (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000).
While originally introduced as a theory in social psychology,
TRA has since been applied
to specific domains like technology. For example, in 1980,
studies that focused on the way that
an individual adopts certain behaviors, technologies, or advice
were included in TRA (Ajzen &
Fishbein, 1980; Wallace & Sheetz, 2014). In terms of
technology, when people view it as
favorable, they are more likely to acquire and utilize it (Ajzen
& Fishbein, 1980; Wallace &

41. Sheetz, 2014).
Technology Acceptance Model
Davis (1989) found inspiration for TAM in technology-focused
applications of TRA and
introduced his theory as a tool for understanding technology use
based on external factors,
beliefs, attitudes, and intentions (Davis et al., 1989). However,
while TRA both applies to theory
and forms the foundation for TAM, some key differences
between the two theories exist. Both
TRA and TAM discuss belief as a determining factor in attitude;
however, attitude determinants
vary within each theory. Specifically, TRA asserts that
“external stimuli influence attitudes only
indirectly through changes in the person’s belief structure”
(Davis et al., 1989, p. 984), thus
25
providing a framework to analyze how a person responds to a
particular situation. TAM, on the
other hand, is used to provide possible explanations for why the
individual did or did not adopt

42. the technology in question (Davis et al., 1989; Hu, Clark, & Ma,
2003). TRA, therefore,
encompasses intention or behavior and is used as a predictor,
while TAM targets user intention
and adaptive behavior. Additionally, TRA combines both
perceived ease of use and usefulness
as part of behavioral intention, while TAM holds them as
separate and distinct.
Despite the refinement made possible by this distinction, TAM
is limited insofar as
perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness cannot explain
all user acceptance behaviors
(Juhary, 2014). Therefore, TAM has been modified and
expanded to include additional variables
and subjective norms (Venkatesh & Bala, 2013; Venkatesh &
Davis, 2000; Wolk, 2009).
Further, TAM has been modified as a tool to explain a person’s
utilization of information
technology, specifically the determinants of perceived ease of
use and usefulness. The result has
been the development of various models such as the TAM2
(Venkatesh, & Davis, 2000), the
TAM3 (Venkatesh, & Bala, 2013), and the unified theory of
acceptance and use of technology

43. (Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis, 2003).
These adjusted versions address guidance to practitioners;
suggestions for a practical
intervention; facilitation of conditions; and the influences of
gender, age, voluntarism or
experience, which are not examined in this study. This study
will instead attempt to answer how
student-supported professional development may impact
teachers’ technology acceptance and
classroom integration. Because perceived ease of use and
usefulness are important factors in this
investigation, the original TAM model was selected for this
case study.
Technology acceptance model constructs. The four constructs
of TAM are perceived
ease of use, perceived usefulness, intent to use and actual use.
While a number of factors
26
influence teachers’ intention to use and actual use of technology
in the classroom, two key
factors are beliefs about ease of use and usefulness (Abbitt,

44. 2011; Bingimals, 2009; DeNisco,
2014; Howley et al., 2011; Inan & Lowther, 2010; Ottenbreit-
Leftwich, Glazewski, Newby, &
Ertmer, 2010).
Perceived ease of use. The validity and reliability of perceived
ease of use determines
user acceptance (Kanchanatanee, Suwanno, & Jarenvongrayab,
2014; Moses, Wong, Baker, &
Mahmud, 2013; Naeini & Krishnam, 2012; Nasser Al-Suqri,
2014). In education, the degree to
which technology is implemented into instruction depends on
teacher acceptance (Timothy,
2009), which is heavily influenced by perceived ease of use.
For instance, recent research about
attitudes toward laptop use in a sample of 292 science and 278
mathematics teachers
demonstrated that perceived ease of use was a significant
predictor of perceived usefulness of
technology (Moses et al., 2013).
At least one study indicated that perceived ease of use
influenced the technology use of
students, as well. Naeini and Krishnam (2012) conducted
research with a sample size of 201

45. Malaysian elementary school students focusing on their use of
computer games. Specifically,
they examined usage patterns based on perceived usefulness and
ease of use. Naeini and
Krishnam found significant positive correlation between these
two variables and actual use of the
technology. While perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness resulting in actual use among
students will not be studied directly in the proposed study, it
will be an essential component, as
student acceptance of technology will be used as a resource to
support both technology
integration into classroom instruction and professional
development.
Perceived usefulness. Perceived usefulness is the realization
that new technology will
increase or improve overall performance (Davis, 1993). This
perception directly affects a
27
person’s intent to use technology (Chen, Chen, & Kazman,
2007; Rouibah, Abbas, & Rouibah,
2011). Researchers have affirmed perceived usefulness as a

46. construct in TAM to determine user
acceptance and actual use of technology (Amin, Rezaei, &
Abolghasemi, 2014; Holden & Rada,
2011; Moses et al., 2013; Williams, Slade, & Dwivedi, 2014).
One of these studies examined the level of e-reader use among a
sample of 234
consumers, and the researchers concluded that perceived
usefulness positively influenced intent
to use (Williams et al., 2014). Williams et al. supported
existing TAM relationships, specifically
technology perceived, as being useful was more likely to be
accepted and used than was
technology not deemed useful. Other research indicated that the
opposite is also true, as Holden
and Rada (2011) conducted a study consisting of a sample size
of 99 kindergarten through 12th
grade teachers focusing on educational technology acceptance
and usage behavior. They
concluded that when the user did not accept educational
technology or did not believe that it
improved work performance, the result was failure to implement
the technology into the
classroom.

47. Intent to use. Research has suggested that the variables
discussed previously (i.e.,
perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness) may influence
teachers’ intent to use technology
(Holzinger, Searle, & Wernbacher, 2011; Kanchanatanee et al.,
2014; Martin, 2012; Potter &
Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2012). This variable mediates the
relationship between perceptions and
actual use (Bagozzi, Davis, & Warshaw, 1992). Specifically,
studies indicated that teacher
perception of a technology as useful and easy to use directly
increased intent to use, which then
influenced actual use (Al-Adwan, Al-Adwan, & Smedley, 2013;
Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989;
Lin, 2013; Park & del Pobil, 2013b; Yucel & Gulbahar, 2013).
28
Actual use. Researchers have concluded that perceived ease of
use and usefulness have
an indirect effect—and intent to use a direct effect—on actual
use (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011;
Park, Rhoads, Hou, & Lee, 2014).

48. Validity and reliability of measures of the technology
acceptance model. The validity
and reliability of TAM has been examined in numerous research
studies (Ma & Liu, 2005;
Mahmood, Hall, & Swanberg, 2001; Moon & Kim, 2001; Park &
del Pobil, 2013a; Park & del
Pobil, 2013b; Roca & Gagné, 2008; Tai & Ting, 2011; Wang,
Lin, & Luarn, 2006; Wong, Ooi,
& Hew, 2013). More than a decade of research findings has
shown that the survey (Appendix C)
used to measure the four TAM constructs is robust and powerful
in determining the level of
users’ acceptance of technology (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000),
and assessments of the survey have
yielded reliability levels between 0.70 and 0.92 (Agarwal &
Karahanna, 2000; Gefen,
Karahanna, & Straub, 2003; Jiang, Hsu, Klein, & Lin, 2000;
Klopping & McKinney, 2004;
Selim, 2003; Wolk, 2009). Such high coefficients indicate that
the survey provides a reliable
way to measure technology use and its influences.
Related Literature
Changes in teaching practices may be needed in order to
effectively teach today’s

49. students (Huang and Yang, 2014; Matulich, Papp, & Haytko,
2008). Teachers who want to meet
the needs of their students may need to understand and use
technology in classroom instruction
(Aviles & Eastman, 2012). In terms of bringing
about this change, the degree to which
implementing effective professional development increases
perceived usefulness, perceived ease
of use, and intent to use—and thus whether it increases actual
classroom use—has long been a
topic of debate.
29
Despite the fact that professional development has been
integrated into both public and
private schools at all levels—as well as into higher education—
no specific technology
professional development program or strategy has a strong
empirical research base to support its
use to increase effective technology integration in classroom
instruction (DeNisco, 2014; Gray et
al., 2010; Schnellert & Keengwe, 2012; Skoretz, 2011).

50. However, researchers have suggested
certain elements as being necessary for effective technology
professional development (Lawless,
& Pellegrino, 2007; Hayden, Ouyang, Olszewski & Bielefeldt,
2011; Potter & Rockinson-
Szapkiw, 2012). These elements consist of ongoing or long-
term support, embedding of
technology into day-to-day activities, and mentoring or
coaching (Lutrick & Szabo, 2012;
O’Koye, 2010).
In addition, research conducted by Hutchison (2012) focusing
on professional
development and understanding the integration of technology
into instruction provided insight as
to four factors that teachers believe would enhance their usage.
Open-ended survey questions
focusing on teachers’ perceptions were gathered from 1441
literacy teachers. Data analysis
concluded that teachers need: (a) time to explore and prepare
literacy lessons with technology
integration; (b) additional access to technology equipment; (c)
knowledge consisting of
background, higher-level thinking, and presenters; and (d)
ongoing or follow-up provided by

51. support personal.
A study conducted by Wang, Hsu, Campbell, Coster, and
Longhurst (2014) concluded
similar results. Data collected from 24 teacher participants and
1,060 student participants
examining the technology savviness of students versus teachers
resulted in five barriers to
technology integration in classroom instruction. The five
barriers included: (a) limited access to
technology, (b) time constraints, (c) limited technology skills
and knowledge, (d) limited
30
integration skills, and (e) school policies limiting support and
resources. Teachers also
acknowledged that the majority of technology integration was
limited to word processing,
presentation tools, and Internet researching.
Effective technology professional development instruction
should also incorporate
device, software, or tool operation maintenance and instruction,
as well as integrate instruction

52. that focuses on fostering curricular connections. Potter and
Rockinson-Szapkiw (2012) argued
that effective teacher technology professional development
should include technology operation,
technology application and technology integration. During this
study, technology professional
development will include components addressing each of these
variables.
Linton and Geddes (2013) discussed a small school district in
North Carolina. The
district’s technology plan provided ongoing long-term support,
embedded into day-to-day
activities, mentoring, time to plan and explore, instruction on
device and software, fostered
curricular connections, and built teacher technology confidence.
The results of the initiative
include the district being recognized as one of the 10 highest
achieving in the state, despite being
low-funded. Classroom environments throughout the district
are rich in technology integration
as demonstrated daily throughout the district. Specific
examples include students creating videos
to send to Olympic athletes or interactive mathematic lessons.
Despite the level of technology

53. integration and student achievement increasing with this
initiative, the role of technology
supported by students was not examined. Therefore, more
research in this area is needed
because it is unknown to what extent student-support would
have on teacher technology usage in
classroom instruction.
31
Influence of Technology Integration on Student Engagement and
Achievement
A need exists to more fully integrate technology into classroom
instruction. Not only
should students be better able to navigate a highly technological
world, but research also
indicates that the use of technology in the classroom results in
higher levels of student
engagement and achievement. In terms of the latter, researchers
have found not only that
students score higher when technology integration occurred in

54. the classroom and was useful
(Morgan, 2014; Navidad, 2013; Tamim et al., 2011), but also
that technology continues to be
underutilized in instruction (Goo et al., 2012; More & Hart,
2013; Sanders, 2009; Tamim et al.,
2011; Teo, 2009).
Students appear to agree, as 80% of student respondents in one
study stated that a hands-
on practice of the kind made possible by technology is the best
method for learning (Breiner,
2009). In another examination of this question, Hyland and
Kranzow (2012) considered the
perceptions of both teachers and students in the use of
technology, particularly in the use of e-
texts and e-libraries, in developing critical thinking and self-
directed search. These researchers
administered close-ended and open-ended survey questionnaires
to 92 students and eight faculty
members from a private, post-secondary institution. Analysis of
both student and faculty
feedback revealed that e-materials had a positive influence on
students’ learning behavior
involving critical thinking and self-directed learning, which
confirmed the researchers’ (Hyland

55. & Kranzow, 2012) alternative hypothesis. Both students and
faculty members viewed e-libraries
as efficient in providing a wide range of information in the
shortest possible time.
Analysis of the open-ended questions indicated that the majority
of the students believed
they performed better in class upon using the e-materials in the
sense that they had access to a
wide pool of the latest information in an organized manner. It
should be noted that in this study,
32
self-reporting was used, and it may be possible that the
students’ general positivity toward
technology prompted them to overestimate its ability to help
them think critically. As such,
more research is needed to better understand the link between
technology integration and student
achievement.
A longitudinal study spanning three years concluded similar
results. Blanchard,
LePrevost, Tolin, and Guiterrez (2016) investigated ongoing

56. technology professional
development (TDP) of 20 mathematics and science teachers in
high-poverty school districts.
There results concluded that teachers who participated in TDP
demonstrated an increase in their
technology usage comfort level. Furthermore, the students of
teachers that participated in TDP
demonstrated higher assessment scores in both academic areas
than students in non-TDP
participant classrooms. The study also identified that student
exposure to more than one TDP
teacher resulted in higher achievement scores and substantial
academic gains.
Not only does research support the theory that technology
integration into classroom
increases student achievement and engagement, but it also
supports increased graduation rates.
Yasar, Mailekal, Little, and Veronsei (2014) studied a specific
teacher technology training
program that emphasized technology, content, and pedagogy.
The study consisted of providing
180 teachers from 15 schools ongoing technology training and
support spanning three years.
Data concluded that student engagement and achievement scores

57. in both mathematics and
science increased based off of comparisons conducted on the
control and treatment group.
Additionally, graduation rates of schools in the treatment group
drastically increased, while no
change was observed in the control group.
Understanding of the potential benefit of technology
integration in classroom instruction
may emerge through various learning styles. Huang and Yang
(2014) examined preferred
33
learning styles of students and learning occurring in
kindergarten through 12th grade classrooms.
The sample size consisted of 28,300 primary and secondary
students located in Beijing, China.
All participants were administered the Digital Native
Questionnaire by Horizon Research
Publishing consisting of 30 questions. A focus group interview
consisting of 28 students
occurred, and participants were interviewed in groups of four
using a six-part questionnaire

58. focusing on content, sequence, materials provided, pedagogy,
ICT usage, learning outcomes, and
assessment.
The researchers found that content sequence, pedagogy,
learning outcome, material
provided, and assessment learning differed between digital
native preferred and K-12 classes
(Huang & Yang, 2014). Huang and Yang provided an analysis
of what students needed to learn
in classrooms and demonstrated the pitfalls of current classroom
teaching. The research
provided a roadmap for changing classroom teaching and
suggested that teaching styles must
change to meet the needs of Generation Y (born 1980-1994)
students.
Paradoxically, Generation Y and Generation Z (born 1995-
2010) students, in addition to
needing more technology-driven instruction, are already more
literate in this way than are
students from previous generations, such as Baby Boomer (born
1946-1964) and Generation X
(born 1965-1979) (Dupont, 2015). Current students feel as if
teachers’ technology comfort level
inhibits their technology usage in the classroom (Greer &

59. Sweeney, 2012). Today’s students
have been immersed in technology since birth, resulting in them
being more technologically
savvy than their predecessors (Bajt, 2011; Gu et al., 2013). The
constant exposure to technology
has been the foundation for the ability of today’s students to try
different technology avenues to
obtain success (McAlister, 2009). Greer and Sweeney (2012)
stated that over 90% of students
have a computer in their home.
34
Research conducted by Wikia Technology (2013) supports the
higher level of technology
expertise associated with Generation Z. The study surveyed
more than 1,200 teens ranging in
age from 13 to 18 and focused on teens and technology. Data
collection concluded that members
of Generation Z display quick technology adaptive behaviors
and use technology in more
advanced ways than previous generations and in a manner that
is beneficial to their future.

60. Influence of technology on student engagement. Another, well-
established element of
perceived educational benefit for students is engagement.
Research has indicated that
engagement increases as technology is integrated into the
classroom. For example, the Turkish
government began a technology integration program called the
Fırsatları Artırma ve Teknolojiyi
İyileştirme Hareketi (FATIH) or Movement to Increase
Opportunities and Improve Technology
Project in 52 pilot schools across the country. Pamuk, Çakır,
Ergun, Yılmaz, & Ayas, (2013)
conducted a study at 11 of those schools and learned that
teachers and students viewed
interactive whiteboards (IWBs) as having a positive impact on
demonstrations, lectures, and
reports. Additionally, participants also felt that using them
increased their motivation to engage
in lectures. In the literature review of Sung and Hwang (2014),
similar conclusions were
reached, as the use of technology in learning and classroom
instructions tended to increase the
students’ academic interest and motivation.
Other studies provided support for these conclusions about

61. IWBs. To examine the
impact of its use, Esteves, Paulista, Fiscarelli, and Bizelli
(2015) conducted a case study in Selmi
Dei III, a primary school in Araraquara, a region of São Paulo,
Brazil, which was chosen due to
its excellence in teaching, as evidenced by numerous awards.
The school was given two
additional IWBs as part of one of those awards, which brought
the school’s total to three (two in
third-grade classrooms and one in a fifth-grade classroom).
Through live and videotaped
35
observation, the researchers inferred that students with greater
access to IWBs were more
engaged in class discussions and more patient and well behaved
while waiting to use them.
Additionally, only a handful of students refused to use the IWB,
and Esteves et al. found that the
refusal was due to fear of not knowing the answer, rather than
fear of the IWB itself.
For validity, the researchers also interviewed some students
about their experience in

62. using the IWB, and the majority of them expressed an
overwhelmingly positive opinion. The
response was that they understood lessons better and found
them to be more engaging than those
utilizing a traditional blackboard and notebook. The
researchers concluded that despite the
students’ difficulties, technology inside the classroom—simply
the presence of it—might have
served as a motivator in learning, thereby triggering student
interest. This finding aligns with
another study among teachers in Turkey, who reported that their
students were more attentive to
instruction delivered with the help of IWBs (Türel & Johnson,
2012).
In addition to IWBs, research supports iPads™ and computers
increase student
engagement (Dietrich & Balli, 2014). Dietrich and Balli (2014)
conducted research at three
different schools studying student perceptions of classroom
learning and technology. The use of
iPads™ was integrated into classroom instruction at one site.
Participants, consisting of 15
elementary students, reported that iPads™ extended learning,
often times made learning feel as if

63. it was play, and provided an opportunity for student control.
Students reported similar
conclusions about computers, stating that they preferred to
actually use them personally, rather
than just observe teacher usage. The study also discussed
student frustration when teachers
lacked the skills to effectively integrate technology into
classroom instruction, specifically
pointing out that this led to student confusion and lack of
interest.
36
Immediate feedback is a specific component of technology
integration in classroom
instruction. It increases student engagement and academic
achievement. Muis, Ranellucci,
Trevors, and Duffy (2015) studied the perceptions of
kindergarteners in reference to the impact
of technology in the classroom providing immediate feedback.
Data collection consisted of
interviews and various apps, only some of which provided
immediate feedback. The sample

64. included 64 kindergarten students. Data analysis concluded that
when students did not receive
feedback, they were not as engaged and demonstrated limited
gains in achievement. When apps
provided immediate feedback, engagement increased and higher
levels of achievement occurred.
Technology Integration in the Classroom
Integrating technology in the classroom has become common
practice among some
teachers (Potter & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2016), and the
aforementioned benefits help to explain
why. There are different methods used to promote it within the
classroom, and research has
indicated that several strategies, such as linking technology use
with improved pedagogy,
helping students function as resources and support, and
formalized technology professional
development (especially when featuring mentoring or coaching),
can be effective at increasing
technology use by teachers.
Connecting technology to curriculum and instruction.
Researchers have investigated
the degree to which teacher perception of relevance of
technology to curriculum and

65. instructional practices relate to technology use in the classroom.
Türel and Johnson (2012) used
purposive and convenience sampling to recruit teacher
participants that were actively using
IWBs in their Turkish classrooms. There were 174 sixth
through 12th-grade teachers who
responded to the survey questionnaire. A typical respondent
was a bachelor’s degree holder
under the age of 36 and with fewer than 10 years of teaching
experience. The questionnaire used
37
was a researcher-constructed, 26-item Likert scale, which
consisted of three subscales: the
effects of IWBs on teaching and learning, the factors motivating
IWB use, and the usability of
IWBs. Analysis of the data indicated that the teachers felt
IWBs were useful for any subject.
Furthermore, the teachers believed that their pedagogical skills
might have improved through
IWB use (Türel & Johnson, 2012).
Utilizing students as technology resources. In addition to

66. linking technology use with
perceived instructional benefits, research has also revealed that
students can encourage
technology use among teachers. With access to numerous forms
of technology, teachers may
need this kind of assistance in the classroom, and in order to
address this need, students have
been trained and taught specific technology tasks (Corso &
Devine, 2013; Lau & Yuen, 2013;
Ozel, Ozel, & Cifuentes, 2014; Pamuk et al., 2013). Students in
kindergarten through 12th grade
have taken on various roles, primarily troubleshooting with
regard to the use of technology in
schools. In some schools, they have even become professional
development leaders who teach
basic technology skills to teachers, staff, and other students.
Brooks-Young (2006) discussed the benefits of supporting
technology needs of teachers
and schools when students take on various technology roles.
The benefits of these roles include
providing students with various opportunities to perform
services for other people, as well as
lower school technology costs (Corso & Devine, 2013). As
such, students are vital assets to

67. teachers who implement technology in classroom instruction
(Brooks-Young, 2006).
Research investigating students as technology support began in
the late 1990s (Corso &
Devine, 2013), and one formalized method for utilizing students
as resources is that of student
technology teams, which have been deployed to classrooms
when technology issues arise
(Brooks-Young, 2006; Peto, Onishi, & Irish, 1989). Student
technology teams consist of
38
students who are taught basic skills, such as how to connect a
document camera to a computer,
by technology personnel or librarians. Team members are called
upon when these particular
skills are needed in the classroom. As digital world, school
resources, and teachers’ needs have
evolved, the roles of student technology team members have
changed to include mentoring of
teachers and other students (Corso & Devine, 2013).
Brooks-Young (2006) examined the use of technology teams in

68. two schools in order to
determine their impact. The first school created a group of
technology savvy students identified
as “Techno Team,” who were trained by the computer teacher to
run several utility programs and
provide software maintenance support. A group of 12 to 15
seventh- and eighth-grade students
were selected yearly as Techno Team members. The second
school, by contrast, implemented a
one-to-one technology program that consisted of laptop
computers. The technology team at this
school focused on troubleshooting technical issues that might
occur on a laptop, and students
were trained by two computer science teachers to fix any minor
problems that occurred, as well
as to create a maintenance order for technology technicians on
devices having issue that they
couldn’t resolve. The result was that at least one student in
each classroom had the skills to fix
or refer out technology issues that might arise (Brooks-Young,
2006).
At times, students have also conducted technology professional
development for teachers.
Breiner (2009) wrote about “Technology Wizards,” a student

69. technology team consisting of 26
sixth and seventh-grade students trained throughout an entire
school district to provide
technology support to teachers. District training occurred once
per month, and some schools
held additional meetings to supplement that training.
Technology Wizards were able to provide
first-hand technology training to teachers.
39
With the advances of technology and the educational shift
towards technology integration
in classroom instruction, student roles as providers of
technology support have begun to change.
Pierce (2012) discussed a specific program called Generation of
Youth and Educators
Succeeding (GenYes), in which students are trained to support
technology in the school.
GenYes programs encourage student and teacher collaboration
through an established curriculum
that focuses on technology skills of Generation Z to enhance
technology utilization. Programs

70. such as GenYes utilize student expertise with technology, but
do not focus on student-support for
professional development. Thus, more research is needed.
Corso and Devine (2013) conducted a study concluding that
technology integration at the
university level was impacted when students were used as
mentors for educators (Corso &
Devine, 2013). Another study conducted by Liu, Tsai, and
Huang (2015) examining pre-service
teachers and mentor teacher collaborative technology
professional development. Participants
consisted of three groups encompassing a mentor and pre-
service teacher in a junior high setting.
Data was collected from focus group interviews, classroom
observations, lesson plans, and
video-recorded observations. Data analysis concluded that
there was an increase in mentor
implementation of technology into classroom instruction based
off of support provided by pre-
service teachers. Although student-supported technology
professional development was shown
to be effective at the college level and with pre-service teacher
support, the potential for
elementary student support is unknown.

71. Elementary students have a natural understanding of technology
and the Internet based on
their exposure since birth (Bajt, 2011). Elementary students
learn through trial and error
behaviors, are technology savvy, are multi-taskers, connect,
collaborate and access information
easily, and are able to navigate digital environments with ease
(Emanuel, 2013; Gibson &
40
Sodeman, 2014; Hartman & McCambridge, 2011). Today’s
students are quicker to adapt to
technology shifts than previous generations were; thus, these
students tend to accept technology
faster than their teachers (Bajt, 2011; Gu et al., 2013; Krier,
2008).
A significant limitation of these studies is that none examined
the degree to which student
classroom support leads to increases in teacher perception
regarding the ease of use or usefulness
of technology. While this study provided evidence that this
kind of support does, in fact, cause

72. teachers to perceive technology as being useful and easy to use
(and thus more likely to actually
use), the extent to which this relationship actually exists has not
been explored previously.
Research was needed to determine whether this link, which this
study supported, actually
does exist. As yet, research on student involvement in the use
of technology in the classroom
has primarily focused directly on students who troubleshoot
technology issues that arise
throughout the academic day (Brooks-Young, 2006). Limited
research has been conducted on
students receiving instruction in how to provide technology
professional development for
teachers and administrators and how that might relate to
changes in computer integration in the
classroom (Gu et al., 2013).
Formalizing technology professional development. Technology
professional
development became a new concept in school districts as a
result of the passage of the No Child
Left Behind Act (2001), which required technology integration
in schools. More recently,
technology has been embedded in the Common Core Standards,

73. which are being implemented
throughout most of the United States (Yim, Warschauer, Zheng,
& Lawrence, 2014). The
required integration of technology into school curricula has
resulted in the integration of
technology professional development in school districts across
the nation (Dede et al., 2009;
Schnellert & Keengwe, 2012).
41
For learning through technology professional development to be
sustained, it has been
recommended that institutions not simply provide the
technology, but also invest in training
teachers to use it (Persico, Manca, & Pozzi, 2014). Aside from
formal training, some schools
provide access to networking, online forums and social media to
enable teachers to communicate
with each other and share their experiences, tips, and struggles
in using technology in the
classroom (McLeod & Richardson, 2013). While literature in
this regard exists that supports

74. middle school and college student technology professional
development for teachers, no research
exists that discusses elementary student support in technology
professional development.
Therefore, this study addressed a gap in literature about the
effectiveness of teacher training and
its impact on technology acceptance and use in the classroom.
Significance of professional development. Studies suggest that
in order to integrate
technology effectively into instruction, teachers need
professional development that is both
timely and applicable to classroom practice (DeNisco, 2014;
Ertmer et al., 2012). Teacher
technology professional development is the main factor in
teachers’ positive attitudes towards
both technology and the integration of technology into the
classroom (DeNisco, 2014; Ertmer et
al., 2012). In a study by Badri, Mousavi, Pour, Geravand and
Yeganeh (2015), 190 secondary
teachers took part in a survey to determine the relationship
between technology professional
development and technology use in the classroom. The results
were that the two constructs had a
significant positive correlation, indicating that technology

75. professional development was
predictive of technology use (Badri et al., 2015).
Gerard, Varma, Corliss, and Linn (2011) suggested that
classroom teachers who received
professional development to help them understand how
technology enhanced and related to
curriculum were more successful at integrating technology into
their classrooms than were
42
teachers who did not. This finding indicates that teachers need
to understand how to operate and
effectively use technology to promote student learning, and
there are numerous devices available
to help them. Unfortunately, technology professional
development is not always effective. In a
study of 600 kindergarten through 12th grade teachers, 93% of
those surveyed reported that
technology had positive effects on student engagement;
however, 46% of these teachers stated
that they lacked the skills to use technology effectively in the
classroom (DeNisco, 2014). In a

76. broader examination, Howley et al. (2011) found that teachers
felt as though they had been
inadequately prepared to provide technology opportunities for
students. As such, a need exists
for school administration to implement both additional and more
effective technology
professional development (DeNisco, 2014).
Understanding how to integrate effective professional
development. A lack of empirical
research supporting professional development as a tool to
increase effective technology use in
public, private and higher education classroom instruction
exists (DeNisco, 2014; Gray et al.,
2010; Schnellert & Keengwe, 2012; Skoretz, 2011), and
additional studies of technology
professional development models are needed. Researchers have
suggested that certain elements
need to be present in technology professional development.
These elements include connecting
technology to instruction, embedding it into day-to-day
practices, and providing ongoing or long-
term support as well as curriculum and technology coaching or
mentoring (Duran et al., 2012;
Gayton & McEwan, 2010; Koh & Neuman, 2009; Lutrick &

77. Szabo, 2012; Neuman &
Cunningham, 2009; O’Koye, 2010).
Impediments to Effective Technology Integration
Technology has become a significant part of our everyday lives.
Daily tasks have been
performed by technological machines far more advanced than
they used to be. In the academic
43
field, technology has been incorporated into lectures and
demonstrations; however, despite the
wide use of access to technology in the classroom, some
educators still face some struggles that
lead them to discontinue use of technology or opt to not use it
at all (Dede et al., 2009; DeNisco,
2014; Howley et al., 2011). The following sections will discuss
issues that teachers face with
professional development, as well as technology acceptance and
integration in the classroom.
Among them is teacher belief, which acts both on its own and in
concert with a lack of
institutional support to reduce perceived usefulness and ease of

78. use; intent to use; and actual use
of technology (de Grove, Bourgonjon, & van Looy, 2012;
Kusano et al., 2013).
Lack of training and technical skills. In some institutions,
funding and facilities seem
to be sufficient, while technology use in the classroom suffers.
Asodike and Jaja (2012)
investigated this phenomenon in both public and private primary
schools in Rivers State,
Nigeria, and surveyed a sample of 2,100 head teachers,
teachers, and students. The
questionnaire used was the Primary School Information and
Communities Technology (ICT) Use
Survey, which measures facilities that schools have and how
often they are used. The instrument
also measures the factors that hinder the use of ICT facilities, as
well as the teachers’ perceptions
of their use.
The results of this investigation indicated that most of the
primary schools had at least
one desktop computer per classroom; however, the majority of
teachers felt that they did not
have adequate skills in computer operations, as most of them
had not undergone training.

79. Because this study was conducted in Nigeria and amongst a
teacher population that lacked access
to technology professional development, its applicability to
teachers in the United States may be
limited. However, regardless of the sophistication of the
technology in use or the skill level of
44
the teachers using it, a lack of professional development may
impede integration (Asodike &
Jaja, 2012).
Lack of motivation for initial or continued technology use.
One promising new
technology involves the use of virtual worlds. While research
supports teacher interest in using
this technology for teaching, increased interest does not result
in corresponding increase in actual
use (Gregory, Scutter, Jacka, McDonald, Farley, & Newman,
2015). To examine this
discrepancy, Gregory et al. (2015) disseminated a self-
constructed online survey to 134
institutions across 28 countries, and data analysis consisted of

80. information collected from 223
respondents. A total of 36 percent of the respondents had not
used virtual worlds for instruction,
but 60% reported that they would like to try implementing this
technology into their classroom.
Of those respondents who were currently using virtual worlds,
84% had used them in the past,
and 90% reported that they wanted to continue using the
technology. Interestingly, 18% of the
respondents had used virtual worlds for teaching in the past, but
had stopped using it for some
reason. Analysis of the responses on the questionnaire
indicated that teachers had either never
used the technology or had stopped using virtual worlds due to
technological issues, student
difficulties, institutional issues, and personal perceptions.
Investigating more general technology use, Aypay, Celik,
Aypay, and Sever (2012)
studied pre-service teachers in Turkey to examine their intended
use of technology in classroom
instruction in the future. The aim of the research was to utilize
the framework of TAM to
provide information regarding new teachers’ perceptions of
technology use in the classroom.

81. Convenience sampling led to the inclusion of 487 participants,
all from Rize University in
Northeast Turkey. Structural equation modeling of results
suggested that the pre-service
teachers’ intention to use technology was influenced by
perceived usefulness, attitudes toward
45
computer use, and computer self-efficacy (all of which are
aspects of TAM). Other studies (Teo,
Ursavas, & Bahçekapili, 2012) have yielded similar results,
indicating that acceptance of
technology use tends to be influenced by perceived ease of use,
which varies depending on the
complexity of the technology in question.
Some research has suggested that teachers’ lack of motivation
towards technology use
may persist in spite of professional development. Chien, Kao,
Yeh, & Lin, (2012) conducted a
study consisting of 322 Taiwanese primary school teachers who
had experienced Web-based
professional development. The study focused on attitudes and

82. motivation towards technology
use in the classroom. Despite the professional development,
160 participants reported fewer than
12 hours per week of Internet use. By contrast, 73 reported 13
to 24 hours of use per week, and
89 reported more than 25 hours per week. The researchers
administered the 30-item Motivation
toward Web-Based Professional Development Survey to
measure personal interest, social
stimulation, external expectation, practical enhancement, and
social contact. The researchers
also administered the 27-item Attitude toward Web-Based
Professional Development Survey
with the subscales addressing perceived usefulness, perceived
ease of use, affection, anxiety, and
behavior. Analysis of the data revealed that different
motivating factors had different influences
on attitudes toward technology use. Teachers whose primary
motivation for technology use was
personal interest tended to have more positive attitudes towards
use, while technology use due to
external expectations corresponded with negative attitudes
(Chien et al., 2012).
Blackwell, Lauricella, Wartella, Robb, and Schomburg (2013)

83. reached similar
conclusions when they strove to find out what impeded the use
of technology among early
childhood education teachers, despite availability of the
devices. The study followed the
framework of TAM to address the problem. An online survey
was disseminated to 1,329 early
46
childhood teachers who taught children under the age of four.
The questionnaire was researcher-
constructed and contained 46 items. Two levels of independent
measures: extrinsic
characteristics (school type, school-level socioeconomic status,
technology policy, and
professional development) and personal characteristics of
teachers (demographic characteristics,
and attitudes toward and perceptions of technology use) were
examined.
Results revealed that the devices most available for teachers
were digital cameras, laptop
or desktop computers, and TV/DVDs. The least accessible
devices were mp3 players, e-readers,

84. and tablet computers. In terms of school type, center-based
programs were the least likely to
have access to technology in general. Teachers who believed
that technology was helpful for
administrative tasks alone tended to use the devices less often
than did teachers who felt more
strongly about the benefits of technology integration for
pedagogy and student achievement
(Blackwell et al., 2013).
Poor attitudes and beliefs toward technology use. It may be that
a lack of motivation
for initial or continued technology use results from poor
attitude, which may also impede
technology integration in the classroom. Al Bataineh (2014)
studied the relationship of teacher
attitudes and perceptions of competency towards the use of
technology in classroom instruction.
Convenience sampling led to a study consisting of 221
Jordanian, seventh through 12-grade
social studies teachers who were asked to complete an Arabic
version of the Technology in
Education Survey. This version contained 22 items with three
subscales: demographic

85. information, attitudes towards using technology, and
competency for using technology. Results
suggested that in addition to teaching experience positively
correlating with perceptions of
competency, these perceptions also correlated strongly with
attitudes. As such, the findings
47
suggested developing teachers’ acceptance and attitudes help to
promote their feelings of
competency in using technology (Al Bataineh, 2014).
Qualitative research on beliefs towards technology usage has
yielded similar results.
Chien, Wu and Hsu (2014) conducted such a study of teachers’
beliefs through semi-structured
interviews. The researchers contended that belief is a highly
personal and context-based
construct that is revealed more appropriately through language.
Forty junior or senior high
school science teachers, with teaching experience ranging
between three and 15 years and an
average age of 43 years, were selected through convenience
sampling. The data was coded

86. through an iterative process, and divided into the teachers’
beliefs about technology-based
assessments (TBAs, behavioral, control, and normative) and the
frequency of use (non-user,
occasional user, and frequent user).
For the behavioral beliefs, four themes emerged: TBAs
presented many uses for the
teachers; Web-based TBAs appeared to be the most useful; most
teachers faced difficulties in
using TBAs in spite of perceptions of usefulness; and
experiences and personal preferences
affected TBA use. For control beliefs, two themes emerged:
The teachers felt that they lacked
time and financial support in TBA use, and participants
perceived support as being ineffective,
(i.e., facilitating rather than mentoring). For normative beliefs,
there were also two themes: The
teachers felt that TBA use would not be supported by the school
administration or the parents,
and the teachers were unsure of the advantages and
disadvantages of TBAs in student learning
(Chien et al., 2014). These results suggested that even though
TBAs were largely seen as being

87. useful, a combination of perceived lack of support and poor
attitudes compromised the ability of
perceived usefulness to influence intent to use and actual use of
technology.
48
Responses to Effective Technology Integration Impediments
Institutions are typically aware of the issues that their
educators face with regard to
technology integration in the classroom, and in general, have
taken action to address those issues
(Kipsoi, Chang’ach, & Sang, 2012). Some institutions have
employed coaches or mentors to aid
their teachers (Li, 2015); some have conducted workshops to
enhance their teachers’ technical
skills; and others have trained their students as technology
troubleshooters that the teachers can
call for assistance (Pamuk et al., 2013). While these
interventions may be effective,
impediments such as poor attitudes or a lack of motivation or
support still exist. Researchers

88. have examined ways to overcome these obstacles, and studies
have found that coaching and
mentoring, training, increased access, and student support all
work by various means to increase
teacher use of technology.
Coaching and mentoring. Coach and mentor are terms that are
used in many
professions; therefore, multiple definitions for these terms exist
(Bennett, 2010). Megginson and
Clutterbuck (2005) discuss coaching as guidance targeted at
improvement in a targeted skill,
while Bennett (2010) suggested that coaching is often short
term and organized by objectives.
Mentoring, on the other hand, is a long-term process where
someone with experience guides
someone with limited experience (Bennett, 2010; Dilts, 2004;
Hobson, 2003). While both utilize
objectives, mentoring involves guiding a person through
specific concepts, while coaching helps
people to ultimately create their own objectives and develop
resources to accomplish them
(Bennett, 2010). Despite these differences, Pask and Joy (2007)
argued that they should not be
viewed as two different exclusive concepts, but as a unified

89. entity.
Researchers have demonstrated that a mentor or coach is
effective in supporting changes
to teacher practices in classroom instruction (Bennett, 2010;
Cain, 2009; Hayden et al., 2011;
49
Machado & Chung, 2015; O’Koye, 2010; Resta, Huling, &
Yeargain, 2013). Additionally, a
mentor or coach’s presence in the classroom affects whether a
teacher integrates technology into
instruction (Duran et al., 2012). Indeed, this guidance is so
influential that researchers have also
provided evidence that it is more effective than traditional, in-
service technology professional
development (Bennett, 2010; Cain, 2009; Hayden et al., 2011;
Machado & Chung, 2015;
O’Koye, 2010; Resta et al., 2013).
O’Koye (2010) conducted research consisting of 14 teacher
participants and concluded
that teachers who worked with technology coaches demonstrated
a significant increase in

90. feelings of efficacy towards technology use in classroom
instruction. O’Koye quantified
technology coaching as the “number of hours that a teacher has
spent with an instructional
technology resource teacher in a face-to-face session” (p. 16).
Data was collected through
participant interviews and a three-part survey measuring the
participants’ levels of technology
integration, computer efficacy, and time spent with the
technology coach. The participants
credited changes in technology implementation in the classroom
to support provided from the
technology coach.
In a similar study, Blackmon (2013) suggested that school
district technology
professional development based on the single-day model is least
likely to result in technology
integration in classroom instruction. A total of 230 middle
school teachers were given a survey
called Training Methods for Learning Instructional Technology,
which collected data on
teachers’ demographics and their perceptions of professional
development for learning classroom
instructional technology. The instrument consisted of 12

91. questions referencing nine professional
development methods, and teachers were asked to rate each
method on a five-point scale. Of all
nine methods, the one perceived to be most effective was peer
support or mentoring.
50
Additional research suggested that these perceptions correlate
with reality, and
importantly, that the benefits of coaching or mentoring are
ultimately felt by students. Hayden et
al. (2011) conducted a similar study using a structured
professional development program called
the Investigation for Quality Understanding and Engagement for
Students and Teachers
(iQUEST). This program, which included a mentor, was
provided to educators for the purpose
of strengthening their abilities and comfort with technology
integration in classroom instruction
to enhance science lessons for students. The resulting report
stated that student performance was
positively affected by teachers’ professional development,
resulting in significant gains

92. throughout the school year (Hayden et al., 2011).
Despite the apparent benefits, many schools have not
implemented the mentoring or
coaching technology professional development model.
Criticism of the mentoring or coaching
professional development model centers on the requirement of
significant school resources, as
well as on the fact that it provides unrealistic compensation for
the mentor or coach (Chuang,
Thompson, & Schmidt, 2003; Machado & Chung, 2015).
However, as discussed earlier, a
possible solution to reduce the depletion of school resources
resulting from mentoring or
coaching is to include students in technology professional
development. Because students
demonstrate a strong use and knowledge of technology, they can
support teacher technology use
during instruction (Bajt, 2011; Gu et al., 2013), and some
organizations such as GenYes promote
student-led technology support in schools, especially those
without expert technology integration
personnel (McLeod & Richardson, 2013).
Training and workshops. Perhaps because of the criticisms

93. associated with mentoring
or coaching models, many districts continue to incorporate the
training or workshop model. In
the training or workshop model, technology is discussed and
modeled, and/or participants are
51
shown how to use a specific device, program, or software. The
specific structure of the training
may vary, but single-day technology professional development
in order to meet the needs of
teachers is common (Borthwick & Pierson, 2008; Dede et al.,
2009; Potter & Rockinson-
Szapkiw, 2012). However, research has not supported this
model as an effective way to
implement professional development because studies have
indicated that very little change in
regards to the use of technology in classroom instruction results
from it (Blackmon, 2013;
Lutrick & Szabo, 2012; Kesson & Henderson, 2010). In
Blackmon’s study, the sampled teachers
deemed several professional development methods ineffective.
Among them were non-credit

94. workshops provided by the school district or an outside
consultant, drop-in clinics or open labs,
independent, online help, and summer institutes consisting of
weeklong training during the
summer (Blackmon, 2013). Despite varying widely in form,
each involved a one-time training
without any in-classroom support to aid teachers in applying
learning to the instruction of
students.
Total consensus eludes the literature regarding the
ineffectiveness of one-time
professional development trainings. Lau and Yuen (2013)
emphasized the importance of
training to promote technology use in the classroom through the
findings of their study with a
sample of 90 secondary school teachers in Hong Kong who
volunteered to join a technology
professional development workshop. The participants attended
five three-hour workshops
emphasizing content, focus, active learning, coherence,
duration, and collective participation. At
the end of each one, participants were asked to complete an
evaluation of the session and their

95. attitudes toward technology use. At the end of the first session,
demographic data was also
collected, and at the end of the fifth session, an additional
questionnaire about the actual use of
technology was administered. Results indicated that the
participants generally increased their
52
perceived efficacy in using technology to teach, as well as their
belief in using technology to aid
in teaching.
Overall, introducing technology in classroom instruction was
said to aid students’
education in general; however, it is important to note that two
key limitations to this study exist.
First, participants were selected from a group of teachers who
had elected to take part in an
extended workshop; therefore, it is possible that their
perceptions of technology were already
very positive, and their attitudes may have influenced responses
to the survey questions. Second,
the participants were asked to forecast their future use of
technology, and their predictions,

96. perhaps because of the positive attitudes they brought with them
to the training, may have been
influenced by their apparent optimism. More research is needed
to determine to what extent
these perceptions correspond with reality.
Increased access to technology. Some research has suggested
that increasing teacher
integration of technology may be achieved simply by giving
them more access to it. In a cross-
cultural study, researchers compared American and Japanese
elementary school teachers’
perceptions on technology use in classroom instruction (Kusano
et al., 2013). A group of 99
teachers from Utah and 67 teachers from Hokkaido, Japan, were
recruited. The age of the
American teachers ranged from 22 to 57 years, with generally 6
to 10 years of teaching
experience, while the majority of the Japanese teachers were 22
to 30 years old and had fewer
than five years of teaching experience. The Teachers’
Technology Attitudes survey by Holden
and Rada (2011)—with subscales on perceived ease of use and
usability, perceived usefulness,

97. and attitudes toward using technology derived from TAM—was
the instrument used in the study.
Demographic data, availability of technology, and frequency of
technology use were also taken
into account. Results revealed that the American teachers were
significantly more positive in all
53
areas and had more access—and thus more frequent use of
technology—than their Japanese
counterparts. As such, it appeared that access to technology
prompted its use.
Summary
Despite the increase in technology professional development
provided to teachers,
teachers are still struggling with integrating the ever-changing
technology of the 21st century into
classroom instruction. Teachers have reported that they are not
comfortable with incorporating
technology due to a lack of skills and training, resulting in a
need for more effective technology
professional development. Teachers have also reported that
traditional professional development

98. consisting of single-day instruction was not effective.
Technology professional development is a
key component in increasing teacher technology acceptance and
integration in classroom
instruction, but professional development has rarely resulted in
these outcomes.
This descriptive case study was needed to determine if an
elementary student-supported
professional development model resulted in teacher technology
acceptance and integration in
classroom instruction. This chapter included a discussion of the
TAM as the theoretical
framework for this study, as well as empirical research related
to technology professional
development, professional development, students and
technology and a discussion focused on
Generation Y and Generation Z students.
54
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS

99. Overview
The purpose of this descriptive case study was to study
teachers’ technology acceptance
and classroom integration in the context of a student-supported
professional development model.
Miller (2002) concluded that teachers see a need for students to
participate in technology
professional development activities. Five elementary teachers
located in the southern part of the
United States who participated in a student-supported
professional development model during
the 2013-14 and/or 2014-15 school years as part of a district
technology integration rollout plan
served as participants in this study. In addition, two
administrators who observed student-
supported technology professional development at least three
times during the 2013-14 and/or
2014-15 school year were participants in this study. A survey,
open-ended face-to-face
interview questions, and archival data consisting of classroom
observations conducted yearly
between 2013 and 2015 as part of program evaluation were used
to collect data. The research
design, research questions, setting, participants, data collection

100. methods, and data analysis are
explained in this chapter.
Design
A descriptive case study was selected as the research method
because it is open ended
and allows for an in-depth understanding of what is being
studied (Creswell, 2013; Merriam,
2002). The result of qualitative research is an understanding of
a complex issue and can extend
experiences or add strength to what is already known (Shen,
2009). The focus of this study was
to promote an understanding of the complicated intersections
between teachers’ technology
acceptance and classroom integration in context to a student-
supported professional development
model.
55
This study method was selected due to the fact that it allows for
the research to focus on
multiple perspectives (Creswell, 2013). A case study is used
when an investigation and a holistic

101. view are needed, and it requires the researcher to see and then
measure the data collected (Feagin
et al., 1991; Stake, 1995). During this case study, I took on a
more personal and connected role,
thus providing an in-depth understanding of participant
perspectives (Stake, 1995).
Creswell (2013) stated that descriptive case studies uncover
themes and provide rich
descriptions of the topic being studied. The goal of a
descriptive case study is to document all of
the particulars, thus providing specific details and often
answering numerous questions,
specifically “how” (Merriam 2009; Miles & Huberman, 1994;
Stake, 1995; Yin, 2013). The
skills of asking good questions, actively listening, adapting,
displaying knowledge of topic
studying, and maintaining objectivity during data collection are
necessary for me, as a
descriptive case study researcher, to implement (Yin, 2013).
This descriptive case study developed an understanding of an
intervention: student-
supported professional development model as it pertains to a
real-life context, teachers’

102. technology acceptance and classroom integration (Creswell,
2013; Merriam, 2009; Miles &
Huberman, 1994; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2013). Research on this
topic at an elementary school level
did not exist when I conducted the review of the literature;
therefore, the use of a descriptive case
study provided a deeper understanding of experiences leading to
patterns and themes in data
(Creswell, 2013; Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2013). A case study
consists of evidence conducted from
six possible primary resources: documentation, archival records,
interviews, direct observations,
participant observations, and physical artifacts (Yin, 2013).
The case study being conducted
dictates which methods will be used to develop an
understanding of the phenomenon being
studied. Not all of the six primary resources of evidence need
to be utilized in every case study.
56
However, it is important to ensure that there are multiple
sources in order to guarantee that the
reliability of the data is established. This is a process known as

103. triangulation (Stake, 1995; Yin,
2013).
Triangulation was ensured through teacher face-to-face
interviews (Appendix A),
administrator face-to-face open-ended interviews (Appendix B),
a survey (Appendix C), and
archival data consisting of observations conducted yearly during
the 2013-14 and 2014-15 school
year as part of program evaluation. Three of the most common
types of data collection used in
technology and industrial education studies are observations,
interviews, and document analysis,
which correspond to the data collection methods that were
employed in this descriptive case
study (Evanciew & Rojewski, 1999; Foster & Wright, 2001).
Yin (2013) stated that qualitative data analysis includes an in-
depth evaluation of
research, which leads to data reduction and tabulation. This
descriptive case study followed the
process of data being coded, resulting in categories that led to
themes (Saldaña, 2013). The
specific process for this descriptive case study involved Yin’s
(2011) five-phased cycle. The

104. following occurred throughout the compiling, disassembling,
reassembling, interpreting, and
concluding phases: (a) organize data, including transcribing and
saving it, (b) upload into
NVivo™ software, (c) open coding consisting of items,
sentences, words and long passages were
grouped and sequenced, (d) categories resulted in nodes, then
(e) themes (Yin, 2013). Due to the
projection of vast amounts of narrative text, NVivo™ data
analysis software was used to organize
codes and categories. Open-ended interview data and archival
data consisting of observations
collected yearly during the 2013-14 and 2014-15 school year as
part of program evaluation was
entered into the software.
57
Research Questions
Three research questions for this descriptive case study are as
follows:
RQ 1: How will the integration of a student-supported
professional development model

105. impact teachers’ perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness,
and intent to use technology
in classroom instruction?
RQ 2: How will the integration of a student-supported
professional development model
impact teachers’ actual use of technology in classroom
instruction?
RQ 3: What evidence suggests that student-supported
professional development for
technology is responsible for teachers’ technology integration
into classroom instruction?
Setting
This study was conducted at an elementary school located in the
southern part of the
United States. Research supports that teaching styles vary
within a single school district is
greater than across school districts (Sawchuk, 2008). Only one
elementary school is present in
the district where this study occurred. The district hired me as
the instructional technology
director for the district in August of 2013. My job was to focus
on facilitating instruction and
supporting the tools teachers need to implement technology into
classroom instruction and

106. curricula. Since my responsibilities also included creating and
implementing a district-wide
technology integration rollout plan, I conducted all professional
development sessions and
collected archival data consisting of classroom observations
conducted yearly during the 2013-
14 and 2014-15 school year as part of program evaluation. In
order to control for researcher bias
that can occur in qualitative data collection such as with
observations, I used a specific template
modeled after Creswell (2008) that allowed me to focus
primarily on what I saw, recording what
I heard verbatim, and what was occurring in terms of classroom
technology integration. Notes
58
were immediately recorded in a reflective journal (Appendix J)
as a tool to ensure that all
recorded material was free of my personal bias.
The district that this elementary school belongs to implemented
a one-to-one laptop
initiative in the 2013-14 academic year, resulting in all students

107. in grades three through 12
having access to a laptop by the beginning of the 2014-15
school year. In addition, the school’s
kindergarten through fifth-grade classrooms had access to three
iPad™ carts containing 25
devices each and two computer labs with 25 devices available to
be checked out by teachers for
classroom use. Each teacher had an iPad™ and either a laptop
or desktop computer. Weekly
computer classes consisting of typing, login instruction,
Google™ applications, other basic skills,
and iPad™ fundamentals were also provided to all students.
This site was deemed appropriate for
the study because it benefitted from a district-wide technology
integration initiative, and was in
the process of incorporating technology into classroom
instruction and curricula, as well as
included students in technology professional development
during the 2013-14 and 2014-15
school year. In conclusion, this particular school was an ideal
location to examine the utility of
this type of professional development, as well as to support an
area that the leadership in the
district was focusing on improving.

108. The subject school had an enrollment of 458 students, the
demographics of which were
95% Caucasian, 2% Hispanic, 1.5% African-American, 1.3%
Native American, and 0.2% Asian.
Of those students, 46% qualified for free and reduced-cost
lunch. The school averaged a 96%
daily attendance rate. The student to teacher classroom ratio
was 17:1. The average number of
years of teaching experience was 14.7, and 60.7% of the
teachers had a master’s degree or
higher. The average teaching salary in the district was $42,665.
59
Participants
Participants for this study were selected using purposeful
sampling (Creswell, 2013),
which involved selection based on a specific set of criterion
(Glesne & Peshkin, 1992).
Purposive sampling remains a technique commonly used for
qualitative studies that focus on the
inclusion criteria for its sample (Barratt, Ferris, & Lenton,
2014). Purposive sampling was used

109. for this study, as I included only teachers who received student-
supported technology
professional development in either the 2013-14 and/or 2014-15
academic school years with
student support provided by me for at least nine, 45-minute
sessions or administrators who
observed student-supported technology professional
development at least three times in the
2013-14 and/or 2014-15 school years. In the sample, there were
variations between teacher
technology experience, number of years teaching, previous
professional experience, and college
degree.
Demographics data demonstrated that all of the teacher
participants were female. One
administrator was male, and the other was female. Six of the
participants identified themselves
as Caucasian, while one identified herself as Hispanic. The
range in numbers of years teaching
spanned from eight to 25, resulting in an average of 14.4 years.
Two teachers had their
bachelor’s degree in education, but both were currently working
on their master’s degree in

110. education. The other three teachers had their master’s degree in
an educational field. Both of
the administrator candidates had their master’s degree, while
the male participant worked on
achieving an additional master’s degree. The administrators
had an average of 17 years,
experience ranging from classroom teaching to administration
positions. Each participant was
provided with a pseudonym to protect confidentiality.
60
Studies such as this one that use more than one data collection
method require a smaller
number of participants (Lee, Woo, & Mackenzie, 2002); while
Yin (2013) stated that there
should be more than five. This descriptive case study followed
Yin’s (2013) guidelines in
reference to the minimum number of participants needed to gain
a clear understanding of
teachers’ technology acceptance and classroom integration in
context to a student-supported
professional development model. Additionally, Patton (2002)
discussed the importance of

111. ensuring selection of participants was derived from their ability
to provide information that is
detailed. Therefore, five participants who participated in
student-supported technology
professional development during the 2013-14 and/or 2014-15
school years and two participants
who observed student-supported technology professional
development during the 2013-14 and/or
2014-15 school years were utilized in this case study.
As Yin (2013) discussed the minimum number of a sample size,
researchers such as
Lincoln and Guba (1985) stated that sample size is derived from
collected information until
saturation occurs. Creswell (2013) explained that data
saturation occurs when no new themes
emerge. Nineteen participants were contacted for participation
in this descriptive case study, as
they met the criterion. Only seven participants agreed to be
part of this study. Seeking
participation from additional participants was not necessary, as
data saturation occurred after
data was collected from five. Data was collected from the two
other participants, but no new

112. data was presented; thus, saturation was achieved. Teachers’
technology acceptance and
integration was examined through rich, in-depth details
provided by participants (Patton, 2002).
Procedures
Liberty University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval
(Appendix D) was
obtained prior to data collection and analysis. Data collection
began with me e-mailing a letter
61
inviting teachers and administrators who meet the sampling
criteria to join the study (Appendix
E), along with the Informed Consent (Appendix F). The e-mail
explained that participation in
the study was optional and that the consent for participation
form needed to be completed and
returned via e-mail or in person within two weeks.
When the Informed Consent forms (Appendix F) were obtained,
I e-mailed the survey
(Appendix C) to teachers because a nonthreatening and
comfortable environment occurs when

113. data are collected through the Internet (Nicholas et al., 2010).
After teachers returned the
completed survey, an e-mail was sent to coordinate the face-to-
face, open-ended interviews
(Appendix A), which occurred in each participant’s respective
classrooms and without students
present. After administrators returned their Informed Consent
(Appendix F), an e-mail was sent
to establish a mutual time in which the participant and myself
could conduct the open-ended,
face-to-face interview (Appendix B) in their office.
A panel of experts in the field of education consisting of the
Assistant Superintendent,
Director of Curriculum and Instruction, Executive Director of
Elementary Education, and
Technology Director reviewed the teacher interview questions
(Appendix B). Feedback
encompassed ensuring that participants were provided with the
definition of student-supported
professional development prior to answering questions.
Additional feedback referenced the need
to clarify whether the word “enjoy” in question four means
“comfortable” or “happy” in
reference to technology usage. As a result, the word “enjoy”

114. was changed to address comfort
level. Upon completion of interview transcriptions, each
participant was provided with the
chance to member-check their interviews, review findings, and
provide feedback.
After administrator’s Informed Consents (Appendix F) were
obtained, I arranged the
face-to-face open-ended interviews (Appendix B). A panel of
experts in the field of education
62
consisting of a college Education Professor, Director of
Curriculum and Instruction, Principal,
and Teacher reviewed the interview questions. Feedback
encompassed eliminating question
eight because it was very similar to question seven in reference
to no new information will be
gathered. As a result, question seven was reworded and
question eight was eliminated. Upon
completion of interview transcriptions, each administrator was
provided with the chance to
member-check their interviews. In addition, each participant
was also encouraged to review

115. findings and provide feedback.
Professional development was organized and structured, and
each session lasted 45
minutes (Appendix G). Topic selection was based on the
district’s technology vision and goals.
Teachers and their respective students were provided with
instruction on how to integrate
technology in the classroom and curriculum. Additionally, they
were given hands-on instruction
on a specific technology task (Appendix G).
The Researcher's Role
I played an active role throughout this qualitative research study
because as the
researcher, I was the primary instrument (Saldaña, 2013).
Moreover, at the time of student-
supported professional development integration, I was an
employee in the school district where
this qualitative research study occurred. Specifically, I was the
district instructional technology
director for the 2013-14 and 2014-15 academic school years;
therefore, worked closely with
instructional technology in the school where the study took
place. However, I was not an

116. administrator in the district nor had any direct influence on
participant job performance, salary,
retention, or hiring. My job was to focus on facilitating
technology integration into classroom
instruction and curriculum.
63
Data Collection
Data was collected from three sources for validation through
triangulation (Gall, Gall, &
Borg, 2007; Yin, 2013). These sources included teacher face-
to-face interviews (Appendix A),
administrator face-to-face interviews (Appendix B), a survey
(Appendix C), and archival data
consisting of observations that were conducted yearly during
the 2013-14 and 2014-15 school
years as part of program evaluation. Collection encompassed
three principles: (a) multiple
sources of data were used; (b) a case study database was
created; and (c) a chain of evidence was
maintained (Yin, 2013).

117. Survey
The majority of studies conducted in the field of education
accessing the TAM have been
conducted at a college level and utilize a quantitative
methodology (Wolk, 2009; Wu, 2009).
These studies have focused on the use of the Internet, online
shopping, usability of technology,
and course websites (Agarwal & Karahanna, 2000; Fusilier &
Durlabhji, 2005; Gefen et al.,
2003; Jiang et al., 2000; Klopping & McKinney, 2004; Lederer,
Maupin, Sena, & Zhuang, 2000;
Selim, 2003; Wolk, 2009).
The survey used in this descriptive case study was developed to
study teachers’
technology acceptance and classroom integration in context of a
student-supported professional
development model and was based on research by Davis et al.
(1989). Permission to modify
Davis’ (1989) survey was obtained (Appendix H). Multiple
educational studies have modified
the survey based on the topic as a tool to ensure validity
(Alharbi & Drew, 2014; Shroff, Deneed,
& Ng, 2011; Smarkola, 2008; Timothy, 2009). Smarkola (2008)
discussed that the TAM data

118. collection instruments are often modified to address the type of
technology being targeted.
64
The survey (Appendix C) consists of 23 questions using a 5-
point Likert-scale, where 5
represents strongly agree and 1 represents strongly disagree. I
administered the survey
(Appendix C) online. Stoltzfus (2005) indicated than an online
survey/questionnaire is both a
valid and a reliable survey instrument. A sample survey
(Appendix C) question was: Using the
Internet in my classroom can increase my productivity. Other
questions focus on user
acceptance such as: I expect my use of the Internet in my
classroom instruction to continue in the
future.
This descriptive case study furthered research in the field of
education because it was
unknown if teachers’ technology acceptance and integration in
context to a student-supported
professional development model would be beneficial. The

119. validity of the survey’s assessing
TAM has been tested in numerous research studies focusing on
the ability to predict a person’s
acceptance of technology (Ma & Liu, 2005; Mahmood et al.,
2001; Moon & Kim, 2001; Roca &
Gagné, 2008; Tai & Ting, 2011; Wang et al., 2010). More than
a decade of research supports the
TAM surveys as being robust and powerful tools in determining
user acceptance of technology
based on perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and intent
to use, which lead to actual use
(Agarwal & Karahanna, 2000; Gefen et al., 2003; Jiang et al.,
2000; Klopping & McKinney,
2004; Selim, 2003; Venkatesh & Morris, 2000; Wolk, 2009).
The TAM is primarily used for conducting quantitative research
(Wu, 2009). The lack of
qualitative TAM studies focusing on technology professional
development and the TAM
construct actual use were the basis for this descriptive case
study. Since the majority of research
in the literature utilizing the TAM does not measure actual use,
an interview for teachers
(Appendix A) and administrators (Appendix B) was used to
gauge genuine use (Chang et al.,

120. 65
2012; Roca & Gagné, 2008; Wang et al., 2010). The survey was
administered after IRB approval
and before face-to-face open-ended interviews occurred.
Face-to-Face Interviews
Open-ended, face-to-face interviews conducted with teachers
(Appendix A) and
administrators (Appendix B) provided a good way to increase
informational sources and data
gathering (Yin, 2013). I had some prepared, structured
interview questions that were reviewed
by a panel of experts in the field of education, but allowed
participants’ the opportunity to freely
provide personal experiences (Farber, 2006; Yin, 2013). I made
audio recordings of all
interviews using both a laptop computer and a backup iPad™
app, RecorderApp™, in case
technical difficulties occurred. After interviews were
completed, I transcribed them for coding
purposes. Interviews were transcribed word for word, which
involved a tedious systematic

121. review process. Transcriptions included identifying and
recording nonverbal communication
including facial expressions that I noted during each interview
(Yin, 2011). Due to breach of
confidentiality expressed in two interviews, identifiable
information, such as student names and
location of the site, were removed from the written and audio
transcripts (Yin, 2011).
Member checking, which ensures that all responses are a direct
reflection of each
participant and not the researcher, occurred throughout data
collection and analysis (Creswell,
2013; Yin, 2013). Member checks occurred twice in this study.
This included after interviews
were transcribed and then again to review the findings. Yin
(2002) discusses the importance of
having a case study database and chain of evidence resulting in
a detailed analysis, which leads
to validation of “case study conclusions” (Yin, 2009, p.83).
Data sources were uploaded into
NVivo™, which is software used for data compiling. In
addition, I identified codes and used

122. 66
them to categorize data for theme identification. Four themes
were used to answer all research
questions.
All teacher interviews were conducted in the participants’
classrooms without students
present. The two administrator interviews occurred in each of
the participants’ office. The
length of each interview depended on the participants’
responses, but lasted about 20 minutes.
By asking participants to explain answers, provide examples,
and describe personal experiences,
I was able to obtain in-depth information throughout the
interview (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). A
written interview script was read to each teacher (Appendix A)
and administrator (Appendix B)
during the interview and prior to the questioning (Emory, 1985).
The questions selected for teacher (Appendix A) and
administrator interviews (Appendix
B) were based on the research examined in the literature review
and the TAM (Ajzen &
Fishbein, 2000; Davis, 1989; Kiraz & Qzdemir, 2006; Teo,
2009). Interview questions were

123. designed to focus on the participants’ experiences, beliefs, and
feelings about a student-
supported professional development model as it related to the
components of the TAM in order
to study teachers’ technology acceptance and classroom
integration (Welman & Kruger, 1999).
The questions are provided below and were piloted by teachers
after IRB approval and prior to
interviews.
Face-to-Face, Open-Ended Interview Questions for Teacher
Participants
1. Please describe your teaching experience, beginning with the
number of years you
have taught.
2. Please describe your educational background, technology
training and
implementation prior to participation in student-supported
professional
development.
67

124. 3. What impact has student-supported professional development
had on your ability
to use technology in your classroom?
4. Please describe your comfort level using technology in
classroom instruction and
if this changed after participating in student-supported
professional development.
5. How often do you use technology during classroom
instruction to do a task when
there is a feature to help you perform it?
6. To what extent has student-supported professional
development impacted your
future use of technology classroom instruction?
7. To what extent has student-supported professional
development impacted time
management while using technology in your classroom
instruction?
8. To what extent has participating in student-supported
professional development
provided you with a great deal of experience using technology
during classroom
instruction?
Throughout the interview, teacher participants were encouraged

125. to elaborate on their
answers and move on to the next question. Question 1 obtained
background knowledge of each
participant. Question 2 gained an understanding of teacher
educational background to include
technology training and integration prior to participation in the
study (DeNisco, 2014).
Teachers’ perceptions of technology usage being effortless was
studied through Questions 3, 5,
and 8 (Davis, 1989; Knight, 2012; Timothy, 2009). The
perceptions that teachers have towards
the benefits of using technology at work were addressed in
Questions 3, 5, 7, and 8 (Davis et al.,
1989; Knight, 2012; Timothy, 2009). Teachers intent of use
with regard to technology applied to
Question 3 (Davis, 1989). Teachers’ technology actual use was
associated with Questions 3, 4,
68
6, and 8 (Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989; Fishbein & Ajzen,
1980; Hu et al., 2003; Knight, 2012;
Wallace & Sheetz, 2014).

126. Administrators were asked the following face-to-face open-
ended interview questions as
a means to gauge their perceptions.
Face-to-Face, Open-Ended Interview Questions for
Administrator Participants
1. Please describe your professional and educational
background.
2. Please describe technology usage throughout the elementary
school prior to student-
supported technology professional development that started in
the 2013-14 academic
school year.
3. Please describe your perceptions of teacher comfort level
using technology in
classroom instruction and if this changed after participating in
student-supported
professional development that began in the 2013-14 academic
school year.
4. Please describe your perceptions of student comfort level
using technology in
classroom instruction and if this changed after participating in
student-supported
professional development that began in the 2013-14 academic
school year.

127. 5. Please describe how often and at what level you observe
technology usage during
classroom instruction in a classroom where student-supported
technology
professional development occurred?
6. Please describe how often and at what level you observe
technology usage during
classroom instruction in a classroom where student-supported
technology
professional development was not conducted?
7. To what extent has student-supported professional
development impacted teacher
technology acceptance and integration into classroom
instruction?
69
During the interview, administrator participants provided
detailed and in-depth answers.
Obtaining background information of each participation was
essential; therefore, Question 1 was
asked. Question 2 addressed technology integration and usage
prior to the teacher participants

128. participating in student-supported technology professional
development. Administrators’
perceptions of teachers’ and students’ comfort level while using
technology were studied through
Questions 3 and 4 (Davis, 1989). Administrator’ perceptions
addressing the frequency and level
of rigor pre-and post-student-supported technology professional
development was addressed in
Questions 5 and 6 (Davis et al., 1989). Observations made by
administrator participants of
teachers’ technology acceptance and integration into classroom
instruction post student-
supported technology professional development was asked in
Question 7 (Davis, 1989; Davis et
al., 1989; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1980; Hu et al., 2003; Knight,
2012; Wallace & Sheetz, 2014).
Archival Data: Observations
The final data collection tool was archival data consisting of
observations conducted
yearly as part of program evaluation during the 2013-14 and
2014-15 school year. Observations
are the process that involves gathering open-ended information
firsthand through watching

129. people and places in the site where research takes place
(Creswell, 2008). The observer can use
all five senses to note phenomena during observations, which
the researcher records for scientific
purposes (Angrosino, 2007). Good qualitative observers are
able to change roles from one form
of observation to another, which did not occur in this study
(Creswell, 2013; Spradley, 1980).
Creswell (2013) identified four types of observations: (a)
complete participant, (b)
participant as observer, (c) nonparticipant/observer as
participant, and (d) complete observer.
The archival data consisting of observations conducted yearly
during the 2013-14 and 2014-15
school year as part of program evaluation implemented the
nonparticipant as observer method of
70
observation. Despite the fact that I conducted all professional
development sessions during the
2013-14 and 2014-15 school year as part of a district
technology integration rollout plan,
observations occurred at a separate time where I was observing

130. and not participating. My role as
a nonparticipant observer was to gain subjective data without
interacting with participants
(Creswell, 2013). This allowed me to focus on what was
occurring in the classroom.
Observations were unscheduled and occurred three times in
2013-14 and then again three
more times during the 2014-15 school year. Observations
occurred in October, January, and
March each year while teachers were conducting instruction.
Observations were recorded using
a template (Appendix I) modeled after the example and process
provided by Creswell (2008).
The template (Appendix I) included recording aspects
specifically focusing on technology
integration, application and operation, teacher interactions and
routines, what the students were
doing, what was heard verbatim, and the physical setting. The
results were uploaded on the
district teacher-shared drive and included on the yearly
technology report provided to the school
board, which was written by me using specific individual codes
for each teacher. Therefore, the
documents contained no specific identifiable information.

131. Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis for case studies is a spiral or iterative
process that involves
examining, categorizing, tabulating and/or recombining
evidence to address the original
propositions of case study (Creswell, 2013; Yin, 2013), with the
overall goal being to find the
answer to the research questions (Merriam, 2009). The data
analysis plan for this descriptive
case study involved looking for themes and trends that were
identified throughout the analysis.
Data analysis followed Yin’s (2011) five-phased cycle
consisting of compiling, disassembling,
reassembling, interpreting, and concluding. The five-phased
cycle included the process of
71
gathering and coding data, which resulted in identifying
categories that led to themes (Saldaña,
2013; Yin, 2013). Prior to beginning data analysis, I reread all
data collected. I then organized
data including the saving and transcribing of data by participant

132. resulting in individual data
bases, which was then uploaded into NVivo™ software.
NVivo™ was used to compile, examine,
and compare archival data consisting of observations conducted
yearly during the 2013-14 and
2014-15 school year as part of program evaluation and
interviews. In addition, NVivo™ software
strengthened validity and reliability in this case study.
Open coding occurred where I analyzed and connected various
items, sentences, words,
and long passages. During open coding, I noticed that many of
the Level 1 codes related;
therefore, Level 2 codes emerged (Yin, 2013), such as
experience and prior to student-supported
technology. During the first cycle of coding, I identified and
labeled codes. The second cycle of
coding involved the sorting and categorizing of data where
categories and themes were
developed (Appendix K). This cycle is where I determined
relationships among data. NVivo™
software noted the frequency for which a specific code
occurred. Coding is the backbone of
descriptive case study analysis because it encompasses the
process of developing themes or

133. dimensions and building detailed descriptions (Creswell, 2013).
Coding allowed me to discover
patterns and was used as a method to organize data (Auerbach &
Silverstein, 2003). Each
participant’s data was analyzed individually for themes, and
then all results were compared to
identify reoccurring themes.
Saldaña (2013) stated that manual coding is rarely correct the
first time completed;
therefore, interview transcripts and archival data consisting of
observations conducted yearly
during the 2013-14 and 2014-15 school year as part of program
evaluation were uploaded into
the NVivo™ data analysis software. I discovered and used four
themes that were identified to
72
provide a holistic picture of this descriptive case study.
Saldaña (2013) noted that themes are an
outcome of coding.
Back-up files for all data, including transcripts and other
documents for review, are

134. contained in a password-protected thumb drive and stored in a
locked file cabinet. Transcripts
were e-mailed to participants through Gmail using
DodoShare™, which password protects
electronic documents, so that member checks can occur.
Pseudonyms, such as “Mary,” were
assigned to each participant. An understanding of teacher’s
perceptions pertaining to technology
and usage behavior was examined using the survey (Appendix
C) by reviewing perceived ease of
use, perceived usefulness, and intent to use technology (Davis
et al., 1989).
Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness is one tool qualitative researchers use to ensure
accuracy in qualitative
research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Trustworthiness addresses
the following; (a) credibility, (b)
dependability, (c) transferability, and (d) confirmability
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In studying
teachers’ acceptance of technology and classroom integration in
context to a student-supported
professional development model, I considered all influences,
which are explained below in

135. detail.
Credibility
There are multiple ways to achieve credibility in research.
Lincoln and Guba (1985)
discussed credibility in terms of the researcher becoming
acquainted with participants and the
setting where research will occur. Since I was a new employee
to the district when student-
supported professional development was implemented, I
established a relationship by e-mailing a
letter of introduction to all teachers in the district. During the
2013-14 school year, teachers
were allowed to determine whether they wanted to participate in
student-supported professional
73
development or if they preferred to participate in the traditional,
one-day model. Prior to
integrating the student-supported professional development
model with teachers who
volunteered, I met with each teacher individually in order to
build familiarity. For added

136. credibility, I asked participants to review their interview
transcripts and findings through
member checking.
Three primary methods ensure trustworthiness in qualitative
research: (a) triangulation,
(b) member checking, and (c) auditing. Triangulation of data,
member checking, and creating an
audit trail were utilized in this descriptive case study. Another
way to achieve credibility is
through triangulation, which will be accomplished by using
multiple sources to collect data
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Yin, 2013). Triangulation occurred
through the combination of the
survey, interviews conducted with both teacher and
administrator participants, and archival data
consisting of classroom observations that were conducted yearly
during the 2013-14 and 2014-15
school years as a part of program evaluation. Triangulation
consists of data gathered from
numerous sources used as a tool to determine if findings are
consistent (Yin, 2013). Researchers
support that analyzing multiple sources of data and converging
them is a strong validation
strategy implemented in qualitative research (Stake, 1995; Yin,

137. 2013).
Member checks and peer debriefing were implemented for
quality-assurance. Member
checks were conducted through data collection to ensure
accuracy as a means of confirming that
written text and observations were a direct reflection of each
participant (Yin, 2011).
Additionally, member checks were used to gain feedback and
insight from all participants. Peer
reviews were received in a written form and supported the
conclusions of this study.
74
Dependability and Confirmability
Saldaña (2013) noted that when something is dependable, it will
yield similar if not the
same results when duplicated. Lincoln and Guba (1985)
suggested creating an audit trail to
ensure dependability. The audit trail that was used in this
descriptive case study included notes
that were recorded on the password-protected thumb drive and
password-protected computer

138. used for research. Notes included what I, as the researcher,
saw, heard, observed, and did
(Brinkmann, 2012). I also created an audit trail consisting of
notes created while conducting all
professional development sessions and archival data consisting
of observations conducted yearly
as part of program evaluation in both the 2013-14 and 2014-15
school years. Dependability was
achieved during data analysis. Manual errors were eliminated
by uploading the face-to-face
interviews and archival data consisting of observations
conducted yearly during the 2013-14 and
2014-15 school years as part of program evaluation into
NVivo™ software.
Confirmability ensures that the results of this descriptive case
study were supported by
the participants and occurred independently of the researcher
(Brinkmann, 2012). To achieve the
accuracy stressed by Yin (2013) as being important, I remained
focused on data collection
methods and analysis. Furthermore, I conducted an audit trail
(which Brinkmann [2012] advises
doing as a means to address confirmability), outlining data
collection and data analysis

139. throughout this descriptive case study. Data was uploaded into
the NVivo™ software as a means
of ensuring that manual data analysis errors are not made and
then disassembled and
reassembled. A peer review of data occurred with the main goal
being “given the evidence
present, is there consensus in the interpretations?” (Ary, Jacobs,
Sorensen, & Walker, 2012, p.
74).
75
Confirmability was also achieved through the use of an external
auditor. An external
auditor was used because I wanted someone not connected with
the research to deduce the
conclusions reached from data (Creswell, 2013). Additionally,
an external auditor was free of
bias or expectation, thus they should depict inaccurate
conclusions.
Transferability
Yin (2013) stated that the outcomes of one context should be
transferable to other

140. contexts or settings. I provided rich descriptions of
participants, setting, sample size, data
collection, and actual data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Data
collection methods were transferable
because they involved using a survey and face-to-face interview
questions that are based on
research conducted by Davis et al. (1989). Direct quotes that
were collected through archival
data consisting of observations conducted yearly during the
2013-14 and 2014-15 school years as
part of program evaluation had an impact on this descriptive
case study. In addition, direct
quotes collected during the face-to-face interviews of both
teacher and administrators also had a
direct impact on this descriptive case study by providing an in-
depth understanding of teacher
technology acceptance and classroom integration.
Ethical Considerations
The data collected for this case study is stored in a well-secured
location: a locked file
cabinet that was located off-site from where the research
occurred and accessible only by me.
All electronic files are password protected along with being
saved on a password-protected

141. thumb drive, which was secured in the locked file cabinet. It
was also my responsibility to
protect participants’ identities in this study by providing each
with a pseudonym, which was
selected from the Social Security’s top 100 names of all time.
A list of participants and their
pseudonyms was placed in the same locked file cabinet. Once
pseudonyms replaced actual
76
names of participants and data was recorded, all materials with
identifiable names was changed
to reflect the pseudonyms. I am not a direct supervisor to any
of the participants. Participation
in the study was optional, and participants knew that their data
may be permitted or denied at
will and without consequence.
Summary
This chapter consists of providing support for the methods used
in this study. A
descriptive case study was selected because I examined a real-
life context answering the question

142. of “how” (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2013). The purpose of this
descriptive case study was to examine
teachers’ technology acceptance and classroom integration in
context to a student-supported
professional development model. The literature reviewed
provided a foundation for this
descriptive case study and was used as a tool to explain data
collection and data analysis. The
details of participants’ selection, my role as the researcher, and
a description of the setting were
discussed in this chapter. Teacher perceptions of how
technology professional development with
elementary students’ support did or did not increase teacher
technology acceptance and
integration in classroom instruction were examined. The results
gained from this descriptive
case study may help school districts determine if elementary
students should be included in
technology professional development.
77

143. CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Overview
The purpose of this descriptive case study was to examine
teacher technology acceptance
and integration into classroom instruction in context to student-
supported technology
professional development. The study centered on the
importance of technology integration and
how technology plays a role in the classroom. Miller (2002)
concluded that teachers see a need
for students to participate in technology professional
development activities. Elementary
teachers located in the southern part of the United States who
participated in a student-supported
professional development model during the 2013-14 and/or
2014-15 school years as part of a
district technology roll-out program served as participants in
this study. Themes presented in
this chapter were derived from data collected from a survey,
face-to-face open-ended interviews,
and observations conducted in 2013-14 and 2014-15 as part of
program evaluation. Further, this
chapter encompasses the present findings and analysis of the

144. following research questions:
Research Question 1: How will the integration of a student-
supported professional
development model impact teachers’ perceived ease of use,
perceived usefulness, and intent to
use technology in classroom instruction?
Research Question 2: How will the integration of a student-
supported professional
development model impact teachers’ actual use of technology in
classroom instruction?
Research Question 3: What evidence suggests that student-
supported professional
development for technology is responsible for the
encouragement of teachers’ technology
integration into classroom instruction?
78
Participants
Purposeful sampling with the following criterion was used for
participation in this
descriptive case study: (a) must be 18 years of age, (b) an
elementary teacher who participated in

145. student-supported technology professional development in
either the 2013-14 and/or 2014-15
school years provided by me, or (c) an administrator who
observed student-supported technology
professional development at least three times during either the
2013-14 and/or the 2014-15
school years provided by me. Pseudonyms were used
throughout this descriptive case study to
protect the confidentiality of all participants.
Five teachers and two administrators returned their consent to
participate in this study,
which meets the criteria set forth for a case study sample
(Englander, 2012; Yin, 2013).
Additional attempts to encourage participation were made via e-
mail, but proved futile.
Originally, my goal was to obtain consent from 19 candidates;
however, only seven agreed to
participate. Although I was unable to obtain additional
participants, this study includes a diverse
group in terms of technology experience, usage, and classroom
integration. Data saturation
occurred after data was collected from five participants. Data
was collected from the two other

146. participants, but no new data was presented; therefore, I was
able to obtain data saturation.
All teacher participants were Caucasian females. The average
number of teaching years
was 14.4, with three teachers having been in the classroom less
than 10 years and two teachers
more than 20 years. Three participants had their master’s
degrees, while two were currently
enrolled in master’s degree programs. One administrator was
male, while the other was female.
Table 1, below, provides specific details about all participants.
79
Table 1
Teacher and Administrator Participants
Name Race Education Years of
Educational
Experience
Role
Mary Caucasian MA 25 Teacher

147. Patricia Caucasian MA 22 Teacher
Margaret Caucasian MA 8 Teacher
Elizabeth Caucasian BA + 8 Teacher
Linda Caucasian BA + 9 Teacher
Barbara Caucasian Ed.S 8 Administrator
James Caucasian MA 22 Administrator
Mary
Mary had been an elementary teacher in the southern part of
the United States for 25
years, the first seven of which were spent in in special
education and the remainder in first grade.
She stated, “I always wanted to be a teacher.” Mary discussed
growing up in a home where
education was highly valued; both her mother and father had
obtained two-year college degrees.
Mary herself had a master’s degree and had been raised in the
community in which she taught.
When first approached about integrating technology into
classroom instruction, she
stated, “I hardly know how to use a computer, but if you will
help and it is in the best interests of

148. my students, then I am willing to give it a try.” Additionally,
she stated, “Before we get started, I
need to know how to turn the iPad™ on.” When asked about
her experience with technology in
classroom instruction prior to student-supported technology
professional development, Mary
admitted, “I would say virtually zero. I honestly didn’t use
technology a whole lot before this. I
did use the overhead projector, and that was about it.” She also
discussed previous failed
80
attempts at integrating technology into classroom instruction
that took place prior to student-
supported technology professional development stating, “We
had times when we would have to
go into the computer lab and do a lesson and teach ourselves, by
ourselves. I pretty much let the
students play games, that’s all I knew how to do.”
Patricia
Patricia had been an elementary teacher of 22 years in the
southern part of the United

149. States, 14 of which had been spent in a rural school district.
She shared, “I love watching kids
grow.” She holds a master’s degree in curriculum and
instruction and was not raised in the
community in which she taught.
When first approached about integrating technology into
classroom instruction, Patricia
stated, “Well, I am willing to try it, but I do not know where to
start,” and added that “a lot of
guidance” would be needed. She primarily used technology for
administrative purposes. When
asked whether she’d integrated technology in her classroom
prior to this study, Patricia
confessed, “No, not a lot. I have not implemented technology
much before this.” She went on to
clarify that she had not used it as much as she would like to.
“Prior to this, I had basic
technology skills or understanding,” she said, adding that while
she had attended multiple, one-
day technology professional development courses, she had not
integrated the content into
classroom instruction.
Margaret

150. Margaret had been a teacher for eight years, all in a single
elementary school district
located in the southern part of the United States. During her
career, she taught multiple grades,
both in a departmentalized and non-departmentalized setting,
and various subjects. “I really
enjoy teaching,” she said. The community in which she taught
is much larger than the one in
81
which she was raised. Having obtained a master’s degree in
administration, Margaret’s goal was
to become a school administrator.
When first approached about integrating technology into
classroom instruction, she
stated, “Get me the devices I need, and I am ready. I am ready
right now.” She also stated, “I
have always tried to use technology in the classroom and at
home. I feel confident with
technology. If I do not know how to use something, I feel like I
can learn how to do it pretty
easily.” When asked specifically about technology integration

151. prior to student-supported
technology professional development she responded:
Prior to this, my kids did all their math tests online. They did
things with their math
website games. They also did mini-lessons to help them. Prior
to this, I used technology
in the classroom in a manner that was more teacher-led.
Elizabeth
Elizabeth had spent eight years teaching elementary school in
the southern part of the
United States. The entire time, she taught the same grade level
at the same school, which was
located within 10 miles of where she was raised. “Teaching
children is very enjoyable,” she
said. Elizabeth had enrolled in a master’s degree program, but
had not yet decided on the
specific concentration. Prior to becoming a teacher, she worked
in the clerical field; therefore,
she had a lot of administration technological skills and
knowledge.
When first approached about integrating technology into
classroom instruction, she said,
“When are we going to start? I have taught myself most of the

152. technology that I know. I like to
explore and learn things on my own.” Elizabeth also disclosed
that she had been able to extend
her educational training in technology through various classes
and professional development, but
what she’d learned was rarely integrated into classroom
instruction.
82
Linda
Linda, an elementary teacher of nine years in the southern part
of the United States, said,
“I love what I do.” Six of those years were spent in a smaller
district than where she is now, but
she had been raised in a nearby community that was larger. She
was working on her master’s
degree in administration and hoped to one day become an
elementary principal. When first
approached about integrating technology into classroom
instruction, she stated, “I know how to
use technology. I do need some help with implementing it into
my classroom instruction.”

153. When asked about her technology level and experiences prior to
this study, Linda concluded,
“Probably about average; not an expert with it. Not used to
using them with the students
though.” However, she discussed that she utilized a lot of
technology for personal application.
Barbara
Barbara was an administrator with eight years of experience in
teaching and
administration in the southern part of the United States.
Additionally, she had observed student-
supported technology professional development at least three
times in the 2013-14 and/or 2014-
15 school years. She had a bachelor’s degree in education with
a minor in special education and
a specialist degree. Her career consisted of teaching special
education, kindergarten, first grade,
and early childhood education. When asked about technology
integration in classroom
instruction, she stated, “Student-supported technology
professional development has increased
the amount and rigor of technology in the classroom.
Technology usage has increased.”
James

154. James had spent seven years teaching and 15 years working as
an administrator in the
southern part of the United States. He had observed student-
supported technology professional
development at least three times during the 2013-14 and/or
2014-15 school years. Prior to
83
student-supported technology professional development, he
noted, “I did not observe the
teachers doing anything with technology. The teachers mainly
used the lab like indoor recess.”
After student-supported technology professional development,
James noticed a difference in
technology integration into classroom instruction. He stated,
“Teachers definitely learned. They
developed much better uses for technology than previously
demonstrated.” Regarding recent
technology integration, he stated, “There was one particular
activity where students made videos
and did other things where the teachers were impressed that the
students could work

155. independently and exhibit learning and independence, even in
kindergarten.”
Results
The three research questions that guided this descriptive case
study were answered using
three data sources that consisted of a survey, face-to-face open-
ended interviews, and archival
data consisting of observations conducted during the 2013-14
and 2014-15 school years as part
of program evaluation. The TAM survey, which was given prior
to the face-to-face, open-ended
interviews, was analyzed as a tool to answer research questions
one and two. The survey was
administered online using Survey Monkey™.
All surveys were analyzed (Table 2). The survey (Appendix C)
consisted of 23 questions
using a 5-point Likert scale, where 5 represents strongly agree,
and 1 represents strongly
disagree. A sample survey (Appendix C) question was: Using
the Internet in my classroom can
increase my productivity. Other questions focus on user
acceptance such as: I always try to use
the Internet in as many cases or occasions as possible during
classroom instruction.

156. 84
Table 2
Technology Acceptance Survey Results
Questions Mary Patricia Margaret Elizabeth Linda Average
1 3 3 5 3 4 3.6
2 3 4 5 3 4 3.8
3 3 3 5 3 4 3.6
4 4 3 5 3 3 3.6
5 2 3 4 2 5 3.2
6 4 4 4 2 5 3.8
7 3 3 4 2 5 3.4
8 3 4 4 2 5 3.6
9 3 3 4 2 5 3.4
10 3 3 4 2 4 3.2
11 3 3 4 2 4 3.2
12 5 3 4 2 4 3.6
13 5 3 4 2 4 3.6
14 5 2 1 3 4 3
15 1 3 3 2 2 2.2
16 4 2 3 2 3 2.8
17 5 3 5 3 3 3.8
18 5 4 4 5 5 4.6
19 3 4 3 4 3 3.4
20 1 5 2 5 2 3
21 3 5 3 5 2 3.6

157. 22 3 2 3 1 3 2.4
23 (a) 7 7 12 10 8 8.8
23 (b) 3 4 3 3 6 3.8
The highest overall resulting Likert score on the survey was for
question 18, which states:
I expect my use of the Internet in my classroom instruction to
continue in the future. Patricia and
Margaret rated this question as a four, while the other teacher
participants gave it a five. The
lowest overall participant score addressed question 16, which
was: I always try to use the
Internet during classroom instruction to do a task whenever it
has a feature to help me perform
it. Patricia and Elizabeth both rated this question with a two,
which is somewhat disagree, while
Mary had a four, which is somewhat agree. Elizabeth gave
question 22 a one, strongly disagree.
Margaret also stated that she strongly disagreed with question
14, while Mary noted the same
rating for questions 15 and 20. The survey also revealed that
the average number of years’

158. 85
participants have used the Internet for personal use is 8.8, while
the average number of years that
the Internet has been integrated into classroom instruction is
3.8, which addresses actual use.
Margaret noted that she had used the internet for personal
reasons over a 12-year span, but had
only used it in the classroom for three. Linda stated that
despite only using the internet for
personal reasons for eight years, she had integrated it into the
classroom for six.
Teacher interviews were conducted face-to-face in the
participants’ classrooms.
Administrator interviews were conducted face-to-face in their
offices. All interviews were
recorded using both a laptop computer and a back-up recording
device in case technical
difficulties occurred. Interviews were transcribed by me using
Microsoft™ software and then e-
mailed to each participant for confirmation.
Archival data consisting of classroom observations conducted in
the 2013-14 and 2014-
15 academic school years as part of program evaluation were
retrieved for each teacher

159. participant. Archival data were originally collected to analyze
perceptions of technology usage
and gauge levels of technology integration in classroom
instruction as a means of determining
what the school district’s current professional development
needs were.
Each teacher participant was observed six times throughout
2013-2014 and 2014-2015
school years (Table 3). All observations occurred in the
classroom and focused on technology
integration. At the beginning of an observation conducted
March 2014 in Mary’s classroom, she
said to her students, “I am very nervous about doing this
without support” and demonstrated
fidgeting behavior. At the conclusion of the lesson, she stated,
“That was really easy, and the
students enjoyed it. I enjoyed it! I did not know that I could do
that on my own. I am ready to
do more.”
86

160. Table 3
Archival Data: Classroom Observations
Date No Device
Being Used
Teacher
Using
Device
Students
Using
Device
Students and
Teacher
Using Device
October 2013 2 1 1 1
January 2014
1
2
1
1
March 2014

161. 0
2
2
1
October 2014
0
1
4
0
January 2015
0
2
3
0

162. March 2015
0
1
2
2
Upon transcription, observations and interviews were analyzed
through NVivo™, which
is qualitative analytic software. Data analysis included Yin’s
(2011) five-phased cycle
consisting of compiling, disassembling, reassembling,
interpreting, and concluding. The five-
phased cycle included open coding, sorting and categorizing
data where categories were
developed, which resulted in themes (Yin, 2011).
Four themes emerged during the analysis of this case study:
successful experience with
technology, skill and knowledge development, lack of use prior
to intervention/professional
development and evidence of acceptance and integration. All

163. themes occurred multiple times
during both the face-to-face interviews consisting of teacher
and administrator cases and archival
data consisting of classroom observations conducted yearly
during the 2013-14 and 2014-15
school years as part of program evaluation. The themes were
used to answer the three research
questions for this descriptive case study (Table 4).
87
Table 4
Emergent Themes from Research Questions
How will the integration of
a student-supported
professional development
model impact teachers’
perceived ease of use,
perceived usefulness, and
intent to use technology in
classroom instruction?

164. How will the integration of
a student-supported
professional development
model impact teachers’
actual use of technology in
classroom instruction?
What evidence suggests that
student-supported
professional development
for technology is
responsible for the
encouragement of teachers’
technology integration into
classroom instruction?
Successful Experience with
Technology
Successful Experience with
Technology
Successful Experience
with Technology
Skill and Knowledge
Development
Skill and Knowledge
Development

165. Lack of Use Prior to
Intervention/Professional
Development
Skill and Knowledge
Development
Evidence of Acceptance
And Integration
Participants revealed that students included in technology
professional development had
the biggest impact on teacher technology acceptance and
integration. Mary stated, “I probably
would not be using technology as much as I am if the students
had not been included in
professional development. They can do so much more with
technology than I ever thought
possible.” Linda concurred, stating, “Student-support has been
crucial to my acceptance and
classroom use.” In addition, participants’ acceptance and
integration of technology increased as

166. teachers accepted and understood that they did not have to be
technology experts. Participant’s
felt that someone in the classroom would be able to solve any
technology issue that arose.
Overall, participants felt as if student-supported technology
professional development did
increase teacher technology acceptance and integration. Every
teacher participant commented on
their newfound confidence and desire to integrate technology
into classroom instruction. All
88
participants discussed the difference in student independence,
rigor, and creativity demonstrated
through technology integration in classroom instruction.
Further, the participants voiced their
willingness to participate in future student-supported
technology professional development based
on the positive impact it has had on their teaching and student
learning.
Theme One: Skill and Knowledge Development
Theme one clearly identifies that technology skills need to be

167. better developed to
maximize usage. This relates to the TAM component: perceived
ease of use. James suggested
the following regarding student technology skills and
knowledge:
In my opinion, the kids have been way more comfortable with
technology than the
teachers. The problem was never the kids; the kids were willing
to problem solve and
figure it out. The teachers lacked skills and experimentation,
and if they would have
been comfortable enough to let the kids figure it out—
experiment—it would have been
fine.
Despite noting that student-supported technology professional
development increased
teacher acceptance and integration of technology, James also
pointed out, “Eventually,
technology integration would have occurred due to student-
driven exploration.”
Margaret believed that after receiving student-supported
technology professional
development, both teacher and student confidence in utilizing
technology improved. She

168. expressed:
I am very comfortable using technology in my classroom. Well,
my kids have progressed
a lot. If you were to have walked in at the beginning of the year
and watched them log-
in, it would have taken forever. But now, because they know
how to, they can get on the
computer.
89
Classroom observations of Margaret supported this stance. In
October 2013 and January 2014,
she employed basic, step-by-step activities that the students
followed. In contrast, the third
observation of her, conducted in March 2014, consisted of a
student-led activity where students
showcased their technology skills. Regarding her personal
progression with technology,
Margaret stated, “I have always tried to use technology in the
classroom, and I use it at home.
Prior to this, I had my students play educational games online,
which they easily navigated

169. without my help.” Margaret further supported this by rating
question 11 which stated: It is easy
for me to become skillful at using the Internet for classroom
instruction, with a four, somewhat
agree.
Margaret also discussed that her acceptance of technology was
impacted by fear; she
thought that she had to know everything about technology prior
to integrating it into the
classroom. Student technology skills were not considered. She
stated:
Prior to student-supported technology professional
development, I never thought that I
could learn technology while my students were learning. I
always thought that if I were
going to teach them to use something like PowToon’s™, I had
to know how to do it
myself first. I learned that I can learn with them, and that it all
works out. My kids and I
are able to now work together. If there is something that I do
not know how to do, one of
them will know.
Elizabeth shares the sentiment that teachers and students need

170. to acquire technology
skills together to ensure success in technology integration. She
said, “I see the need every day
for technology in the classroom. When I use technology with
students, I know that one of us will
know how to solve any issues that come up.” She also
mentioned that acquiring technology
skills has resulted in her being better prepared; thus, it has been
good for her job. “I have found
90
that I have to be more prepared: I need things loaded, I need
them up, and I need them ready to
go,” she explained. “That way, I am not hunting for that page
or hunting for what I need. I am a
better teacher today then I was before student-supported
professional development.” However,
on the survey, Elizabeth noted that she neither agreed or
disagreed with question two: Using the
Internet in my classroom can improve my performance.
Elizabeth further revealed how
acquiring technology skills and knowledge has changed
classroom instruction when she said:

171. I find that it does actually go quicker, like I said, because I am
able to use the iPad™ and
walk around and still project what the students need to see. I
am teaching them right
when everybody else learns. I just stop and teach them the level
that they need. So, I felt
it has sped up my classroom instruction.
Observations conducted in October 2013 recorded that Elizabeth
logged on to her
computer, but it took about 40 seconds for her to turn on the
projector and another 70
seconds for her to fumble with the remote while trying to get
the image from the
computer to the overhead projector. She moved through the rest
of the activity without
any issues arising. During the observation conducted January
2014, Elizabeth and her
students demonstrated technology skills such as logging on and
iPad™ fundamentals.
Additionally, she was able to switch between input modes on
the overhead projector.
Theme Two: Lack of Use Prior to Intervention/Professional
Development

172. Prior to student-supported technology, there was a limited
technology acceptance and its
actual use in the classroom. As observed by James, “We had
two computer labs and an iPad™
lab prior to student-supported technology professional
development. The teachers were taking
the students to the lab and just letting them play games.” James
observed that having a computer
laboratory was helpful for both the teacher and the students:
91
Before student-supported technology professional development,
I did not observe the
teachers doing much with technology. There were a few—when
I say few, I mean one or
two—that did something like typing; basic skills. I did not see
that it was anything that
could not have been done with paper and pencil.
James stated, “Prior to professional development, I rarely saw a
teacher use technology other
than using the overhead projector.” He added, “Technology is
important in curriculum, but it

173. was rarely being used before PD.”
Barbara concurred, stating, “Initially there was hardly ever any
technology being used.
The carts were sitting there not being used. It was sad.”
Regarding the difference in acceptance
and technology integration after student-support, she continued,
“Partnering with student-
supported technology professional development has resulted in
technology usage during whole
group and small group instruction and throughout many learning
activities.”
Observations of Mary conducted in October 2013 and January
2014, prior to student-
support, indicated that she used technology to project a
worksheet on the board. Each student
had a copy of the worksheet and reviewed the answers with her.
She felt that using the overhead
projector and a document camera were easy tasks for her; thus,
that comprised the extent of her
efforts to integrate technology into her classroom.
Patricia described her technology experience thusly: “Prior to
this, I had few basic
technology skills. I have taken some technology courses
through professional development

174. classes at a local university, but have not done anything with
them. I have not implemented
technology much before this.” In addition, she stated, “Prior to
student-supported technology
professional development, I hardly ever used technology. I did
use it when I had to.”
92
Despite saying that she had limited technology skills, Patricia
implied that she was
willing to integrate technology into classroom instruction if it
was beneficial to student learning.
Patricia noted this on the survey as she rated question six: I find
the Internet useful in my
teaching, with a four, which is somewhat agree. During
classroom observations of her
conducted in October 2013 and January 2014, technology
integration was not occurring. Both
observations consisted of students merely copying notes that
Patricia wrote on the board. All
observations of her conducted after student-support included
technology integration.

175. Patricia’s familiarity with technology and lack of experience
working with students and
technology is similar to Linda’s. In her interview, Linda
discussed that she had average
technology skills in terms of personal use, but no experience
using it in the classroom with
students. During observations of Linda conducted in October
2013, prior to student-supported
technology professional development, technology integration
did not occur. Linda demonstrated
how to solve math problems on the whiteboard. Some students
listened, while three were off
task. Thus, I inferred that prior to student-supported
technology professional development, there
was limited technology integration, and the majority were
teacher-led activities. Patricia
recalled, “I did not use technology very much before student-
supported technology professional
development.” Therefore, most—if not all—participants are
now more inclined to integrate and
accept technology in the long run.
Despite the various backgrounds and experiences discussed by
the participants, it was
evident that all participants used technology for personal needs,

176. but seldom used it for
instructional purposes prior to student-supported technology
professional development.
Questions number 23 asked: Number of years using the
Internet___/Number of years using the
Internet in classroom instruction, which concluded that
participants had anywhere from three to
93
nine more years of personal usage then in the classroom.
Patricia expressed how she felt prior to
student-supported professional development saying,
Knowing how to use technology at home is not the same as
using it in the classroom.
Using technology in the classroom use to be scary. I use to
think, what would happen
if it didn’t work? I would have lost all that instructional time.
In addition, all participants reported that they had received
some form of technology professional
development prior to this descriptive case study; however, that
did not result in an increase in
technology acceptance or usage during classroom instruction.

177. Theme Three: Successful Experience with Technology
The student-supported professional development enabled
teachers to experience
successful technology integration. Thus, perceptions of
technology being effortless and good for
their job occurred. This theme addressed the TAM components
perceived ease of use,
usefulness, intent to use, and actual use because participants
discussed perceptions and
accomplishments during technology integration. James, one of
the administrators, noted, “After
student-supported professional development, teachers were in
awe of the things students could
do and the level of learning that occurred when they were
provided with technology professional
development.” Barbara agreed, saying that after student-
supported technology professional
development, “We used the iPads™ daily. It was used as a
small group center, and then they
were also used for basic instruction during the whole group.”
She went on to discuss the
increase in rigor that was based on technology integration.
Mary believed that there was an increase in productivity

178. because she was able to observe
the impact of technology integration on student learning and
instruction. She rated question
Four, which was: Using the Internet in my classroom can
increase my productivity, with a four,
94
somewhat agree. Furthermore, she discussed how technology
usage improved accountability in
the classroom. “I feel like it has increased productivity a lot. I
have used it for reading centers
while I am doing a small reading group,” she said, adding, “And
they’re held accountable by
having something to show for their center time.” Not only did
Mary point out the ways that
technology had benefited reading instruction, but she also
discussed the effects during
mathematics instruction.
As far as math, I feel like using the lessons and then letting the
kids listen to the
lessons has given them that extra little bit of instruction they
may have needed. I

179. can see where, in the future, it would be advantageous to have
them pacing at
their own levels, which I could not have done without
technology in the
classroom.
After receiving student-supported technology, observations of
Mary that occurred in
October 2014 included various levels of technology integration
into classroom instruction.
Students were observed working in three stations where learning
included activities from Depth
of Knowledge levels three and four. Station activities included
students working in groups or
independently. Thus, Mary used technology as a tool to
increase classroom rigor.
Patricia also had her own observations with regard to
maximizing the use of classroom
hours. “I feel like it’s helped my time management because I
can have students do things on
technology while I’m working with other students… I know all
my students are learning,” she
said. Patricia further discussed her past and current technology
usage stating, “I would not say
that I had a great deal of experience, but I would say that I use

180. way more than I did a few years
ago. I find it easier to troubleshoot with my students.”
95
During observations conducted in Patricia’s classroom in March
2015, students
independently logged on and worked with technology while
learning and covering classroom
content. This differed greatly from the first two observations of
her. Further, students worked on
a virtual book report and as part of it, they created an animated
video describing a specific scene
from the book. While students worked, Patricia told them,
“Remember that you have more
options available than we would have if we did not use the
laptops.” Thus, technology had
provided the class with additional platforms and outlets to
showcase learning. Patricia stated, “I
am able to do so much more in the classroom than I could
before student-supported technology
professional development.” She further proved this as she rated
question two from the survey,

181. which read: Using the Internet in my classroom can improve my
performance, with a four,
somewhat agree.
Like previous participants, Margaret also credited technology
integration for helping her
students become more proficient at finding solutions when she
said:
I noticed it has helped them become better problem solvers, not
just how to use
technology, but in general. It has helped them to be better
communicators because they
help each other with issues on the computer, which then carries
over to the regular
curriculum. It has made me a more effective teacher because it
allows my students to see
materials in different format. They are also able to present their
work in a different
format.
Margaret was also quick to note that the introduction of
technology into the classroom
made learning more accessible and advantageous. “It has
helped time management,” she
observed. “I do not have to take the time during content to
teach them how to do it. They

182. already know.” She rated question one from the survey, which
stated: Using the Internet in my
96
classroom can enable me to accomplish tasks more quickly, with
the highest rating of a five,
strongly agree. Additionally, she observed that her students had
expanded her own familiarity
with technology. She stated, “They will also explore with it and
discover new features, which
they happily share with everyone else.”
Margaret stated that after student-supported technology
professional development, she
felt “as if the rigor has increased after I started using
technology more in the classroom with
students.” Observations of Margaret conducted in October
2013, prior to student-supported
technology professional development, demonstrated technology
acceptance and integration, but
lacked rigor. The level of technology integration was basic, as
it was similar to an activity that
could be completed using paper and pencil. Both Margaret and

183. her students were using laptops.
Margaret was demonstrating how to set up a document, which
would contain the students’
weekly spelling words written first in a sentence and then in a
paragraph. Once she was done
explaining and demonstrating, Margaret closed her laptop and
walked around the room checking
student progress.
In October 2014, Margret was observed while integrating
technology into classroom
instruction. Students created an animated video independently.
Once the videos were published,
the link was copied and placed in the students’ weather book.
During the observation, it was
noted that her students needed limited assistance. Margaret
stated, “Technology in the classroom
has been great for me. The students are almost always on task
now and rarely need to be
redirected. Before, I was spending a lot of time redirecting and
getting students focused.”
Through interviews and classroom observations, it can be
concluded that Margret views
technology integration as being positive with regard to
increasing problem-solving skills,

184. communication, and classroom management.
97
In reference to current technology practices, Elizabeth
discussed the important role usage
played in her classroom by stating, “Students are able to be
creative, innovative, and problem
solve due to the use of technology while learning. They have
more access to information.”
Further, she offered the following about how her teaching
changed based on student-supported
technology professional development:
This is technology that has been exposed to me to utilize, and so
I feel like it has
improved my teaching. Providing hands-on experiences,
showing the kids how to use it,
how it all connects, and how it all works increases productivity
in my classroom.
In January 2015, Elizabeth was observed with the primary focus
being the integration of
technology in classroom instruction. This observation clearly
demonstrated the effect of

185. technology in classroom instruction as it enhanced rigor,
creativity, and academic content
standards. Elizabeth worked with the entire class on a retelling
project. She had placed four
picture cards on each table. The students took a picture of each
card in order, wrote a retelling
sentence, and recorded their voice reading their writing. The
last step was to upload finished
pieces of work into Google Classroom™. At the end of the
lesson, Elizabeth stated, “I still
cannot believe my students can do projects like this. I would
have never tried to teach them
something like this. I did not know they had the skills to be so
successful using technology.”
She further explained the benefit associated with students being
able to read their own
writing and listen to themselves by stating, “My students are
catching most of their own reading
and writing mistakes as a result of using technology daily.” For
this reason, it was concluded
that technology influenced student learning in Elizabeth’s
classroom.
Linda also mentioned that technology made research easier.
She cited the help of

186. survey engines used to gather input from the students.
According to her, “Once the
98
students have been introduced to various technology items, we
were able to do it with
other content areas including science. I’ve been able to take
what they have learned and
move it into ELA.”
Additionally, Linda discussed the effect that technology has
had on mathematics
stating, “We’ve also done various things with math; you know
making surveys with
Survey Monkey™ and pretty much everything you taught us
during professional
development.” Linda clearly identifies a shift in her teaching.
She added that her class
had also “started doing vocab squares every week where
students are able to demonstrate
higher-level learning. Before, it was just paper, pencil, and at
the level of recall.” Linda
supported this by rating question five on the survey, which was:

187. Using the Internet in my
classroom can enhance my effectiveness while teaching, with
the highest rating of a five,
strongly agree.
During an observation conducted in March 2014, Linda’s
students worked on an online,
high-rigor activity. The students e-mailed Linda when they
completed specific components of
the activity. She then checked the teacher portal and provided
the student with immediate
feedback. Technology was used as a tool to discuss student
work right away and increase rigor.
Indeed, these participants validate the effect technology has
made in the classroom,
which was noted through interviews and observations collected
as archival data as part of
program evaluation collected yearly during the 2013-14 and
2014-15 school years. Despite the
fact that participants know technology integration is effective,
there is still a need for them to
experience its benefits so that they can move toward acceptance
and then integration of
technology into classroom instruction.

188. 99
Theme Four: Evidence of Acceptance and Integration
Technology has indeed become a factor in the classroom, and
the participants had
different ways of dealing with technology in terms of how they
use it to teach students.
According to James, one of the administrators, “A lot of
teachers are willing to use it now, after
receiving student-supported technology professional
development,.” He continued, “There was
definitely an increase in acceptance and integration. The
elementary teachers went from
standard, old-time education processes to actual, some of them,
technology use all the time.”
Prior to student-supported technology professional
development, James clearly stated that
technology integration was minimal. He described integration
before student-supported
technology professional development saying, “Well, 98% of the
time, it was pen and paper and

189. lots of worksheets, drilling stuff into their head, and not upper-
level critical thinking. Now
students are learning problem-solving skills, and upper-level
critical thinking is constantly
occurring.”
James also noted changes in teacher attitudes and integration
after technology
professional development. “Teachers were walking around
sharing what they were doing while
using technology in the classroom. They were very proud.” He
further discussed particular
activities he observed saying, “One teacher, whom I had never
seen use technology during
instruction, had the students making virtual books where they
created the picture, wrote their
own text, and recorded their voice reading the text.”
Barbara, the other administrator, was also quick to note that the
teachers had accepted the
presence of technology in the school because it seemed
progressive. She stated, “The acceptance
and usage of technology by teachers and students has increased.
The understanding of the role
technology plays in student learning has increased.” Barbara
also discussed the importance of

190. 100
the changes in academics after teacher participants received
student-supported technology
professional development. She said that technology had
“enhanced student learning and is
engaging.” Barbara further explained the increase of
technology acceptance and integration by
saying, “Teachers’ ability to understand that they do not have to
know everything about
technology prior to usage in the classroom has been impacted.
They now understand that both
the teachers and the students will figure out any issues that
occur as a team.”
Mary revealed that she’d had a mental block with regard to
incorporating technology into
her classroom. She stated, “Before student-supported
technology professional development, I
was full of fear. There was fear there. That was the first
emotion. Now, I am like, ‘Give me
more.” To further support this stance, she rated question 17 on
the survey, which stated: I

191. always try to use the Internet in as many cases or occasions as
possible during classroom
instruction, with a five, strongly agree. Mary confirmed that
her increased confidence level
would impact her teaching when she stated:
I would definitely use technology again in my classroom now
that I have had some
training where it is hands on. I have a student-support system
right within the classroom
now. It gives me that confidence to know if I do not know the
answer, that they might
know [it].
Throughout observations of Mary conducted during the 2013-
14 and 2014-15 school
years, she always exhibited technology integration. Examples
included using the overhead
projector, iPads™, laptops, the Internet, specific applications,
and programs. An example of
Mary’s acceptance and integration occurred during an
observation conducted in March 2015.
Both Mary and her students were using technology, and she
effectively modeled the platform.

192. 101
The lesson started as a teacher-led activity and then transformed
into a student-led one.
Collaboration amongst all stakeholders occurred throughout the
lesson.
Patricia discussed how using technology had specifically
impacted the way in which she
teaches students to write, saying:
Instead of maybe having them use as much pencil and paper, I
have them create
stories. Like on Educreations™ or something like that so they
are illustrating and
writing, but it is not so much pencil and paper because they also
get to create and
explore.
Throughout classroom observations of Patricia, a trend resulting
in an increase in
technology integration was revealed. The first two observations
of her conducted in
October 2013 and January 2014 noted that technology
integration was not observed.
However, in March 2014, October 2014, and January 2015,
Patricia was observed using

193. technology in the classroom, and in March 2015, her students
were using devices
throughout the observation.
In October 2013, technology was not integrated during my
observation of Linda.
However, in January of 2014, after receiving one session of
student-supported technology
professional development, technology had been integrated.
Linda used an overhead projector
connected to a laptop to project a game. She was in charge of
the mouse and directed the
activity.
Then in March 2015, observations of Linda portrayed a different
level of technology
acceptance and integration: Her students had created a virtual
book. Linda’s familiarity with the
technology device was demonstrated by her ability to answer
student questions accurately and
clarify student technology struggles before answering. When
troubleshooting, she provided
102

194. guidance to encourage students to problem solve independently.
Her students were actively
engaged: The room was quiet, every student had a laptop, and
they were creating text from a
story web. Per Linda’s instructions, each page was completed
individually and included student-
generated text and drawings or pictures retrieved from the
Internet. Additionally, students
recorded themselves reading their text. Upon completion, each
one published his or her book
and shared a link to it with the class on Google Classroom™.
Students were then able to navigate
the platform and upload pictures with limited questions. These
three observations clearly
indicate an increase in technology acceptance and integration.
Linda revealed the following
about the impact of technology integration on her students: “I
am in awe of the things my class is
doing.” On the survey, Linda rated question six, which read: I
found the Internet useful in my
teaching, with a five, strongly agree.
Margaret demonstrated her willingness to accept and use
technology when asked to

195. participate in this type of professional development. Prior to
participating in student-supported
professional development she stated, “I love to use technology
and would enjoy sharing my
knowledge and experiences with the students.” She went on to
say that she always researched
ways to integrate technology, but had limited experience in the
actual usage during classroom
instruction. During the interview, she stated, “I learned so
much through student-supported
technology professional development. I knew stuff before, but
nothing compared to what I can
do now.” She continued, saying, “My students are now doing
amazing projects and are able to
demonstrate higher-level thinking all the time.”
Likewise, Elizabeth also maintained that technology helps
during whole-classroom
instruction when she said:
103
I use the iPads™ with the Apple TV™ to be able to walk around
the classroom and

196. monitor what each child is doing while I am still turning the
pages. I am still directing
the students, and I am still pointing to everything they need.
That speeds up the
productivity of the students because I am more accessible to
help them, rather than being
stuck at my desk working at the computer.
She further explained the increase of her ability and willingness
to accept and
integrate technology in classroom instruction after receiving
student-supported
technology professional development saying:
Now I schedule the time to use it weekly. I feel like the
students are helping keep me on
target to use that technology because I tell them what times we
have it, and then they
make me stay on track to use that technology.
Prior to student-supported technology professional
development, Elizabeth pointed out
her success with navigating digital worlds for personal use.
Despite her enthusiasm, she
admitted that she rarely integrated technology into her
classroom. She stated, “Knowing how to

197. use technology at home and how to use it at school are two very
different things.” However, this
changed after student-supported professional development as
she rated question 18 on the
survey, which read: I expect my use of the Internet in my
classroom instruction to continue in the
future, with the highest rating of a five, strongly agree.
Observations of Elizabeth in October 2013 did support her
ability to adapt and accept
digital worlds, but she demonstrated limited knowledge of how
to integrate them. She was
observed providing students with verbal cues as to how to
navigate Google™. She gave direct
instruction; thus, each student searched for the same word and
copied a specific definition that
was pasted onto a document. Each student was then coached on
how to locate an image to
104
represent each word. Visuals to support learning were provided
through the overhead projector.
Despite each student using a laptop, the majority of the lesson
was teacher-led.

198. All three observations of Elizabeth included technology
integration, but at various levels.
The first two observations incorporated teacher-led technology
experiences. A shift from
teacher-led technology experiences to student-led experiences
transpired after student-supported
technology professional development and prior to the third
observation. That being said,
technology acceptance and integration was occurring in her
classroom.
From the four trends identified, it is evident that all three
research questions were
answered (Table 5).
Table 5
Research Question and Theme Alignment
Research Question Theme
Question One One and Three
Question Two One and Three
Question Three One, Two, Three, and Four
Research Question One
The first research question, “How will the integration of a

199. student-supported professional
development model impact teachers’ perceived ease of use,
perceived usefulness, and intent to
use technology in classroom instruction?” This question was
designed to establish the role that
student support plays in teacher acceptance and technology
integration. Teacher perceived ease
of use, usefulness, and intent to use was addressed through
archival data consisting of classroom
observations that were conducted in the 2013-14 and 2014-15
school years as part of program
evaluation, the survey, and interviews.
105
Teacher participants noted that student-supported professional
development impacted
their perceived ease of use, usefulness, and intent to use
technology. Additionally, they felt that
it was good for their respective jobs and that it did not take as
much effort as they previously
perceived that it would. James stated, “Teachers are discussing
the positive changes in academic

200. rigor, behaviors, and critical thinking. One teacher has even
discussed improvements in
mannerisms and respect.” He further stated, “Student-supported
professional development has
made technology integration easier for teachers and has
provided teachers with a sense of
ownership.” James also pointed out that “technology was
occuring about 2% of the time. This
program has drastically increased usage.”
Margaret and Elizabeth discussed how skill development
increased their perception of
technology being easier to utilize. They further mentioned that
the development of technology
skills also increased students’ ability to use technology; thus,
providing evidence that student-
supported professional development leads to technology
utilization in the classroom being
effortless. Patricia also discussed that using technology in the
classroom became easier than it
had been before student-supported professional development;
however, she also pointed out that
it is not completely effortless. “I would say it is easier,” she
explained. “It’s not as easy as I
would like it to be. It is not as natural as I want it to be. But, I

201. am not giving up.”
Mary further discussed how she perceived using various forms
of technology in
her classroom by stating, “I had never used the Apple TV™
until you showed me and my
students how to do that. We actually did use it with a lesson we
were doing. The lesson
was better.” Mary added, “I did not use my Apple TV™ before
student-supported
technology professional development. It just collected dust.”
Linda added that student-
106
supported professional development impacted her ease of use to
the point that she was
“helping other teachers.”
Twelve survey questions addressed the TAM component of
perceived ease of use.
An example is Question Seven: Learning to use the Internet in
my classroom instruction
is easy for me. On the 5-point Likert scale with 5 being
“strongly agree,” the overall

202. rating was 3.6, which would be closest to “somewhat agree.”
Mary, Margaret, and Linda
rated this question as somewhat agree or strongly agree, while
Patricia had given it
neither agree or disagree and Elizabeth stated somewhat agree.
In the same manner,
Question Eight, which also addressed perceived ease of use, had
an overall rating of 3.6;
while Elizabeth rated it with a two, somewhat agree, Patricia,
Margaret, and Linda all had
given it a four or five. Question Eight was: I find it easy to find
what I need or want to
integrate into classroom instruction from the Internet. All
questions that focused on
perceived ease of use were rated overall at a 3 or higher;
therefore, it was concluded that
participants did not disagree with technology acceptance.
The TAM component of perceived usefulness, which addresses a
person’s belief that
using technology is good for their job, correlates to many of
these impacts. James noted this
when he said, “I am in classrooms all the time. Student-
supported technology professional
development has improved classroom management, independent

203. thinking, and the level of
instruction, rigor. Technology integration in classroom
instruction occurs at least 60% of the
time.”
Administrator Barbara also made similar comments. She
mentioned, “I am in classes a
lot. Student-supported technology professional development
has increased the amount and rigor
of technology in the classroom. Technology usage has
increased.” Likewise, Linda noted how
107
technology integration was good for her job when she stated,
“My students have benefitted a lot
from this experience. They demonstrate a higher understanding
of content now. Their
standardized assessment scores were much higher than previous
years. I credit some of this to
technology integration.”
All of the participants viewed technology integration as a
primary factor in the expansion
of academic rigor, thus improving job performance. Elizabeth

204. supported this claim when she
discussed that her students have started self-correcting, which
she perceives as a result of
technology integration. Mary pointed out that her students
primarily worked at a depth of
knowledge levels three or four during technology integration.
Furthermore, she referenced
improvements in both mathematics and reading, by saying:
I feel like we have utilized it for math lessons. We have also
used it for enrichment in the
science and social studies areas. I feel like we are able to do
that a little bit more than I
normally would have been able to do.
Mary addressed the non-academic benefits with regard to why
technology integration was
helpful to her job. She said, “Communication among students,
problem-solving, and their
willingness to help each other has increased since I have
integrated technology into classroom
instruction.” She also noted the impact on instruction by
stating, “I feel like all of this has helped
a lot with our instruction in many of the academic areas.”
Ten questions on the survey discussed the TAM construct of

205. perceived usefulness
multiple times. Question One provided an example by asking:
Using the Internet in my
classroom can enable me to accomplish tasks more quickly.
Participants rated this question with
a three or higher, which is neither agree or disagree, somewhat
agree, and strongly agree.
Another question that addressed perceived usefulness was
Question Six: I find the Internet useful
108
in my teaching. The overall rating for this question was 3.8,
which is still closest to somewhat
agree. Linda rated this question with a five, strongly agree,
while Mary, Patricia, and Margaret
had given it a four, somewhat agree. The lowest score for this
question was noted by Elizabeth
with a two, somewhat disagree. The overall ratings for
perceived usefulness were rated higher
than perceived ease of use, but both were rated between 3 and 4.
Data analysis indicated that teachers perceived student-
supported technology professional

206. development to have an impact on their technology acceptance
and integration. Participants still
experienced some struggles with technology; therefore, they did
not find it to be completely
effortless. However, utilization continued because of the
perceived benefits to student learning.
Additionally, teacher participants commented that the more they
used it, the easier it became.
Intent to use technology addresses a person’s calculated goal
towards actual technology
usage. Linda noted the impact student-supported professional
development has had on her intent
to use technology as she foresees her technology integration to
continue. The interview
discussion included the following statement:
I will always use technology when there is a feature that I can
implement. I use
technology multiple times a day. During a school day, I use
technology more for
classroom instruction than anything else. I have always been
able to use technology, but
now I know I can use it even more. I plan to continue to
implement technology,
especially into more subject areas.

207. This sentiment was echoed by other participants, as they
pointed out that they also expected to
continue utilizing technology during classroom instruction.
Intent to use was noted in Question
18, which received the overall highest rating on the survey with
a rating of 4.6 (between
“somewhat agree” and “strongly agree”). Question 18 asked: I
expect my use of the Internet in
109
my classroom instruction to continue in the future. Mary,
Elizabeth, and Linda rated this
question with a five, strongly agree, while Patricia and Margaret
had given it a four, somewhat
agree. Thus, it was deduced that all participants expect to
continue accepting and integrating
technology into classroom instruction.
Additionally, all participants expressed an increase in the
usefulness of technology. They
discussed increases in their perceptions, thus making
technology easier to integrate into the
classroom. Moreover, all participants intended to continue

208. utilizing technology during
instruction. While I had anticipated that the participants would
find technology integration
useful, I had not expected that they would be willing to
integrate without a full understanding of
the device or platform. Participants noted that they no longer
felt the need to be technology
experts before utilizing technology in the classroom.
Research Question Two
Answering the question, “How will the integration of a student-
supported professional
development model impact teachers’ actual use of technology in
classroom instruction?”
provided an understanding of changes in technology integration.
This question addressed a
person’s genuine technology usage, which is a component of the
TAM. Archival data consisting
of classroom observations conducted during the 2013-14 and
2014-15 school years as part of
program evaluation, open-ended interviews, and the survey were
used to answer this question.
Participants provided clear evidence to support how student-
supported professional

209. development impacted teachers’ actual use. Linda and
Elizabeth discussed that utilization
enabled them to provide immediate feedback to students.
Elizabeth further explained that she
could immediately clear up misconceptions, which does not
always occur during traditional
teaching methods. She explained that many of the technology
applications provided her with
110
immediate feedback on student progress, understanding, and
learning. Therefore, she began
utilizing technology more during her classroom instruction.
Margaret emphasized the importance of skill development,
which she felt was a result of
student-supported technology professional development. She
discussed how the reduction in
time consuming skills, such as logging in, led to actual use.
She stated, “Some things used to
take forever. I got to the point where technology just was not
worth it. This all changed after
student-support.”

210. James, Mary, Margaret, and Elizabeth all noted that academic
rigor increased as a result
of technology usage during classroom instruction. James stated,
“Without student-supported
professional development, teachers would have never observed
the rigor students are capable
of.” He explained, “While watching student-supported
professional development, I saw students
pointing out things to teachers and taking on the instructor role.
Student-support increased rigor.
The students wanted more.” He focused on student-supported
professional development as the
primary factor impacting teacher actual use. James stated, “In
terms of teachers, student-
supported technology professional development has impacted
their technology usage and
acceptance. A lot of teachers are willing to use it now.”
Research Question Three
As the researcher, I needed to answer: “What evidence suggests
that student-supported
professional development for technology is responsible for the
encouragement of teachers’
technology integration into classroom instruction?” The
participant interviews produced the

211. richest data on the participants’ views, and thus addressed the
impact of student-supported
technology professional development on their acceptance and
integration of technology usage.
Evidence was provided though face-to-face open-open ended
interviews, archival data consisting
111
of classroom observations conducted during the 2013-2014 and
2014-15 year as program
evaluation, and the survey.
Administrators James and Barbara discussed the lack of
technology usage prior to
student-supported professional development. Specifically,
James pointed out technology usage
rose from 2% to about 60% at his school as a result of student-
supported professional
development. Barbara added that “the iPads™ went from just
sitting in the cart—no one ever
used them—now they are in classrooms all the time.” Mary
further supported this claim, as she
discussed her daily use during reading instruction as a result of

212. student-supported professional
development. Elizabeth also began scheduling weekly
technology integration.
Data analysis revealed that participants continued
integrating technology during
classroom instruction. This was observed during classroom
observations that were retrieved
through archival data collected during the 2013-14 and 2014-15
years as part of program
evaluation. Technology integration did not occur in the first
two observations of Patricia, but the
subsequent four involved technology integration at various
levels. Classroom observations
revealed that there were no devices integrated during classroom
instruction in two of the
participants’ classrooms in October 2013. This number reduced
to one in January 2014, and then
to zero during all other observations.
Despite the fact that the survey did not address how technology
was being integrated, it
did include Question 23, which addressed: Number of years
using the Internet and Number of
years using the Internet in my classroom instruction. The data
concluded that participants had

213. used the Internet overall for an average of 8.8 years. Interviews
revealed that despite Internet
usage prior to this study, there was limited integration of it
occurring in the classroom. This was
supported by participants concluding that they had only used
technology for an overall average
112
of 3.8 years during instruction. James also supported this
during his interview by stating that
technology integration is still occurring in classrooms.
Summary
Data provided in this chapter provided insight about the impact
of student-supported
technology professional development. Participants shared their
experiences before and after
student-supported technology professional development. Data
included participants discussing
the ways in which their teaching had changed in terms of
technology integration. Student-
supported technology integration played a role in developing
participants’ acceptance as it

214. pertained to perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, intent
to use, and actual technology
utilization.
Six observations of all teacher participants were retrieved
through archival data
conducted during the 2013-14 and 2014-15 school years as part
of program evaluation. All
teacher participants were subject to an interview and a survey.
Both administrator participants
observed each participant at least three times and took part in an
interview. James observed each
participant six times during the 2013-14 and 2014-15 school
years. Each teacher participant
reported that his or her technology acceptance and integration
increased as a result of student-
supported technology professional development.
Interviews and observations of Patricia and Linda concluded
that technology integration
and acceptance prior to student-supported technology
professional development was limited.
After receiving student-support, all participants reported that
their acceptance and integration of
technology had increased. Mary, Margaret, and Elizabeth

215. demonstrated an increase in academic
rigor during and after student-supported technology
professional development. They also shifted
from teacher-led to student-led technology integration.
113
James reported that all teacher participants demonstrated drastic
increases in technology
accept and integration into classroom instruction by stating:
Teachers that participated in student-supported technology
professional development
have continued to integrate technology into their classroom
instruction. Some have not
explored or implemented anything past the learning that
occurred in student-supported
technology professional development, but there is a subset of
those teachers that have
taken it further. The subset is small.
He further explained that despite technology being
implemented, not all participants were
demonstrating growth in terms of technology integration. James
stated:

216. The other teachers that did accept and integrate technology into
classroom instruction are
still doing the same things they were taught and have not
extended their learning or
integration past what they learned while participating in
student-supported technology
professional development. Therefore, I think that acceptance or
comfort level impacts
technology integration into classroom instruction.
While the data showed an increase in participants’ technology
acceptance and integration,
all three research questions were answered by their perceptions
and archival data consisting of
observations conducted during the 2013-14 and 2014-15 school
years as part of program
evaluation. This summary included the opinions and beliefs of
the participants, thus laying the
groundwork for themes that developed throughout this case
study. A summary of the findings,
discussion, implications, limitations, and recommendations for
future research pertaining to
technology integration in context to student-supported
technology professional development is

217. discussed in Chapter Five.
114
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
Overview
As stated at the beginning, this study was conducted keeping in
mind the benefit that
technological integration can provide on student achievement
(Machado & Chung, 2015).
Despite increasing support of researchers, there has remained a
lack of technology integration
into classroom instruction over the past decade. This may be
attributed to the inadequate efforts
by schools to prepare teachers to accept and use technology for
such purposes (DeNisco, 2014;
Morgan, 2014; Navidad, 2013; Schnellert & Keengwe, 2012;
Tamim et al., 2011). This case
study built on the existing literature regarding technology
professional development by filling in
the gap on empirical research about elementary student-
supported technology professional

218. development.
The purpose of this study was to examine teachers’ acceptance
and integration of
technology in the classroom in the context of a student-
supported professional development
model. There is a need for such a model, particularly at the
elementary level. This study offers
an effective one for school personnel to adopt as part of their
efforts to enhance the use and
acceptance of technology for classroom purposes by examining
long-term development solutions
as opposed to current, short-term approaches. This chapter
includes a summary of the findings
and themes that developed through data analysis. I have
addressed the findings in relation to
Davis’ (1989) Technology Acceptance Model and the review of
literature in Chapter Two.
Delimitations and limitations of research are noted.
Furthermore, recommendations for future
research are explained.
115

219. Summary of Findings
Through observations retrieved from archival data conducted
during the 2013-14 and
2014-15 school years as part of program evaluation, interviews
and surveys, the following four
themes emerged: skill and knowledge development, lack of use
prior to intervention/professional
development, successful experience with technology, and
evidence of acceptance and
integration. The themes were used to answer the research
questions presented in this case study.
Research Question One
How will the integration of a student-supported professional
development model impact
teachers’ perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and intent
to use technology in classroom
instruction? Participants discussed their increased ease towards
technology use and integration
into classroom instruction and stated that they accepted it over
time. Specifically, Mary noted
that, “I was scared of integrating technology at the beginning of
professional development.”
However, she said, “After student-support, it become easy to

220. use technology in the classroom.”
All seven participants were asked about the impacts of
perceived ease of use, perceived
usefulness, and intent to use technology in classroom
instruction based on a student-supported
professional development model. The five teacher participants
felt that they had integrated
technology more after student-support than during previous
years, and the administrator
participants echoed this sentiment. All participants also
discussed an increase in rigor, time
management, and a shift from teacher-led to student-led
technology opportunities. Additionally,
teacher participants said that prior to participating in
professional development, they primarily
used technology in the classroom for administrative purposes.
The participants also indicated that they were less concerned
after integration of student-
supported professional development about lacking knowledge
about certain aspects of
116

221. technology. Rather, if they lacked a technology skill, then
either a student would be familiar
with it or the class would figure it out as a team. All
participants felt that it is imperative to
include students in technology professional development.
Despite the fact that all of the participants discussed increased
levels of technology
acceptance and integration into classroom instruction after
student-support, James noted after the
conclusion of professional development, “most of the teachers
did not integrate technology past
the level of what was taught during professional development.”
However, he added, “there is a
subset of those teachers that has taken it further. The subset is
small.” In lieu of this, he further
emphasized that the level in which participants have accepted
technology and integrated it into
classroom instruction had increased as a direct result of
including students in technology
professional development. “Teachers are more comfortable,” he
suggested, “and enjoy
technology more after receiving student-supported technology
professional development.”
Research Question Two

222. How will the integration of a student-supported professional
development model impact
teachers’ actual use of technology in classroom instruction?
The integration of a student-
supported professional development model resulted in an
increase in technology usage in the
classroom based on the findings. All seven participants
acknowledged that before integration of
the program, use of technology was not very prevalent for the
purposes of classroom instruction.
Afterwards, they acknowledged a significant increase in their
use of technology in the classroom,
as well as that of their colleagues. Furthermore, it could be
observed that there was an increase
in the number of observations where students and teachers were
using technology in the
classroom, and a decrease in the number of observations where
no technology was being used
117
over the course of the study. This indicated an increase in the
use of technology in the

223. classroom, as well as an increase in teachers’ comfort with
using technology.
Opportunities to provide immediate feedback during technology
integration, skill
development, and the increase in academic rigor all impacted
actual utilization. Immediate
feedback enabled participants to clear up instructional
misconceptions immediately. The
importance of skill development increased actual use improving
time management and user
perceptions of their ability to use technology. Additionally, an
increase in academic rigor
resulted from student-supported technology professional
development.
Research Question Three
What evidence suggests that student-supported professional
development for technology
is responsible for encouraging teachers to integrate it into the
classroom? Participants reported
that after student-supported professional development for
technology, they learned better uses for
technology. Additionally, participants were able to better plan
and recall how to use certain
aspects of technology through the support of the students. The

224. teachers also reported that they
planned to expand the use of technology into additional subject
areas.
Looking at the results of the study, there are several notable
effects of the integration of
student-supported technology professional development. After
integration, the use of technology
in the classroom was more prevalent, and in particular, it’s use
for instructional as opposed to
administrative functions increased. Teachers became noticeably
more comfortable with
technology over the course of the study, and students were more
independent as a result of its
integration.
118
Discussion
Data evaluation revealed that participants’ technology
acceptance and integration
increased as a result of student-supported technology
professional development. Furthermore,
the data indicated that participants felt that academic rigor,

225. student problem solving, and
communication increased with the integration of technology.
This confirmed the review of
literature on the benefits of technology integration in classroom
instruction (Morgan, 2014;
Navidad, 2013; Pamuk et al., (2013); Tamim et al., 2011). All
seven participants noted the
increase in technology integration after student-support.
Participants also demonstrated
acceptance by noting that they did not feel as if they needed to
be technology experts prior to
integrating technology into the classroom. I will begin by
discussing the findings of this case
study as they pertain to the theoretical framework. Then, I will
relate conclusions to previous
research discussed in the review of literature.
TAM and Student-Supported Technology Professional
Development
This study focused on the ways in which a student-supported
technology professional
development model encouraged changes in acceptance and use
of technology among
participants. As previously discussed, the theoretical
framework that this study is based off of is

226. TAM, which in turn is based on the theory of TRA. TAM
focuses on direct influences on
technology use, which concludes: If perceived ease of use is
improved or perceived usefulness
improves, the result will be actual use of technology in the
classroom. A study by Naeini and
Krishnam (2012) of Malaysian elementary students using
computer games noted this connection.
In it, a significant positive correlation between perceived ease
of use and usefulness, and actual
use of technology was indicated. However, this study did not
focus on the use of technology by
teachers for instructional purposes.
119
Based on the results of this study, several reasons are suggested
(as it relates to the
theoretical framework) for why student support and professional
development translate to
increased integration of technology in the classroom. For
example, one participant stated that
she accepted technology because she understood the important

227. role that it plays in student
learning. Further, she recognized the changing norms around
her as being a result of technology
professional development, which led to her change in attitude.
The findings indicate that professional development has the
effect of increasing the
likelihood that teachers will accept technology in the classroom.
O’Koye (2010) reached similar
conclusions by examining the effect of professional
development through the use of a coach on
technology integration in the classroom. The study used a small
sample size of 14 teachers, with
data collected via participant interviews and surveys, much like
this study did. Participants
credited changes in technology integration in the classroom to
support provided from the
technology coach. The authors concluded that teachers who
worked with technology coaches
demonstrated a significant increase in feelings of efficacy
towards technology use in the
classroom. Another study by Blackmon (2013) utilized survey
data from middle school teachers
that were asked to rate nine professional development methods.
Of all nine methods, peer

228. support or mentoring were perceived to be the most effective.
In addition to changing the perceived norms as they related to
technology use, technology
professional development also had the effect of improving its
perceived usefulness. Participants
interviewed indicated that they learned “better uses” for
technology than they previously
employed. Several of them noted that they felt comfortable
using technology for purposes
outside of instruction, such as administrative functions.
However, after technology professional
development, they had a greater understanding and were more
comfortable using it for a wider
120
variety of functions and subjects. The implication is that
participants identified a greater scope
of use for technology, and as a result, were more likely to
accept it. Linton et al. (2013)
concluded similar results, which led to increases in technology
integration and student
achievement. However, they did not focus on support provided

229. by students.
From the participant standpoint, student support had the effect
of improving their
perceived ease of use and usefulness of technology in the
classroom. Several participants noted
that technology was easier to use in the classroom with student
support because teachers realized
that they did not have to know every function because the
students would provide assistance if
needed.
As it relates to the use of students as mentors for technology in
the classroom, some
studies have examined the use of student technology teams in
schools. Brooks-Young (2006)
examined student technology teams in two middle schools to
address lack of professional
technology personnel. At both schools, students were trained to
handle maintenance issues with
software. The result was that at least one student in each
classroom had the skills to fix or refer
out technology issues that might occur, taking some of the
burden from the teachers.
Breiner (2009) conducted a study on a similar program utilized
at a middle school. In

230. this program, some students were taught to provide technology
assistance to teachers, rather than
just serve as troubleshooters. As a result, those students were
able to provide first-hand
technology training to teachers.
Another study by Corso and Devine (2013) looked at the use of
college students as
technology mentors at a community college. The institution
integrated a student technology
mentor program, which was designed to support technology
professional development as well as
the integration of technology in the classroom. The program
started with five students and
121
expanded to 40. The community college identified the program
as a successful tool to support
technology integration. These studies differ from this case
study in the educational levels of the
students and the manner in which students were used to
facilitate the integration of technology in
the classroom.

231. In terms of whether the student-supported technology
professional development model
was successful at the elementary school level at increasing the
integration of technology in
classroom instruction, there is no literature that examines this
effect. The majority of relevant
research on this topic pertained to either the efficacy of a
student-support model or a
professional-development model, but not both, and not at the
elementary school level.
With regard to perceived usefulness, participants noted that the
use of technology helped
them better manage their time, be more efficient, and increase
student engagement. The
implication was that by utilizing student support for technology,
teachers recognized the larger
benefit from technology to their professional objectives and
became more likely to accept it
(Williams et al., 2014). Hyland and Kranzow (2012) concluded
that technology integration is
more efficient and increases time management, which concurs
with this study. However, Hyland
and Kranzow (2012) did not focus on students as a support
system during technology

232. professional development. Furthermore, research conducted by
Esteve et al. (2015) supported
increased student engagement results from technology access in
the classroom; but unlike my
case study, it only focused only on IWB access.
To summarize, the findings indicated that student support and
technology professional
development have the benefit of improving perceived ease of
use and usefulness of technology
by participants. As a result, the actual use of technology was
increased. This supports the
literature, which has demonstrated a correlation between
perceived ease of use, usefulness, and
122
actual use. This also supports the findings of Aypay et al.
(2012), who concluded that pre-
service teachers’ use of technology was highly influenced by
TAM. Furthermore, Fishbein and
Azjen (1980) suggested that when people view technology as
being favorable, they are more
likely to both acquire and utilize it.

233. Technology Integration in the Classroom
As stated earlier, teachers desiring to meet the needs of their
students need to understand
and use technology in classroom instruction (Aviles & Eastman,
2012). As such, there is an
onus for an effective model of technology professional
development. The literature suggests that
technology integration had a positive impact on student
learning. Research had shown that the
use of technology in the classroom resulted in higher levels of
student engagement and
achievement (Morgan, 2014; Navidad, 2013; Tamim et al.,
2011).
One such study, conducted by Hyland and Kraznow (2012),
examined the perceptions of
both teachers and students in the use of technology to develop
critical thinking and self-directed
search. The results of the study indicated that both students and
faculty members felt that e-
materials had a positive influence on students’ learning
behavior involving critical thinking and
self-directed learning. Unlike my case study, they utilized
closed- and open-ended surveys as

234. their primary method of data collection. Furthermore, Hyland
and Kraznow focused on the use
of e-texts and e-libraries and conducted their study at a private,
post-secondary institution, as
opposed to an elementary school.
Blanchard et al. (2016) conducted a study investigating ongoing
technology professional
development (TDP) administered to 20 mathematics and science
teachers. Data analysis resulted
in the following: participant increases in technology comfort
level, higher assessment scores,
123
substantial academic gains, and an increase in graduation rate.
Unlike my case study, which
focused on elementary school teachers, Blanchard et al. focused
on high school teachers.
Hayden et al. (2011) conducted a similar study focusing on a
structured professional
development program known as iQUEST. It concluded that
student academic performance
demonstrated significant gains as a result of classroom
technology integration. Different from

235. my study, Hayden et al. (2011) enhanced technology integration
through a trained adult mentor
and focused only on science.
The above findings align with those of the current case study.
Among the results,
participants reported that after integration of student-supported
technology professional
development, participants were impressed by the students’
ability to work independently, solve
problems, and help each other when a technology related issue
arose. Participants also noted that
the use of technology seemed to benefit students’ ability to
think critically while solving
problems and be more productive. Additionally, participants
discussed that students wanted to
learn more about different aspects of the technology.
Technology Professional Development
Regarding the effect of professional development on
technology use, studies have found
that teachers who receive effective technology professional
development are more likely to
integrate technology into the classroom. More specifically,
researchers have found a positive

236. correlation between professional development and technology
use in the classroom, indicating
that effective technology professional development is predictive
of technology use (DeNisco,
2014; Ertmer et al., 2012; Badri et al., 2015). However, none of
these studies have analyzed the
degree to which professional development impacts technology
use; rather, they only addressed
only the perceived relationship and attitudes.
124
A study conducted by Badri et al. (2015) examined the
correlation between technology
professional development and technology use in the classroom.
The results showed a significant
positive correlation between the two, indicating that
professional development is predictive of
technology use. The study utilized survey data from secondary
teachers. Another study by
Gerard et al. (2012) suggested that classroom teachers who
received professional development to
help them understand how technology enhances and relates to

237. curriculum were more successful
at integrating it into their classrooms than were teachers who
did not receive the professional
development. Similar to this case study, technology
professional development led to an increase
in technology usage in the classroom; however, neither of these
studies focused on student-
support during technology professional development. In this
study, technology integration
primarily resulted from teacher’s perception of technology
becoming effortless and good for
their job. Participants discussed technology was easier to use
after student-supported
professional development. Additionally, participants also
pointed out that academic rigor
increased, immediate feedback became possible, problem-
solving skills increased, and
technology skills were developed.
A number of factors have been found to contribute to the lack
of integration of
technology in the classroom, which professional development
addresses. This includes
inadequate preparation for the teacher to use technology for
classroom instruction. A study by

238. DeNisco (2014) found that 46% of kindergarten through 12th
grade teachers stated that they
lacked the skills to use technology effectively in the classroom,
despite the fact that 93% of those
surveyed reported that technology had a positive effect on
student engagement. A study by
Howley et al. (2011) found that teachers felt as though they had
been inadequately prepared to
provide technology opportunities for students. Another study
by Asodike and Jaja (2012) in
125
Nigeria found that while most primary schools had at least one
desktop computer per classroom,
the majority of teachers felt that they did not have adequate
computer skills, which they
attributed to a lack of training. This indicates that although
teachers recognize the benefits of
technology integration, many lack the knowledge or
understanding to do so in a classroom
setting.
The findings of this study support these claims. Several

239. teachers reported that before this
program was integrated, they were comfortable using
technology on their own. However, they
were unsure how to integrate it into their teaching. After
technology professional development,
they noted that they were able to use the technology in the
classroom. Additionally, teachers
reported that among the major impediments to technology
integration was the fact that they were
not comfortable using it with students. From a theoretical
standpoint, this supported the TAM,
which suggests the connection between perceived ease of use
and actual use of technology.
After being trained to use technology in the classroom with
student-support, teachers perceived
that it would be useful; therefore, they choose to integrate it
into classroom instruction.
Expanding on this subject, while there are past studies that
have examined programs for
technology professional development, most have looked at
ineffective programs in order to
understand what does work. Elements that have been noted as
being effective include ongoing
professional support and technology coaching and mentoring

240. (Duran et al., 2011; Gayton &
McEwan, 2010; Koh & Neuman, 2009; Lutrick & Szabo, 2012;
Neuman & Cunningham, 2009;
O’Koye, 2010). Another component that researchers support is
an understanding of technology
operation and application within professional development
(Potter & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2012).
Linton & Geddes (2013) supported this claim by noting that
instructional device and software
126
training resulted in an increase in teacher confidence with
regard to the use of technology in the
classroom.
Regarding the link between student support and technology use
in the classroom, most
studies have examined student technology leadership at the
middle school and college level, but
not at the elementary school level. Furthermore, these studies
have focused on the use of
students as mentors for teachers to perform certain tasks with
technology and found these

241. practices to be an effective method of technology integration
(Breiner, 2009; Brooks-Uong,
2006; Corso & Devine, 2013).
Looking at the elementary school level specifically, there is
evidence to support the
potential success of student-support during technology
professional development. Past studies
have suggested that elementary school children, having grown
up around technology, are more
competent in using it (Bait, 2011; McAlister, 2009).
Participants reported that a primary factor
of their ability to integrate technology in the classroom was
student knowledge. One participant
noted that she felt the students helped teach her because they
retained different pieces of
information, and vice versa. Additionally, it was reported that
student confidence with utilizing
technology was never an issue; rather, the concern was the
participants’ lack of confidence.
Participants in this case study further discussed the fear they
had prior to student-supported
professional development. After the intervention, participants
reported that they no longer felt
they had to be technology experts. Participants noted if they

242. lacked the skill or understanding,
then a student would provide needed guidance, thus increasing
technology integration in
classroom instruction.
127
Implications
The purpose of this descriptive case study was to study
teachers’ technology acceptance
and classroom integration in the context of a student-supported
professional development model.
Additionally, the desire was to better understand the role of
student-supported technology
professional development. All seven participants reported
technology acceptance and integration
increased after student-supported technology professional
development. Therefore, it is
imperative to point out the benefits of student-supported
technology professional development to
classroom instruction and achievement. As a result, the
following implications originated from
data collected from participants.

243. Implication One
This study addressed the need for an effective model for
supporting the teachers’
acceptance and integration of technology in the classroom. In
particular, it added to the literature
by addressing this need at the elementary school level. There is
an empirical gap in research
about elementary student-supported teacher technology
professional development. However,
research does support secondary and collegiate students in this
capacity (Breiner, 2009; Corso &
Devine, 2013; Liu et al., 2015; Pierce, 2012).
Data collected from interviews, the survey, and archival data
consisting of observations
collected yearly during the 2013-14 and 2014-15 school years as
part of program evaluation
resulted in increases in participants’ technology acceptance and
classroom integration after
involvement in student-supported technology professional
development. Overwhelmingly, after
student-supported technology professional development,
participants noted that they were more
comfortable using technology. This correlates with findings

244. from Williams et al. (2014), which
128
indicated that technology that is perceived as being useful will
be integrated into classroom
instruction.
Furthermore, findings have implications at the organizational
level and could benefit
educational institutions in understanding the necessary aspects
for implementing a program that
would effectively advance the use of technology in the
classroom. The findings could also
provide a benefit from a policy perspective, as it helps policy
makers better understand how
technology can be used to enhance educational outcomes.
For educational institutions, this study indicates the need for a
student-supported
professional development model for successful integration of
technology in the classroom.
Additionally, the findings demonstrated a need for a long-term
model of technology professional
development with additional follow up for facilitating

245. successful technology integration.
Finally, the findings confirm that a student-supported model can
be successful at the elementary
school level. School administrators may want to include these
elements into the design of any
future programs intended to increase the use of technology in
classroom instruction.
From a policy perspective, the findings from this study support
previous studies that
indicated technology use in the classroom can benefit learning
and academic achievement.
Based on the findings, policy makers may find it beneficial to
increase funding for technology
based initiatives in schools or for further study of the effect and
success of such programs.
From a theoretical standpoint, findings indicate support for the
TAM and TRA as
effective models of technology integration in the classroom.
The results show that professional
technology development and student support benefit the ease of
use and perceived usefulness of
technology for classroom instruction among teachers. The
result is an increase in acceptance and
actual use of technology in the classroom. For school

246. administrators to develop an effective
129
program for technology integration, they must consider
elements that promote such perceptions
and subsequently result in the desired outcome: increased
acceptance and use of technology.
Based on these findings, several aspects should be present for
schools looking to
implement programs to advance the use of technology in the
classroom. A long-term program of
support for teachers is important, as it allows them to gradually
become more comfortable using
technology in the classroom and incrementally increase the
scope of use. I highlight the
importance of technology professional development in some
form to enable teachers to utilize
technology in the classroom. Additionally, a program whereby
students and teachers learn
together to use technology is effective at all educational levels
because it enables teachers and
students to help each other when knowledge gaps arise.

247. Implication Two
The second implication from this study was the need for schools
to utilize students as
support for teacher technology professional development.
Students have played many roles in
supporting technology, including repairs and quick fixes,
training, and mentors (Brooks-Young,
2006; Breiner, 2009; Corso & Device; 2013 Peto et al., 1989;
Pierce, 2012). In this study, which
featured student-supported technology professional
development, participants stated that they no
longer felt the need to know and understand every aspect of
technology prior to using it in the
classroom because if they did not know something, then a
student would.
Members of Generation Z, which encompasses current
elementary school-aged students,
are technology savvy, access digital information easily, and are
able to navigate digital
environments with ease (Emanuel, 2013; Gibson & Sodeman,
2014; Hartman & McCambridge,
2011). Additionally, they accept technology shifts faster than
previous generations (Bajt, 011;
Gu et al., 2013; Krier, 2008). Research conducted by McAlister

248. (2009) confirmed that students
130
are willing to try multiple techniques using technology in order
to succeed. Wikia Technology
(2013) collected data from 1,200 students and concluded that
they display quick adaptive
behaviors and use technology in more advanced ways than
previous generations.
Delimitations and Limitations
Delimitations in research focused on the boundaries of the study
and on determining how
the study findings could possibly lack generalization (Glatthorn
& Joyner, 2005). Delimitations
consist of the nature of the sample size, setting, and time frame
(Glatthorn & Joyner, 2005).
Limitations are considered probable weaknesses with the study
(Creswell, 2013). Creswell
identified limitations as inadequate measures, loss or lack of
participants in the study, and small
sample size.
Delimitations

249. The delimitations for this study included the target teacher and
administrator population
and the sample. The target population consists of elementary
teachers who participated in
student-supported technology professional development and
administrators that observed
student-supported technology professional development at least
three times in either the 2013-14
and/or 2014-15 school years. This study only included
elementary teachers and administrators
because there are no research studies focusing on elementary
students acting in a support role for
teacher professional development at this level. Previous
research involving elementary students
focuses on technology troubleshooting, but does not include
them supporting technology for
professional development to raise teacher acceptance and
integration into classroom instruction.
This study only focused on teacher technology acceptance and
classroom integration, but not on
student perceptions or views; therefore, data was not collected
from students.

250. 131
Limitations
The limitations within this study serve as a reference for
determining the extent to which
the findings can be applied to other schools (Creswell, 2013).
Limitations that occurred in this
study included: population, sample size, timeframe of study,
and male-to-female ratio as it
pertains to data analysis. The research population may not be
representative of other
populations in other school districts. The target population for
this study had access to multiple
technological devices, which eliminated access to device issues
like not having a device for
each student to use. The administration in the school district
where this study was conducted
supported technology integration in classroom instruction, but
this may not have been the
circumstance in other public school populations.
There are certain limitations that influenced the accuracy of the
results. Among the most

251. important considerations is the limit of the sample to a single
school district in one geographical
area. It is possible that the particular school district and
location may have different experiences
or cultural attitudes towards technology from the general
population. That, in turn, could impact
the outcome of the integration of such a program. The use of a
single institution for observation
and the lack of comparison to other institutions that utilized a
different approach for technology
integration make it difficult to analyze the effectiveness of a
student-supported technology
professional development model in comparison to other
approaches, as well as identify specific
aspects of the program that were effective.
Another issue included the small sample size, which tends to be
an issue in case studies.
The school at which this study took place had 26 teachers, of
which only 15 attended student-
supported technology professional development and five agreed
to participate in this study. Of
the four administrators that observed student-supported
technology professional development at

252. 132
least three times during the 2013-14 and/or 2014-15 school
years, only two agreed to participate
in the study. This small sample size can make it difficult to
draw conclusions that can be
attributed on a wider scale.
Additionally, the length of the study, which extended over the
course of two school years,
may have caused some teachers and administrators to not want
to participate. Furthermore, the
use of a single institution for observation and the lack of
comparison to other institutions and
approaches made it difficult to analyze the effectiveness of a
student-supported technology
professional development model. Further, it became difficult to
identify specific aspects of the
program that worked best.
Finally, the male-to-female ratio, which is an aspect that cannot
be controlled for, may
have impacted the results. The majority of data was gathered
from females due to the location
chosen for the study. Past studies have suggested that

253. technology behavior varies between males
and females; therefore, gender differences may affect the results
and compromise the
generalizability of these conclusions to male teachers. In
analyzing the results, the open-ended
nature of this case study approach has some limitations, as it
means that the interpretation of the
findings is less clear cut and open to differing individual
perspectives.
Recommendations for Future Research
This case study added to the literature regarding teacher
acceptance and integration of
technology in the classroom by examining the subject in the
context of elementary level
education and a student-supported professional development
model. However, the application of
the findings of this study is limited by the small sample size and
specific population evaluated,
from both an age and geographical standpoint.
133
To deal with the limitations discussed above, there are some

254. measures that may be taken
in future examinations of this subject. Future studies should
attempt to utilize a larger sample
size in order to broaden the generalizability of the findings.
This may be done by utilizing a
multi-case case study, which would allow for data to encompass
a wider scope of participants,
rather than limiting the observations to a single school. This
would also allow for change over
time to be evaluated more effectively, as a greater number of
individuals would likely remain in
the study given the ease of responding.
It may also be beneficial to explore this subject using a
quantitative approach instead of a
qualitative one. Using a quantitative approach, one could
explore the change in the amount of
class time spent using technology or the number of subjects
taught with technology being the
primary tool for instruction. Future studies may also look more
closely at how elements of
teachers’ backgrounds (i.e., experience or subject taught)
impact the integration of technology in
the classroom. This might mitigate, to a certain extent, issues
of gender ratio by singling out

255. specific teacher qualities. These strategies may make the
results generalizable on a wider scale
and more conclusive.
With regard to how the topic pertains to the effectiveness of a
student-supported
technology professional development model, future studies
might evaluate the impact of such a
model for other age groups, such as middle school, high school,
or college level. It might also be
beneficial to explore aspects of similar models at different
schools, both public and private, to
identify the effectiveness of individual parts of the model. In
addition to exploring the
effectiveness of a student-supported model on the integration of
technology in the classroom, it
may also be interesting to examine how this model impacts
students’ academic performance,
which can be examined using questionnaires.
134
Summary

256. This descriptive case study was conducted for the purpose of
examining teachers’
acceptance and integration of technology in the classroom in the
context of a student-supported
professional development model, particularly at the elementary
school level. The expectation
based on the theoretical framework was that a student-supported
professional development
model would improve the teachers’ ease of use and increase the
acceptance and actual use of
technology in the classroom. Based on the literature relating to
the subject matter, the
expectation was that a professional development model,
particularly one relating to student-
support, would advance the acceptance and integration of
technology in the classroom.
The finding of the study indicated that teachers were more
likely to utilize technology in
the classroom for the purposes of instruction after the
integration of a student-supported
technology professional development program. Furthermore,
lining up with the theoretical
framework, it seemed that this outcome was due to improved
recognition among teachers

257. regarding the perceived ease of use of technology. This chapter
included a discussion of findings
and implications, as well as suggestions for future research.
The findings of this study, combined with that of the literature,
highlight the benefits and
importance of student-support during professional development
on the acceptance and ability of
teachers to integrate technology in the classroom. The review
of literature discussed success
with the implication of students as mentors and professional
development instructors, but
research did not focus on elementary students taking on these
roles. The significant difference
from previous research and this study is the use of elementary
student-support during technology
professional development.
135
Participants documented that technology integration into
classroom instruction was
important; however, the majority of them noted limited use
prior to student-supported

258. technology professional development. After student-support,
all participants discussed their
increase in not only technology integration in the classroom, but
also acceptance of it.
Additionally, data revealed that all participants have continued
to use technology in the
classroom. The findings from this study have the potential to
provide an additional technology
professional development model.
136
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307. APPENDIX A
TEACHER INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AND SCRIPT
Hello, my name is Jenny Michelle Owens Whitt. I am an Ed.D
candidate at Liberty
University. I am inviting you to participate in a descriptive
case study focusing on teacher
technology acceptance and classroom integration in context to a
student-supported professional
development model. Throughout this descriptive case study,
you will be identified by a
pseudonym that I generate in order for your responses to be
confidential. I will be recording this
interview, which you have already provided consent. I am
required to keep a transcript of the
recording for a minimum of three years. This interview will be
transcribed and you will be
provided with a copy to review for accuracy. At that time, you
can clarify responses and make
changes. Once your edited copy is returned to me, I will delete
all previous copies. In addition,
I will keep the final copy in a password-protected computer
used for research and a password-
protected thumb drive, which will be secured in a locked file

308. cabinet that only I have the key to.
Before we begin the interview, I would like to inform you that
this is voluntary; therefore, you
can stop participation at any time. You have the right to decide
not to answer any questions. If
you decide to stop participation, your data will be destroyed and
will not be used in this study. I
recommend that you answer the questions in a truthful manner
and to the best of your ability. If
at any time I feel that you are experiencing discomfort, I will
stop the interview.
Audio Recoding: Destruction
You have the right to withdraw participation from this study at
any time. In order to
withdraw, you need to notify me that you no longer wish to be
part of the study and that you
would like all data associated with you destroyed, to include
your audio recording, and not used
in this study. When this is received, I will destroy all data
collected from you. There are already
164

309. specific questions established; however, additional questions
might emerge throughout the
interview.
Definitions:
In this descriptive case study, technology will be defined as
using the Internet on an
iPad™ or laptop in a classroom environment as an instructional
and learning tool. Student-
supported professional development will be defined as teachers
receiving and participating in
nine sessions of technology professional development with the
students in their classroom.
1. Please describe your teaching experience, beginning with the
number of years you
have taught.
2. Please describe your educational background, technology
training and implementation
prior to participation in student-supported professional
development.
3. What impact has student-supported professional development
had on your ability to
use technology in your classroom?
4. Please describe your comfort level using technology in

310. classroom instruction and if
this changed after participating in student-supported
professional development.
5. How often do you use technology during classroom
instruction to do a task when there
is a feature to help you perform it?
6. To what extent has student-supported professional
development impacted your future
use of technology classroom instruction?
7. To what extent has student-supported professional
development impacted time
management while using technology in your classroom
instruction?
8. To what extent has participating in student-supported
professional development
165
provided you with a great deal of experience using technology
during classroom
instruction?
I appreciate you taking the time to complete this interview.
Your responses will be used

311. throughout this case study. Do you have any questions that you
would like to ask me?
166
APPENDIX B:
ADMINISTRATOR INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AND SCRIPT
Hello, my name is Jenny Michelle Owens Whitt. I am an Ed.D
candidate at Liberty
University. I am inviting you to participate in a descriptive
case study focusing on teacher
technology acceptance and classroom integration in context to a
student-supported professional
development model. Throughout this descriptive case study,
you will be identified by a
pseudonym that I generate in order for your responses to be
confidential. I will be recording this
interview, which you have already provided consent. I am
required to keep a transcript of the
recording for a minimum of three years. This interview will be
transcribed and you will be

312. provided with a copy to review for accuracy. At that time, you
can clarify responses and make
changes. Once your edited copy is returned to me, I will delete
all previous copies. In addition,
I will keep the final copy in a password-protected computer
used for research and a password-
protected thumb drive, which will be secured in a locked file
cabinet that only I have the key to.
Before we begin the interview, I would like to inform you that
this is voluntary; therefore, you
can stop participation at any time. You have the right to decide
not to answer any questions. If
you decide to stop participation, your data will be destroyed and
will not be used in this study. I
recommend that you answer the questions in a truthful manner
and to the best of your ability. If
at any time I feel that you are experiencing discomfort, I will
stop the interview.
Audio Recoding: Destruction
You have the right to withdraw participation from this study at
any time. In order to
withdraw, you need to notify me that you no longer wish to be
part of the study and that you
would like all data associated with you destroyed, to include

313. your audio recording, and not used
in this study. When this is received, I will destroy all data
collected from you. There are already
167
specific questions established; however, additional questions
might emerge throughout the
interview.
Definitions:
In this descriptive case study, technology will be defined as
using the Internet on an
iPad™ or laptop in a classroom environment as an instructional
and learning tool. Student-
supported professional development will be defined as teachers
receiving and participating in
nine sessions of technology professional development with the
students in their classroom.
Definitions
In this descriptive case study, technology will be defined as
using the Internet on an
iPad™ or laptop in a classroom environment as an instructional
and learning tool. Student-

314. supported professional development will be defined as students
receiving and participating in
nine sessions of technology professional development with their
classroom teacher.
1. Please describe your professional and educational
background.
2. Please describe technology usage throughout the elementary
school prior to student-
supported technology professional development that started in
the 2013-14 academic
school year.
3. Please describe your perceptions of teacher comfort level
using technology in classroom
instruction and if this changed after participating in student-
supported professional
development that began in the 2013-14 academic school year.
4. Please describe your perceptions of student comfort level
using technology in classroom
instruction and if this changed after participating in student-
supported professional
development that began in the 2013-14 academic school year.

315. 168
5. Please describe how often and at what level you observe
technology usage during
classroom instruction in a classroom where student-supported
technology professional
development occurred?
6. Please describe how often and at what level you observe
technology usage during
classroom instruction in a classroom where student-supported
technology professional
development was not conducted?
7. To what extent has student-supported professional
development impacted teacher
technology acceptance and integration into classroom
instruction?
I appreciate you taking the time to complete this interview.
Your responses will be used
throughout this case study. Do you have any questions that you
would like to ask me?

316. 169
APPENDIX C:
TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL SURVEY
NOTE: This survey was modified to target classroom instruction
with permission from Davis’
(1989) based off of his survey used to evaluate user perceptions
towards technology systems.
5 = Strongly Agree
4 = Somewhat Agree
3 = Neither Agree or Disagree
2 = Somewhat Disagree
1 = Strongly Disagree
1. Using the Internet in my classroom can enable me to
accomplish tasks more
quickly____________
2. Using the Internet in my classroom can improve my
performance____________
3. Using the Internet in my classroom can make it easier to do
my tasks___________
4. Using the Internet in my classroom can increase my
productivity_________
5. Using the Internet in my classroom can enhance my
effectiveness while teaching

317. __________
6. I find the Internet useful in my teaching _______________
7. Learning to use the Internet in my classroom instruction is
easy for me_______________
8. I find it easy to find what I need or want to integrate into
classroom instruction from the
Internet______________
9. My interaction with the Internet during classroom instruction
is clear and
understandable_____________
10. I find the Internet to be flexible to interactive with when
integrating it into classroom
instruction______________
11. It is easy for me to become skillful at using the Internet for
classroom instruction
_________________
170
12. I have fun interacting with the Internet in my classroom
instruction _________________
13. Using the Internet provides me with a lot of enjoyment

318. during my classroom instruction
___________
14. I enjoy using the Internet in my classroom
instruction___________
15. Using the Internet in my classroom instruction bores
me____________
16. I always try to use the Internet during classroom instruction
to do a task whenever it has a
feature to help me perform it_______
17. I always try to use the Internet in as many cases or
occasions as possible during
classroom instruction__________
18. I expect my use of the Internet in my classroom instruction
to continue in the
future___________
19. Using the Internet in my classroom instruction can take up
too much of my time when
performing many tasks___________
20. When I use the Internet in my classroom instruction, I find
it difficult to integrate the
results into my existing work__________
21. Using the Internet for classroom instruction and data

319. collection exposes me to the
vulnerability of computer breakdowns and loss of data_____
22. I have a great deal of experience using the Internet during
classroom instruction
____________
23. Number of years using the Internet___________ /Number of
years using the Internet in
classroom instruction ____________
171
APPENDIX D: IRB APPROVAL
8/17/2016
Jenny Michelle Owens Whitt IRB Approval 2594.081716: A
Descriptive Case Study: Elementary Teachers’ Technology
Acceptance
and Classroom Integration
Dear Jenny Michelle Owens Whitt,
We are pleased to inform you that your study has been approved
by the
Liberty IRB. This approval is extended to you for one year from

320. the date
provided above with your protocol number. If data collection
proceeds
past one year, or if you make changes in the methodology as it
pertains
to human subjects, you must submit an appropriate update form
to the
IRB. The forms for these cases were attached to your approval
email.
Thank you for your cooperation with the IRB, and we wish you
well
with your research project. Sincerely,
G. Michele Baker, MA, CIP
Administrative Chair of Institutional Research
The Graduate School
Liberty University | Training Champions for Christ since 1971
172
APPENDIX E: Invitation to Participate:
RECRUITMENT NOTICE:

321. TO PARTICIPATE IN A DOCTORIAL RESEARCH PROJECT
Date:
[Recipient]
Dear [Recipient]:
As a graduate student in the Department of Education at Liberty
University, I am conducting
research as part of the requirements for a Doctor of Education
degree. The purpose of my
research is to inviting you to examine technology acceptance
and classroom integration in
context to a student-supported professional development model.
I am writing to invite you to
participate in my study.
If you are a teacher whom participated in student-supported
technology professional
development provided by me during the 2013-14 and/or 2014-15
school year and will willing to
participate, you will
• Complete an on-line survey conducted through Survey
Monkey®, which should take
approximately five minutes

322. • Participate in an approximately 20 minute Face-to-Face Open-
Ended Interview
If you are an administrator whom observed student-supported
technology professional
development provided by me in the 2013-14 and/or 2014-15
school year, and will willing to
participate, you will
• Participate in an approximately 20 minute Face-to-Face Open-
Ended Interview
Your participation will be completely anonymous, and no
personal, identifying information will
be required.
To participate, complete the Informed Consent and return it to
me via e-mail. You will then
receive the Participation Survey and a place where you can
suggest a time and date we can meet
to conduct the Face-to-Face Open-Ended Interview.
173
The attached consent document contains additional information
about my research. Please sign

323. the consent document and return it to me.
Sincerely,
Jenny Michelle Owens Whitt
Liberty University Doctoral Candidate
174
APPENDIX F: INFORMED CONSENT
The Liberty University Institutional
Review Board has approved
this document for use from
8/17/2016 to 8/16/2017
Protocol # 2594.081716
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
A DESCRIPTIVE CASE STUDY: ELEMENTARY TEACHERS’
TECHNOLOGY
ACCEPTANCE AND
CLASSROOM INTEGRATION
Jenny Michelle Owens Whitt

324. Liberty University
School of Education
You are invited to participate in a research study of teacher
technology acceptance and classroom
integration in the context of a student-supported professional
development model that occurred
during the 2013-14 and 2014-15 school year. Both teacher and
administrator cases will be
selected in this descriptive case study. Teacher cases were
selected because of participation in
student-supported professional development during the 2013-14
and/or 2014- 15 academic
school years. Administrator cases were selected based on
observations of student- supported
technology professional development in the 2013-14 and/or
2014-15 academic school years.
Please read this form and present any questions you may have
before agreeing to be in the study.
Jenny Michelle Owens Whitt, a student/doctoral candidate in
the School of Education at Liberty
University, is conducting this study.
Background Information:
The purpose of this study is to examine teacher technology
acceptance and classroom integration
in the context of a student-supported professional development
model.
Procedures:
If you agree to be in this study, you will be asked to do the

325. following based off of student-
supported professional development that you previously
received:
1. Answer technology usage and demographic questions to
include educational background and
experiences during a voice recorded interview lasting
approximately 20 minutes, and
2. Answer a 23-question, 5-minute survey focusing on
technology usage (teacher cases only).
3. I will retrieve teacher observations conducted during the
2013-14 and 2014-15 school year
that focused on technology integration. All observations were
conducted by me as part of
program evaluation and district technology integration into
classroom instruction (teacher cases
only).
175
The Liberty University Institutional
Review Board has approved
this document for use from
8/17/2016 to 8/16/2017
Protocol # 2594.081716
Risks and Benefits of Participation:
• The risks are minimal and no more than one would encounter
in everyday life.

326. The benefits to participation are:
• Cases in the study will receive no direct benefit. The
professional development occurred
in the past.
The benefits to society are:
• The possible benefits to society is the contribution to the
current and future research of
an effective technology professional development model
resulting in teacher technology
acceptance and integration in classroom instruction. If this
technology professional development
model is effective then the benefits would be to school districts,
teachers, parents, and students.
Compensation:
You will receive no compensation for taking part in this study.
Confidentiality:
Any information collected in this study is considered
confidential and will be disclosed only with
permission from the case or as required by law. The
information collected from you will be
coded using a pseudonym. The information that has your
identifying features, such as your
name, will be kept separately in a password-protected thumb
drive to which only the researcher
has access. One document identifying cases and their
pseudonyms will be stored in a separate
password protected thumb drive to which only the researcher

327. has the password. Interview audio
recording will be conducted using pseudonyms, and records will
be secured. Once transcribed,
audio recordings will be deleted. All data will be stored for
three years then it will be destroyed.
After the results are published or discussed, no identifying
information will be included. You
will be referred to by the pseudonym provided by the
researcher.
The records of this study will be kept private. In any reports
published, information making it
possible to identify a subject will not be included. Research
records will be stored securely, and
only the researcher will have access to the records.
Voluntary Nature of the Study:
Participation in this study is voluntary. Your decision whether
or not to be a case will not affect
176
The Liberty University Institutional
Review Board has approved
this document for use from
8/17/2016 to 8/16/2017
Protocol # 2594.081716
your current or future relations with Liberty University or your
current school district. If you
decide to be a case, you are free to not answer any question or

328. withdraw at any time without
affecting those relationships.
How to Withdraw from the Study:
If you choose to withdraw from the study, please contact the
researcher at the email
address/phone number included in the next paragraph. Should
you choose to withdraw, data
collected from you will be destroyed immediately and will not
be included in this study.
Contacts and Questions:
The researcher conducting this study is Jenny Michelle Owens
Whitt. You may ask any
questions you have now. If you have questions later, you are
encouraged to contact her at
[email protected] or 816-592-9871. You may also contact the
research’s faculty advisor, Dr.
Jennifer Courduff, at jlcourduf[email protected]
If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study and
would like to talk to someone
other than the researcher, you are encouraged to contact the
Institutional Review Board, 1971
University Blvd, Green Hall Suite 1887, Lynchburg, VA 24515
or email at [email protected]
Please notify the researcher if you would like a copy of this
information to keep for your records.
Statement of Consent:
I have read and understood the above information. I have asked
and received answers to my

329. questions. I consent to participate in the study.
__ The researcher has my permission to audio-record me as part
of my participation in this study.
Signature:
_____________________________________________ Date:
______________
Signature of Investigator: _______________________________
Date: _______________
177
APPENDIX G:
TECHNOLOGY PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT WEEKLY
SESSION CONTENT
Week
Content
Week 1 • iPad™ Introduction
• iPad™ Quick Fixes
• Weekly Assignment: Familiarize self with the iPad™
Week 2

330. • Review Quick Fixes
• iPad™ App Introduction
• Curriculum and App Connection
• Weekly Assignment: Use at least one App in classroom
instruction to
support curriculum
Week 3
• iPad™ App Review
• Google Classroom™ and Curriculum Connection
• Google Classroom™ Introduction
• Google Classroom™ Log-in
• Weekly Assignment: Teacher will create a Google
Classroom™, allow
students access, and post at least one assignment that supports
curriculum.
Have students complete the assignment and post in Google
Classroom™.
Week 4
• Google Classroom™ Review
• Connecting Curriculum and Google Classroom™
• Google Classroom™ Assignment and Upload Activity
• Weekly Assignment: Teacher will post at least one assignment
that
supports curriculum in Google Classroom™. Have students
complete the

331. assignment and then post in Google Classroom™.
Week 5 • iPad™ Quick Fixes Review
• Curriculum and Educreations™ Connection
• Introduce and provide instruction on the use of the App
Educreations™ to
include drawing, uploading a picture, recording voice, and
saving finished
project.
• Weekly Assignment: Teacher and students work together to
upload a
picture, type a sentence, record voice, and save. In addition,
the teacher
will provide the researcher with ideas as to how projects using
Educreations™ can be used to support curriculum and in
classroom
instruction.
178
Week 6
• Curriculum and Connections to Educreations™ discussion
• Review Educreations™ focusing specifically on how to use.
• All participants and students create a project with at least
three pages
using the App Educreations™.
• Introduce options for uploading finished projects using

332. Educreations™
into Google Classroom™.
• Weekly Assignment: The teacher participant will create a
lesson where
students create a project using Educreations™. The participant
will create
an assignment in Google Classroom™ that includes the student
uploading
their Educreations™ project into Google Classroom™.
Week 7
• Curriculum and Questioning Using Technology: emphasizing
options for
generating questions and discussions using technology.
• Introduce Announcements as Discussion Board in Google
Classroom™
• Establish classroom rules and expectations while in an on-line
discussion
board forum
• Weekly Assignment: After completing a lesson, the teacher
participant
will generate and participate in a discussion board with
students.
Week 8
• Curriculum and Google™ Presentation Introduction
• Curriculum and Google™ Presentation Connection

333. • Google™ Presentation Instruction: How to use it?
• Weekly Assignment: Teacher participant will create an
assignment in
Google Classroom™ where the student is required to create and
then
upload the Google™ Presentation into Google Classroom™.
Week 9
Discussion: Review Curriculum and Technology: How can
technology be
implemented in the classroom to enhance learning and
curriculum? Discuss ideas
for future technology use in classroom instruction.
179
APPENDIX H
TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL SURVEY
PERMISSION FOR USE
Copy of E-mail from Dr. Fred Davis (May 27, 2016)
Jenny,
You have my permission to modify and use the survey I
developed for your research. The only
suggestion that occurs to me is that researchers usually average

334. the numerically coded values for
the answers to perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use
questions, respectively, to
compute overall scores or ratings for these constructs.
Best wishes,
Fred Davis
Copy of E-mail from Jenny Michelle Owens Whitt to Dr. Fred
Davis (May 27, 2016)
Dr. Davis:
I am seeking permission to use a modified version modified
version of the survey developed by
you for assessing user perceptions of technology systems in my
dissertation. I was wondering if
you could provide me with guidance on this journey? I know
that you are a very busy man;
therefore, I would be appreciating any guidance that you might
offer. I have provided the
purpose for my study and a copy of my survey below.
Thank you for taking the time to read my e-mail.
Jenny Whitt
Purpose Statement: The purpose of this descriptive case study is
to examine teachers’ technology
acceptance and classroom integration in the context of a
student-supported professional
development model at an elementary school located in
northwestern Missouri.
Survey Questions:

335. TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL SURVEY
(Modified to target classroom instruction)
5 = Strongly Agree
4 = Somewhat Agree
3 = Neither Agree or Disagree
2 = Somewhat Disagree
1 = Strongly Disagree
1. Using the Internet in my classroom can enable me to
accomplish tasks more
quickly____________
180
2. Using the Internet in my classroom can improve my
performance____________
3. Using the Internet in my classroom can make it easier to
do my tasks___________
4. Using the Internet in my classroom can increase my
productivity_________
5. Using the Internet in my classroom can enhance my
effectiveness while teaching __________
6. I find the Internet useful in my teaching _______________
7. Learning to use the Internet in my classroom instruction is
easy for me_______________
8. I find it easy to find what I need or want to integrate into
classroom instruction from the
Internet______________
9. My interaction with the Internet during classroom
instruction is clear and

336. understandable_____________
10. I find the Internet to be flexible to interactive with when
integrating it into classroom
instruction______________
11. It is easy for me to become skillful at using the Internet for
classroom instruction
_________________
12. I have fun interacting with the Internet in my classroom
instruction _________________
13. Using the Internet provides me with a lot of enjoyment
during my classroom instruction
___________
14. I enjoy using the Internet in my classroom
instruction___________
15. Using the Internet in my classroom instruction bores
me____________
16. I always try to use the Internet during classroom instruction
to do a task whenever it has a feature
to help me perform it_______
17. I always try to use the Internet in as many cases or
occasions as possible during classroom
instruction__________
18. I expect my use of the Internet in my classroom instruction
to continue in the
future___________
19. Using the Internet in my classroom instruction can take up
too much of my time when
performing many tasks___________
20. When I use the Internet in my classroom instruction, I find

337. it difficult to integrate the results into
my existing work__________
21. Using the Internet for classroom instruction and data
collection exposes me to the vulnerability
of computer breakdowns and loss of data_____
22. I have a great deal of experience using the Internet during
classroom instruction ____________
23. Number of years using the Internet___________ /Number
of years using the internet in
classroom instruction ____________
181
APPENDIX I:
SAMPLE OBSERVATION NOTES
Objective: Technology Inclusion in Classroom Instruction
Setting: (Classroom/Teacher/Subject)
Observer: Researcher
Role of Observer: Participant Observations
Time/Date:
Length of Observation:
Technology Inclusion Observation Description:
Example 02/11/2015: Students were working on making a
weather book. As part of the weather

338. book, students were creating an animated video describing the
process of either rain, freezing
rain, or how snow can change into rain (vice versa) before it
hits the ground. The animated video
was created using PowToon. Once the videos were published,
the link was copied and placed in
the students’ weather book.
Teacher: “grab your computers. You need to log-n get your
PowToons and work on it. Your job
today is to log back end, look it over, and then finish it. By the
end of lass we will publish
PowToon, log into your weather book, and place the link in
your weather book.”
Reflective Notes:
Example 10/2013: This was a scheduled technology
implementation observation. Teacher
commented that she could show a video, show a picture, and use
the elmo and that was the extent
of her technology usage. The teacher is not comfortable with
technology. Each time the screen
went blank, time out period, the teacher made a reference about
technology. “Technology is so
confusing.” “I am sorry, I just don’t know why it keeps doing
that.” “How can I fix this.” “I
should have just copied this.” “I have other things to do. This is
why I do not use technology.”
Example 10/2014: The teacher was able to guide students
through fixing minor issues such as
turning the volume down and up and home key fixes, but the
teacher was unwilling to explore
with anything that was not in her comfort level. The item the
teacher would not handle was
turning the volume on. This skill was covered multiple times

339. during the previous PD where the
iPad was introduced. The teacher did not check to make sure
that students were where they were
suppose to be while working with the iPads. There was no direct
content link to the iPad activity.
The researcher was under the impression that the iPad was used
to keep students focused and
occupied while the teacher worked in small groups.
Example 02/2014: The teacher did ask the researcher one
question for clarity. The teacher asked
a specific question about the voice recording on educreations.
The teacher asked if clearing the
recording on one page would clear all of the recording? The
teacher easily asked, answered and
redirected questions about the technology side of the
assignment. Student demonstrated
independence. They were able to complete the tasks observed by
the researcher with limited
support from the teacher.
(Modeled after Creswell, 2008, p. 224)
182
APPENDIX J:
SAMPLE REFLECTIVE JOURNAL
August 16, 2016 (Note to Self): To ensure my bias does not
interfere with data analysis, I will
use data that is a direct reflection of each participants’ views
and not my own experiences

340. (Creswell, 2013). In order to do this, I will employ specific
safeguards, such as member
checking and acknowledging my personal experiences so that I
ensured that the study remains
focused on the participants’ (Creswell, 2013).
September 4, 2016: Reviewed data analysis procedures. Need
to reread all data to familiarize
myself with what the participant is saying, what they did, and
what occurred during observations.
Address personal bias.
October 3, 2016 (Note to Self): Member checks occurred, which
consisting of the review of
interview manuscripts and findings. I also asked specific
prepared questions and did not interject
any of my opinions. Peer reviews and reflective notes were
used as tools to reduce potential
influences of my bias on any data collected and analyzed.
November 1, 2016: Finish second round of coding. Look for:
Sort data and categorize.
Remember that NVivo software does not code. It notes
frequency. I need to label and code.

341. Code each participant as an individual and then as a whole for
reoccurring themes.
February 2017: Four Themes
183
APPENDIX K:
PRIMARY THEMES AND SUBTHEMES
Primary Themes Subthemes Related to Primary Themes
Skill and Knowledge Development • Skill Developed to
Maximize Usage
• Student Skill and Knowledge (Pre)
• Student Skill and Knowledge (Post)
• Teacher skill and Knowledge (Pre)
• Teacher Skill and Knowledge Post
• Student Need to Acquire Skills
• Student and Teacher Confidence Improved
• Teacher Fear of not Enough Skills
• Teacher and Student Skills Need to Increase
• Skills Change Classroom Instruction
• Technology Skills
Lack of Use Prior to Intervention/Professional
Development
• Experience

342. • Prior to Student-Supported Technology
• Primarily Played Games
• Computer Lab for Fun Only
• Limited Technology Acceptance
• Limited Technology Usage (Classroom)
• Primarily Overhead Projector
• Unused Technology Throughout School
• Basic Technology Skills
• Personal Usage, but Limited Classroom
• Prior Technology Professional Development
Not Integrated into the Classroom
Successful Experience with Technology • Experience
• Resulted from Student-Supported Professional
Development
• Perceived Usefulness
• Perceived Ease of Use
• Intent to Use
• Actual Use
• Teachers Impressed with Students
• Daily Usage Increased
• Enhanced rigor and Creativity
• Impact on Student Learning and Instruction
• Improved Accountability
• Increased Productivity
• Cross-Curriculum Impacts
• Various Levels of Technology Integration
• All Students are Learning
• Students on Task
• Troubleshooting with Students
• Student Independence
• More Options to Display/Complete Work
• Increased Problem-Solving, Communication,

343. and Classroom Management
184
• Accessible and Advantages
• Student and Teacher Expanded Technology
Skills
• Content Easier: Ex. Research
• Improved Teaching
• Effects of Technology
Evidence of Acceptance and Integration • Prior to Student-
Supported Technology
• Creating Animated Videos
• Technology Usage in the Classroom
• Carts no Longer Sitting Unused
• Technology Used to Instruct Students
• Teachers are willing to Use Technology
• Increase in Student and Teacher Acceptance
• Prior: Technology Integration was Minimal
• Post: Problem-Solving Skills and Upper-Level
Critical Thinking Demonstrated
• Changes in Teacher Attitudes (Proud)
• Acceptance of Technology Due to Being
Progressive
• Virtual Books: Creating Pictures and Text and
Reading the Text

344. • Understanding of the Role Technology Plays
in Student Learning
• Engaging
• Enhanced Student Learning
• Teachers went from Fear to Give Me More
• Continued Usage Past Student-Supported
Professional Development
• Confidence Boost
• Technology: Overhead Projector, iPads,
laptops, Internet, specific apps, and Programs
• Model: Teacher Lead to Student Lead
• Collaboration During Technology Integration
• Educreations
• Observations of Technology Integration
• Projects Demonstration Higher-Level
Thinking
• Apple TV
• Weather Books (Science)
• Acceptance and Integration
Running head: REVIEWS OF DISSERTATIONS 1
DISSERTATION REVIEWS 2

345. Dissertation Reviews
Amber Garcia
Liberty University Online
EDUC 798: Advanced Research and Writing
Dr. Pritchard
April 10, 2018
Summary
The dissertation titled The Impact of Selected Initiatives
on the Reading Criterion Referenced Competency Test Scores of
African-American and Disadvantaged Students in Grades 3, 5,
and 8 examined various types of reading instruction used with
disadvantaged children in grades 3,5,and 8. Fuller’s (2013)
research investigated the effects that reading reform programs
had on student achievement. The reform programs investigated
were the Success for All (SFA), Core Knowledge program, and
Direct Instruction and the impact they had on student
achievement scores on the Criterion Referenced Competency
Test (CRCT).
Fuller (2013) provided background on the United States
government passing the No Child Left Behind Act. This law was
passed to reduce the achievement gap that has existed in

346. America since schools first began. The goal of this law was to
reduce the racial achievement gap, as well as the student
achievement gap that exists due to socioeconomic
circumstances. However, through various studies mentioned in
this dissertation, the effect that was desired by lawmakers does
not seem to be occurring. Many national resources are reporting
that there has not been any reduction in the achievement gap.
The continuing student achievement gap is a problem that has
not been resolved.
Fuller (2013) created a research study that had two parts to
it. The primary purpose was to utilize various research based
reading strategies on disadvantaged students in grades 3,5, and
8 to see if they had an impact on the students’ academic
proficiency. The students’ academic proficiency was determined
based on the scores that they received when they took the
CRCT. Fuller (2013) then analyzed the effects that each reform
strategy had on student achievement versus schools where
reform programs did not exist and compared reading proficiency
levels. The second purpose for this research was to review the
instructional impact that each of the reading reform programs
had on student achievement. The goal was to see which research
based reform program produced the greatest amount of students
from disadvantaged homes that scored in the meets and exceeds
expectations category of the CRCT.
Fuller (2013) embarked on this research for several
reasons. At the time this research was conducted, the NCLB Act
was up for recertification from law makers. The law was being
reviewed for possible changes or revisions. According to Fuller,
“Issues such as the use of national standardized assessments,
reductions in both scope and funding formulas may have a
profound impact on the future of the program” (Fuller, 2013).
Due to these factors, the results of this study provided school
districts across the United States with data linked to reform
programs that increase student achievement in students that
come from disadvantaged homes, as well as students that belong
to subgroups. The data provided showed the impact that each

347. reform program had on student achievement.
This study was conducted in a large, unspecified, urban
school district. There were 55 elementary schools and 16 middle
schools that participated in the study. The school district was
chosen because over 70% of students are on free or reduced
lunch. The socioeconomic status of students was verified using
the Census Bureau information. Another reason this school
district was chosen is because it was already participating in
various reform based programs to increase student achievement.
The dependent variable was reading performance. The
independent variables were the three reform programs being
evaluated: Success for All, Direct Instruction, and Core
Knowledge. Fuller (2013) predicted that there would be no
difference in student performance where all any of the three
reform programs were implemented in each of the grades
examined. He also predicted that there would be no difference
in student performance between disadvantaged students and the
comparison group where reform programs were not
implemented.
Analysis
Fuller’s (2013) investigative design is clearly laid out. The
criteria for the selected school district coincided with the
literature review and reason for the study. The school district
appeared to have a high population of students that came from
homes with low socioeconomic status. The explanation on how
students were selected to participate in the study correlated with
the reason for the study. The three reform programs selected for
this study were thoroughly explained in the literature review. In
order for a school to be selected, they had to already be
participating in one of the reform programs for at least four
years. The control group in this study used a variety of
instructional methods but none of them were used holistically
throughout the school. The control group also had the same
socioeconomic and student ethnicity status.
The CRCT was a valid tool to measure student achievement
because it is a criterion referenced test. Students take this

348. assessment at the beginning of the year, as well as at the end of
the year. This assessment provided the researcher with
quantitative data for students from grade 1 through grade 8 in
Georgia. The goal of this assessment is to determine student’s
proficiency levels and has three categories: does not meet
expectations, meets expectations, exceeds expectations. This is
a good tool to measure student achievement because it is
designed to find out how much students know prior to
instruction and then re-assess after instruction. This allowed the
researcher to get an accurate picture of how well the reform
program impacted student achievement.
Fuller’s (2013) research was strong in the number of
participants included in the study. The sample size was large
and the student population was similar in the schools. Utilizing
a large sample helped the researcher create an accurate picture
of how each reform program affected student achievement
versus schools that did not use whole school reform programs.
The data collected and the research conducted for each reform
program was also done in a timely manner.
Limitations of the Research
The background and reason for this study was very clear:
the achievement gap related to socioeconomic status and
subgroups across the United States. The study was very clear in
proving literature and prior research that supports that an
achievement gap exists. The reform programs used in this study
were also supported in the literature review. However, there
wasn’t any data about which of the reform programs had already
been proven to impact student achievement or any discussion on
how the reform models were being implemented. Without
supervision of the models to ensure they are being accurately
implemented in the classroom, the researcher has no assurance
instruction is taking place correctly. This would impact the
data. If I were doing the research, I would want to observe or
provide questionnaires/interviews to teachers about the reform
program to verify that they were being implemented correctly.
This would help validate the results.

349. While the study had a large group of participants, it did
not have a variety of schools that were working on the same
whole school reform program. This would have added to the
data in the study when comparing schools. It would have
created a more accurate picture on if the reading reform
program was being implemented correctly between schools
based off student scores. Also, the eighth grade population in
the study was too small to receive accurate data and make a
conclusion. I would select a number of schools that were using
each reform model and also make sure that I had a large enough
population to accurately reflect the eighth grade data.
Moreover, the determination of socioeconomic status
would need to be more clearly defined to gain an accurate
picture. Socioeconomic status is not just affected by family
income, but also race, family make-up, culture, and parental
involvement. Providing a survey to the families would provide a
more accurate picture on the participants in this study.
Personal Analysis
The student achievement gap based off of socioeconomic
status is real and exists across the United States. Fuller (2013)
looked at the effectiveness of reading reform programs to
increase student achievement to a specific set of students. This
research showed that schools using the Direct Instruction or
Core Knowledge reform programs had higher results. This
indicates that the Success for All program results in lower
reading proficiency. I would like to have three groups of
students with the same socioeconomic background and then
implement one of the programs with each group to see which
reform program has the greatest success.
Based off of this study, it would appear that Direct Instruction
and Core Knowledge have great success with increasing student
reading proficiency. After reading through the data, I wondered
if there was a way to incorporate the two programs together in
the classroom. This may increase student achievement rates to
higher rates than in the study. I also wonder if these same
programs would have the same effect on student achievement if

350. used with students that come from more affluent backgrounds.
The research that Fuller (2013) presents is applicable in
understanding that further study needs to be completed on
closing the achievement gap between students that come from
home with different socioeconomic status. As shown in the
research, reform programs may have an impact, but it is not
large enough to close the gap completely. Further study needs to
be conducted on whole-school reform programs, but not just in
reading. Studies show that disadvantaged students are not just
behind in reading, but in all of the other subjects as well. It may
not be a one size fits all solution. Schools need to examine
various research based reform programs and determine if they
fit the student population.
This study is relevant to the field of education because school
districts have been leaving behind students and underserving
them for years. The No Child Left Behind Act now requires
school districts to close the achievement gap ad provide an
equal education or all students regardless of race and
socioeconomic status. The research that Fuller (2013) conducted
provides insight into three reading programs that can be used in
schools to help close the student achievement gap and increase
reading proficiency. Overall, school principals need to examine
reform programs and then decide on how to implement them to
better serve the students in their schools. However, I think one
key thing to note is that a reform program cannot be
implemented without proper training for teachers. This would
need to occur before deciding how well each reform program
actually works.
Personally, the research has shown me the importance of using a
large sampling group when conducting research. I also learned
to make sure I clearly define my control group to receive
accurate results. This research project also showed me the
importance of selecting a topic that is important to the
education community. Closing the achievement gap has been on
the forefront of the education field since the inception of No
Child Left Behind. Any research that helps to do this, serves

351. educators, students, and the community as a whole.
Summary
The dissertation titled Peer Mentoring: Effects on Ninth
Grade Student Achievement was written by Michael Hardegree
in 2012. This study was a quantitative study that examined the
effects that peer mentoring on ninth grade students taking
Algebra I had on student achievement. Specifically, the study
looked at student interim grades, student passing rates,
assessment scores, and grade averages on first time ninth
graders. The goal of the study was to assess if peer mentoring
affected student achievement levels in Algebra I. Hardegree
(2012) hypothesized that peer tutoring that first time ninth
graders would score higher on interim testing than first time
ninth graders that did not have peer mentoring. He further
suggested that this hypothesis would affect school leadership
and peer leadership programs.
Hardegree (2012) provides background information
surrounding the problem with ninth grade students. Prior
research and data supports the fact that ninth graders tend to
drop out more and be retained due to failing in school. The
ninth grade year is a transition year and as such can cause many
issues for students. Specifically, the fact that failing ninth grade
students are less likely to graduate than their peers that are
successful in ninth grade. The literature presented by
Hardegeree (2012) supports the fact that nearly half of ninth
grade students fail Algebra 1.
The study conducted was qualitative in nature. The study
took place in the Atlanta area. The participants were selected
based on it being their first time in ninth grade. Repeat ninth
graders were not able to participate in this study. Forty students
were selected for each group. Students were separated into two
groups. The first group was assigned a peer mentor and the
second group did not have a peer mentor. Each group contained
who were at risk of failing Algebra I. All students selected had
scored between 50% and 69% in the first six weeks of their

352. math course in high school.
Peer mentoring was set up on a weekly basis. Students
were assigned a peer mentor randomly and met with them once a
week for a twelve week period. The session were thirty-eight
minutes and took place during the school’s common remediation
block to ensure students were not missing classes. Peer mentors
had been trained prior to starting with their partners. The
control group did not receive a peer mentor or access to the
mentor classroom. They did however participate in the school-
wide remediation program. Student’s math grade at the end of
the first six weeks of class was used to determine their baseline
results.
The independent variable identified in this study was the
peer mentor group. The dependent variable in this study was
student performance on standardized Algebra I scores, end of
course grades, as well as the passing rate. A Mann-Whitney U
test was used to determine if there were any discrepancies
between the control group and test groups median scores. This
test was also used to determine if there were any significant
improvements once the post-assessment was taken.
Hardegree (2012) hypothesized that there would be no
difference in student grades and pass rates between the two
groups. He also hypothesized that the peer tutoring would not
impact the ninth grade students. At the conclusion of the study,
there was no evidence that peer tutoring affected students in a
positive way. This data challenges prior data cited in this
dissertation that peer tutoring assisting with student
achievement. Hardegree (2012) refers to several studies that
show peer tutoring to have an effect on student achievement
results. Further research and investigation will need to be
conducted to determine the effects that peer mentoring has on
student success. Hardegree (2012) states, “the results of this
study may not apply to all mentoring programs” (Hardegree,
2012, p.113).
Analysis

353. Hardegree (2012) did an excellent job of laying the
foundation for his research. He connected the reason for this
study to Lev Vygotsky and the socio-cultural theory of learning.
He provided a historical look and data from prior studies about
peer mentoring and its positive effects on student achievement.
This information helped to lay a solid foundation for conducting
this research on ninth grade students because of their at risk
status.
The criteria for selecting students in the test group and the
control group was done well. The selection had criteria that was
consistent between the eighty students used in the study. The
specific amount of time and location of the peer mentoring was
very clear and concise. The description of the room used and
the time allotted for the control group and test group was
described well.
One improvement on the study would be to not randomly
assign peer mentors. Peer mentors should be assigned based on
a specific criteria. This could relate to the peer mentors
personality, academic ability, and ability to explain things. Not
all students will get along with one another or feel comfortable
asking questions to their peers. Providing a survey to the test
group and possible peer mentors would help to match students
appropriately. This may result in higher student achievement.
The study also indicated that only six of the forty peer
mentors were trained to be peer mentors. They were then tasked
with disseminating the information to the other thirty-two
mentors. This can also account for the results not showing
improvement in the test groups. If the peer mentors were not
properly trained, they may not be mentoring their mentee in the
proper way. This would skew the results. I would be curious to
see the results of the six students that were paired with the six
trained mentors and then compare it to the rest of the students
to see if there is a difference.
Another limitation in this study is the time that was set
aside for peer tutoring. Students only received 38 minutes on a
weekly basis at the same time. During this time, the control

354. group was receiving school wide remediation instruction.
Having the peer mentoring sessions at the same time every day
could impact the results because depending on the student’s
schedule, they may be more involved or less involved in the
tutoring process. Some schools begin serving lunch at 10:15am.
Hardegree (2012) states, “students who are nearing the lunch
cycle and those who have just returned from eating have
different attention habits” (Hardegree, 2012, p.106). Varying
the time throughout the day could potentially yield different
results.
One improvement to this study would be to increase the
amount of time students spent with their peer mentors. If
students spend more time with a trained peer mentor, they will
receive more instruction. The amount of meetings could be
based on the needs of the student. In the initial survey that I
recommended, students could also fill in the amount of time
they were looking to have sessions. They could block out days
and times. This could then be cross-matched to a peer mentor
that had a similar schedule and desire for additional meetings.
The research also did not discuss what the protocol was for
a student that missed a peer mentoring session. Was the session
made up at a different time or was it just missed all together?
What happened if the peer mentor was absent? Did someone fill
in for them? Depending on the amount of absences, this could
have a huge impact on the post-interim assessment, as well as
final grade in Algebra I. An improvement to this would be for
students to have to sign into the peer mentoring sessions. The
log could be verified each week with the researcher in order to
ensure that all students made their peer mentoring sessions.
Personal Analysis
Peer tutoring has been proven from prior research to be a
benefit to student achievement. This dissertation cited many
instances where peer tutoring was shown to be effective.
Personally, before I conducted this investigation, I would have
reviewed the way peer tutoring was completed. This might
reveal areas that are required in order for a program to be

355. successful. For example, in my experience with peer tutoring,
students have to go through a training period. In this training
period they learn how to work with other students and often
times the instructor for the course provides a syllabus of course
objectives and sample problems. Equipping the peer tutors with
proper training and the tools to do the job is essential to get
accurate data.
Another area of concern is the fact that peer tutors were
chosen from the same grade being tutored. This may have been
more successful if the peer tutors were sophomores. This way
they would have proven to be successful in Algebra I. A peer
tutoring program is designed to improve student achievement
and understanding the content. It makes more sense to select
peer tutors that have already been through the content and have
proven to be competent. Applying new criteria to the peer
tutoring program would most likely yield different results.
Based off of how the study was run in this dissertation, I
learned to be conscious of what is happening with the test
group.
Moreover, this study showed me how to conduct a
qualitative comparative research design. I learned to make sure
that I have enough participants in the control group and in the
test group in order to have valid data. Utilizing a criterion
referenced test as the final benchmark also helps to assure
quality control. This study included independent variables and
dependent variables. The researcher did a nice job explaining
how he isolated each variable and explaining each variable.
The work that Hardegree (2012) conducted on determining
the successfulness of a peer tutoring program for ninth grade
students is relevant to the education field in many ways. The
background provided in this dissertation stressed the fact that
ninth grade is a transitional year for students. Ninth grade
students are more likely to drop out or fail to graduate if they
do not do well in their studies. This transitional year seems to
be an issue across the United States. This study helped to
highlight the fact that it is important to begin interventions as

356. soon as students get into ninth grade to help acclimate them to
high school. While the data from this investigation did not
support increased student achievement from peer tutoring, there
is other data referenced in this dissertation that does. Providing
students with a peer tutor may help to acclimate them and be
more prepared for high school.
This research is also relevant as the push for schools to
meet the increasing demands of student performance on
standardized tests. The No Child Left Behind Act requires
schools to meet certain testing standards. A peer tutoring
program implemented using different variables to select peer
tutors could possibly help with this demand. The cost of a
program like this would not be excessive as the students would
volunteer. This is another avenue to help students reach their
academic goals if supervised and provided properly.
Overall, the research conducted by Hardegree (2012)
provided data surrounding the importance of providing
additional support to ninth grade students. The data in this
study may not have shown that peer tutoring increased student
achievement, but Hardegree (2012) referenced other studies
where peer tutoring was successful. When schools are planning
are tutoring programs, it is important for them to provide a
program that will benefit the students being tutored and the
students doing the tutoring. Further research should be
conducted on this topic where the tutor group is more controlled
and trained in order to gain a more clear picture on how
successful per tutoring can be.

357. References
Fuller, E. (2013). The Impact of Selected Initiatives on the
Reading Criterion Referenced
Competency Test Scores of African-American and
Disadvantaged Students in Grades 3,
5, and 8 (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from
http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1
771&context=doctoral
Hardegree, M. (2012). Peer Mentoring: Effects on Ninth Grade
Student Achievement (Doctoral
Dissertation). Retrieved from
http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1
636&context=doctoral
THE IMPACT OF RACIAL-ETHNIC IDENTITY ON
ACADEMIC MOTIVATION OF
AFRICAN AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

358. By
Meliane C. Hackett
Liberty University
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Liberty University
2017
2
THE IMPACT OF RACIAL-ETHNIC IDENTITY ON
ACADEMIC MOTIVATION OF
AFRICAN AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
by
Meliane C. Hackett
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

359. Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA
2017
APPROVED BY:
Elgen Hillman, Ph.D, Committee Chair
Sally Childs, Ed.D., Committee Member
Larry Crites, Ph.D., Committee Member
3
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to determine if there is a
relationship between racial-ethnic
identity and academic motivation of African American high

360. school students. African Americans
have had a tumultuous history that has affected access to
education. This study represents a
significant contribution to educational research by extending the
understanding of policy makers
and curriculum developers to create meaningful curricula that
support all students’ educational
growth. A bivariate regression analysis was used to determine
whether there is a significant
relationship between African American students’ sense of
connectedness, embedded
achievement, awareness of racism, and academic motivation.
The sample included 84 high
school students enrolled in a southeastern Virginia high school;
each participant completed the
Racial/Ethnic Identity Scale and the Academic Motivation
Scale. A bivariate correlation found a
weak significant correlation between a sense of connectedness
and academic motivation. There
was no significant relationship between embedded achievement
or awareness of racism and
academic achievement. Recommendations for future research
include examining participants’
socioeconomic status and conducting a qualitative study to

361. examine racial/ethnic identity and
academic motivation of different demographic populations.
This study will help curriculum
developers and policy makers support academic achievement of
African American high school
students.
Keywords: African American culture, academic motivation,
racial-ethnic identity
4
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT
...............................................................................................
..................................... 3
List of Abbreviations
...............................................................................................
....................... 7
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

362. ...........................................................................................
10
Background
...............................................................................................
.................................... 14
History of African American Education
....................................................................................... 17
Statement of the Problem
...............................................................................................
............... 20
Statement of Purpose
....................................................................................... ........
..................... 21
Significance of the Study
...............................................................................................
............... 23
Research Questions
...............................................................................................
........................ 27
Null Hypotheses
...............................................................................................

363. ............................. 28
Definitions..............................................................................
....................................................... 29
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
............................................................................... 31
Introduction
...............................................................................................
.................................... 31
Theoretical Framework
...............................................................................................
.................. 32
Self-Determination Theory
...............................................................................................
......... 34
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
.......................................................................................... 38
Basic Needs Theory (BNT)
...............................................................................................
........ 39

364. Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
....................................................................................... 40
5
Causality Orientations Theory (COT)
....................................................................................... 41
Summary
...............................................................................................
........................................ 42
Factors That Affect African American Motivation
...................................................................... 43
Racial-Ethnic Identity of African Americans
............................................................................... 45
Connectedness of African Americans
........................................................................................ 47
Family Practices and Values
...............................................................................................
....... 52

365. Awareness of Racism
...............................................................................................
.................. 53
Embedded Achievement of African Americans
........................................................................ 55
Factors That Affect African American Motivation Summary
................................................... 57
Summary
...............................................................................................
........................................ 59
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
..................................................................................... 60
Purpose of the Study
...............................................................................................
...................... 60
Research Design
...............................................................................................
............................. 61
Research Questions
...............................................................................................
........................ 61

366. Null Hypotheses
...............................................................................................
............................. 62
Participants
...............................................................................................
..................................... 62
Setting
...............................................................................................
............................................ 63
Instrumentation
...............................................................................................
.............................. 64
Academic Motivation Scale (AMS)
...........................................................................................
64
Racial Ethnic Identity Scale (REIS)
.......................................................................................... 68
6

367. Summary
...............................................................................................
........................................ 69
Procedures
...............................................................................................
...................................... 70
Data Analysis
...............................................................................................
................................. 71
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
...............................................................................................
..... 73
Introduction
...............................................................................................
.................................... 73
Research Questions
...............................................................................................
........................ 74
Null Hypotheses
...............................................................................................
............................. 74
Descriptive Statistics

368. ...............................................................................................
...................... 75
Results for Research Question One
..............................................................................................
76
Assumption Testing
...............................................................................................
.................... 76
Results for Research Question Two
..............................................................................................
80
Assumption Testing
...............................................................................................
.................... 80
Null Hypothesis Two Testing
...............................................................................................
..... 81
Results for Research Question Three
....................................................................................... .....
83
Assumption Testing
...............................................................................................

369. .................... 83
Hypothesis Three Testing
...............................................................................................
........... 85
Summary
...............................................................................................
........................................ 86
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ................. 88
Discussion
...............................................................................................
...................................... 88
Hypothesis One
...............................................................................................
.............................. 88
7
Hypothesis Two
...............................................................................................
............................. 89

370. Hypothesis Three
...............................................................................................
........................... 90
Conclusion
...............................................................................................
..................................... 91
Implications
...............................................................................................
.................................... 94
Limitations
............................................................................... ................
..................................... 95
Recommendations for Future Research
........................................................................................ 96
REFERENCES
...............................................................................................
.............................. 98
Appendix A
...............................................................................................
.................................. 115
Appendix B

371. ...............................................................................................
.................................. 116
Appendix C
...............................................................................................
.................................. 117
Appendix D
...............................................................................................
.................................. 118
Appendix E
...............................................................................................
.................................. 120
8
List of Abbreviations

372. Academic Motivation Scale (AMS)
Basic Need Theory (BNT)
Causality Orientations Theory (COT)
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
Racial Ethnic-Identity Scale (REIS)
Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
9
List of Figures
Figure 1- Scatterplot of independent variable and dependent
variable ........................................ 77
Figure 2 - Scatterplot of independent variable and dependent
variable ....................................... 80
Figure 3 - Scatterplot of independent variable and dependent
variable ....................................... 84

373. 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Academic success is one of the most widely assessed and
evaluated constructs in the field
of educational research. According to Griffin, Mackewn, Moser
& VanVuren (2013), academic
motivation is one of the most important factors that contribute
to a student’s academic success.
However, personal beliefs of motivation and self-efficacy also
influence a student's ability to
perform educational tasks (Griffin et al., 2013). African
Americans may have different personal
beliefs than European Americans regarding motivation and
racial ethnic identity, which may
impact academic motivation and achievement. Currently, there
is concern that African American
students are not performing at the same rate as European
American students.
In school year 2013-14, fewer African American secondary
students (73%) graduated
than European Americans (87%), Hispanic Americans (76%), or
Asian Americans (89%)

374. (NCES, 2015). Additionally, according to the U.S. Department
of Education (2014), African
American students are suspended 3 times more often than
European American students. On
average, European American students were suspended at a rate
of 5% compared to 16% of
African American students in a school year. Of the students who
entered high school in 2013,
87.2% of white students graduated on time, compared to 72.5%
of African Americans (National
Center of Education Statistics, 2015). The 2015 National
Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP) reading assessment found that 46% of 4th grade and
44% of 8th grade European
American students scored as “proficient or above,” while among
African American students,
only 18% of 4th graders and 16% of 8th graders scored as
“proficient or above.” These findings
were strengthened by similar findings in mathematics: on the
2015 NAEP, 51% of 4th grade and
43% of 8th grade European American students scored as
proficient or above, while among
African American students, 19% of 4th grade students 13% of
8th grade students scored as

375. 11
proficient or above. Since African American students are not
always as academically successful
as European Americans, it is important to examine factors that
are potentially related to this
disparity, such as academic motivation.
When looking at academic achievement among African
Americans, low academic
achievement may be related to different values and motivations.
African American high school
students are experiencing lower graduation rates and lower
college enrollment (Aud et al., 2010,
US Department of Education, n.d.). African American students
graduate from high school at a
rate of 60% compared to 80% of European Americans (Aud, et
al., 2010; US Department of
Education, n.d). Although high school dropout rates have
decreased and college enrollment has
increased among African American students, in 2008, only 32%
of African Americans between
the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in colleges and universities,
compared to 44% of European

376. Americans (Aud, et al., 2010, US Department of Education
n.d.). These statistics begin to reveal
the significant education gap between African American and
European American high school
students, which may be partially due to racial-ethnic values, as
well as to cultural variables that
are promoted in the school system (Robinson & Biran, 2006).
As stated above, African
Americans are experiencing lowered graduation rates and high
school completion which may be
impacted by demographic variables such as racial-ethnic
identity and motivational factors.
Researchers have examined many reasons for the education gap
between African
Americans and European Americans, including racial identity,
socioeconomic status, family
structure, and genetics (McKown, & Strambler, 2008). NAEP
(2015) data shows that between
1992 and 2015, the achievement gap in reading between African
American and European
American 12th grade students expanded, while the gap in
mathematics remained the same. In
addition, researchers have examined differences between
various racial-ethnic groups in

377. 12
motivation and psychological factors (Graham, 1994), conflict
between school and home values
(Tyler et al., 2010), lack of quality instruction in poor areas
(McLaren, 2007), lack of educational
value (Cokely, 2002), and racial identity (Fordham, 1988;
Fordham & Ogbu 1986). With
multiple factors contributing to achievement gaps between
African and European Americans, it
is important to continue to explore possible reasons for
disparities in achievement. Despite the
fact that there may be many variables that affect African
Americans students’ academic
motivation, racial-ethnic identity has not been addressed in the
United States school system as a
possible contributing factor.
Currently, schools in the United States reflect the cultural and
racial-ethnic norms and
values of middle-class European Americans, emphasizing
competition and individualism
(Maryshow et al., 2005), while the racial-ethnic norms of
African American culture value

378. collectivism and community. The racial disparity in academic
achievement may be attributed to a
lack of understanding among African American students of the
European American racial-ethnic
value system (Good, Dweck and Aronson, 2007; Maryshow,
Hurley, Allen, Tyler & Boykin,
2005). Oyserman, Brickman and Rhodes (2007) have found that
a strong racial identity is
connected to higher academic performance. For African
American students to thrive in academic
settings, it is important that they feel connected to their school
communities (Oyserman,
Brickman & Rhodes, 2007; Good Dweck & Aronson, 2007).
African Americans’ racial-ethnic
identities should be represented in their school environments.
This research is supported by
developmental research showing that students’ engagement and
motivation is connected their
values and beliefs (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992; Pintrich, Roeser &
DeGroot, 1994).
Overall, African American academic differences relate to racial-
ethnic schemas and their
impact on academic motivation. Without education,
opportunities for African American students

379. 13
may decline. African American students may not be accessing
education in the same ways as
European Americans. All students deserve opportunities to be
academically successful.
Determining how racial-ethnic identity impacts academic
motivation can help educators develop
tools needed to assist African American students by providing
the resources, support, and
motivation needed to learn and understand academic content in
the same manner as European
Americans. This research may help identify academic values
related to racial-ethnic identity and
how they impact academic motivation, African American
students will be able to achieve
academically in the same manner as European American
students in the public school system.
Teachers and administrators can also find way to promote
academic engagement and hopefully
increase academic outcomes.
Racial-ethnic identity may also play a role in how African
Americans access education.

380. To address how the achievement gap is impacted by racial-
ethnic identity it is important to
research these factors. This research investigates how racial-
ethnic identity predicts academic
achievement of African American students. Oyserman, Grant
and Ager (1995) investigated how
racial-ethnic identity has an impact on how African Americans
view themselves, but there are
limited quantitative studies on how racial-ethnic identity impact
academic achievement of
African American high school students.
This chapter will outline academic challenges that have affected
African Americans over
time, as well as the theoretical underpinnings of academic
motivation; outline the significance of
the study, research questions, and hypotheses; and identify the
key variables used in the study.
This study will use a simple linear regression to determine how
racial-ethnic identity predicts
academic motivation of African American high school students.
14
While African Americans lag behind their European American

381. counterparts, American
students also lag behind other students worldwide. Globally,
students in United States rank 62nd
in math proficiency and 17th in reading proficiency (Peterson,
Woessmann, Hanushek & Lastra-
Anadon, 2011). According to Peterson et al. (2011), the U.S
reading proficiency rate is 31%,
compared to other countries such as Korea (47%), Singapore
and New Zealand (42%), Japan and
Canada (41%), Australia (38%) and Belgium (37%). These
numbers indicate a larger problem
with academic achievement in the United States. Students sit in
the same classes, learning the
same curriculum from the same teacher, and yet disparities in
achievement are evident. To give
all students the education they deserve, it is important to
determine what factors contribute to
these disparities.
In an effort to determine ways to reduce racial disparities in
academic achievement, this
paper will examine how African American racial-ethnic schemas
predict academic motivation.
By doing so, this research will help teachers, policymakers, and
school administrators to more

382. effectively meet the needs of African American high school
students; it may also help to
motivate African American students to perform academically,
increasing their access to
educational opportunities, and ultimately reducing academic
disparities between African and
European American students.
Background
Throughout history, African Americans have had a difficult
time accessing education in
the United States. During slavery, they were not allowed to
receive an education; after slaves
were freed, African Americans developed their own schools
and, for the first time, were allowed
to be educated. African American schools did not have many
resources and were not comparable
to European American schools; students often had to commute
significant distances as schools
15
were not located near their homes. African Americans had their
own traditions, beliefs, and

383. attitudes that were not reflected in integrated schools. After
desegregation, school reform began,
changing how education was provided to all students, but
integrated schools often reflected the
ideals of middle-class European Americans (Maryshow et al.
2005; Payne, 2005). The Supreme
Court’s landmark ruling in Brown v. Board of Education was a
turning point for the African
American community, and many hoped it would provide equal
opportunity and quality education
to all students.
After Brown v. Board of Education, the educational system
changed for African
Americans. Racial-ethnic schemas or organized generalizations
about African Americans were
not taken into account when desegregating schools. Advocates
of desegregation strived for
equality and made significant strides; however, African
American communities continue to face
significant problems in attaining education. Public schools in
the United States have adopted
European American cultural values despite diverse school
populations (Maryshow et al. 2005;
Payne, 2005)

384. African American students typically attend schools where
people of color comprise the
majority of the student body, and are not performing at the same
rate as their European American
peers (NCES, 2007). According to the US Department of
Education (n.d), 63.6% of African
American students graduate in four years, while for European
American students, that rate is
80.6%. There is still a disparity between African American and
European American test scores
(US Department of Education, n.d). Although African American
students are not graduating at
the same rate as European Americans, African Americans are
capable of performing
academically and can be academically successful.
16
African Americans hold education in high regard, despite
academic performance records
that sometimes seem to indicate otherwise. Generally, African
American students value
education, but perceptions regarding the value of education
drive student success. For example,

385. Irving and Hudley (2008) found that negative attitudes toward
education were predictive of
lower achievement for African American students. Ogbu (2004)
found that African American
students who experienced racial barriers were likely to devalue
the relevance of school, while
those who valued reading and math were more likely to achieve
in school (Eccleston, Smyth, &
Lopoo, 2010). Overall, African American students who can see
the personal value and benefits
of education, and whose psychological needs are being met, are
more likely to be academically
motivated (Chavous, et al., 2003).
In order to meet the needs of African American students, it is
important to learn about
African American academic motivations. Despite a long history
of adversity, African Americans
have been self-determined, motivated and successful. African
Americans’ motivation in
particular is based on autonomy, competence and relatedness,
which are also the basis of Deci
and Ryan’s (1985) Self Determination Theory (SDT). SDT
provides a framework for

386. understanding how people become intrinsically motivated,
extrinsically motivated, or amotivated
based on the basic human needs for autonomy, competence, and
connectedness (relatedness to
others).
African Americans may have experienced autonomy,
competence, and relatedness to
others differently from European Americans, which may have
impacted how African American
are motivated to learn. Historically, African American students
have underachieved in public
education. There are many social justice issues affecting
African American communities, which
may also contribute to high dropout rates and lower
standardized test scores, exacerbating the
17
educational gap between European Americans and minorities.
According to Caldwell and Obasi
(2010), the segregation that African Americans have
experienced has perpetuated the
achievement gap. Despite their emancipation from slavery,
African Americans are still not

387. afforded the same liberties as European Americans. Due to these
challenges, it is important to
increase understanding of the different factors that contribute to
African American academic
outcomes. For educators to understand how to promote
academic engagement and motivation
among African American students, it is important to examine
African American educational
history, which may affect academic motivation. The following
section will examine how
African Americans have experienced education throughout
history.
History of African American Education
Historically, African Americans were not allowed to be
educated. During slavery, fewer
than 5% of African Americans attended school and 90% were
considered illiterate (Span, 2009).
In 1740, South Carolina was the first state to enact a law
prohibiting African Americans from
learning to read (Span, 2009); Georgia enacted a similar law in
1770. The Southern states
continued to implement restrictions preventing African
Americans from learning to read, out of
fear that literacy would lead to freedom or escape (Span, 2009;

388. Anderson, 2002; Margo, 1990).
By 1840, there were punishments and fines for anyone caught
teaching African Americans to
read. Although not all of the colonies enacted such laws,
community sentiment in the South
opposed educating African Americans (Span, 2009; Anderson,
2002; Margo, 1990).
Span (2009) found that proponents of slavery voiced their
opinions within the community
to ensure that European Americans would not want to teach
slaves to read, or associate with
literate, free African Americans, and as a result, the only
education most African Americans
were permitted to receive was instruction in the area in which
they worked. This mindset was
18
infused throughout the South, perpetuating and legally
enshrining the ideology that African
Americans were substandard and incompetent (Span, 2009,
Anderson, 2002; Margo, 1990).
Despite the threat of serious consequences, many African
Americans continued to teach

389. themselves to read and write in secret, and after emancipation,
many sought educational
opportunities in order to compete in the free world (Johnson-
Blake, 2010). Slaves were punished
severely for showing an interest in education: for example, one
slave had his thumb removed and
was beaten for learning to read and write (Reuf and Fletcher,
2003). Many other slaves gave
similar accounts of being severely punished and disfigured for
attempting to learn (Span, 2009).
Approximately 5-10% of African Americans did learn some
literacy skills from slaves who
learned to read early in life, or from slave owners’ children who
were not aware of the anti-
literacy sentiment (Span, 2009). After the Civil War, those
African Americans who possessed
literacy skills were the first to teach newly emancipated slaves,
as anti-literacy laws became
invalid. However, although African Americans were legally
allowed to learn to read and write,
there were still barriers that prevented them from accessing
education.
After 1863 and the ratification of the Emancipation
Proclamation, free African

390. Americans began to develop and attend schools and churches.
According to Buchard (2010), in
the mid-1860s, African Americans had a difficult time receiving
education due to attacks on
African American teachers, schools, and students. Booker T.
Washington wrote in his
autobiography about the surge of African Americans who
yearned for education: “Few people
who were not right in the midst of the scenes can form any
exact idea of the intense desire which
the people of my race showed for education…. It was a whole
race trying to go to school. Few
were too young, and none too old, to make the attempt to learn”
(Cited in Span, 2010. p.30–31).
19
During this period, a number of grassroots efforts emerged to
help educate former slaves.
By 1870, almost 10,000 teachers from the North had migrated
south to assist at the Bureau of
Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands, where they taught a
quarter of a million African
Americans in 4,300 schools (Span, 2009). These “Freedom
Schools” were self-governing

391. schools, paid for and implemented by former slaves that
assisted free African Americans.
According to Span (2009), by the end of the 1800s almost 60%
of African Americans were
literate. The improvement in African American literacy led to
improved opportunities but there
continued to be obstacles that prevented African Americans
from being educated in the same
manner as European Americans.
Despite these hardships and obstacles, African Americans
continued to educate
themselves. Schools, however, were segregated, and in 1896,
the Supreme Court in Plessy v.
Ferguson, which found that educational facilities for African
Americans could be “separate but
equal”, upheld segregation This ruling allowed African
American schools to remain in poor
condition and without the necessary resources and materials
(Moore-Thomas, 2009). During
segregation, African Americans were able to achieve their goals
in lesser conditions, but the
injustices and inequalities they endured could not be ignored,
and change did not occur for

392. decades until the Civil Rights Movement. Overall, African
Americans were not afforded the
same opportunities as European Americans, leading to
resentment and rejection towards the
dominant European American culture (Moore-Thomas, 2009).
Slavery caused cultural genocide among African Americans.
African Americans’
ancestral African culture was destroyed, yet the desire for
education remained. African
Americans were viewed as unequal and often internalized this
belief due to the dominant
culture’s beliefs. McSwine (2010) posits that implementing
desegregation after Brown v. Board
20
of Education was not beneficial for African American students
when the knowledge of culture,
resilience, and racism are considered. He indicates that idea
behind Brown v. Board of
Education was wrong because the court’s decision did not
account for the cultural background of
African Americans, which is the contributes to academic
achievement. Although the court

393. recognized the impact that feelings of inferiority might have on
student motivation, they failed to
examine the culture implications of the curriculum and teaching
strategies used within
segregated schools, or to address issues of cultural identity for
African American students based
on their own traditions and cultural values (McSwine, 2010).
This would lead one to conclude
that racial identity may have an impact on academic motivation.
Therefore, it is important for
educators to understand how African American culture impacts
educational outcomes.
Overall, African Americans have had a tumultuous history and
have not always had
opportunities to be academically successful, given the realities
of anti-literacy laws and slavery,
which forced them to hide their desire for education.
Eventually, anti-literacy laws were
eliminated, but the lingering effects of mistreatment, as well as
segregation by the dominate
white culture, has impacted how African Americans students are
affected by the European
American cultural value educational system (Maryshow et al.
2005).

394. Statement of the Problem
Today, African American students face many hardships in
society. While in high school,
African American students are flooded with social obstacles
that affect them both in school and
within the community. As a result, African Americans are often
academically disadvantaged due
to a lack of resources, lower socioeconomic status, and less
family support.
Several studies indicate that a strong racial identity or sense of
belonging to a racial
group positively predicts academic achievement or motivation
(Oyserman et al., 2003; Seller,
21
Chavous & Cook, 1998; Spencer, Noll, Stoltzfus & Harpalina,
2001). Conversely, however,
other researchers have found a negative relationship between
racial identity and self-concept
(Worrell, 2007; Harper & Tucker, 2006), or no relationship or a
minimal relationship between
racial identity and academic achievement (Awad, 2007; Lockett
& Harrell, 2003). While

395. extensive research has been conducted on how racial identity
impacts academic motivation, the
current literature examining how African American racial
identity impacts academic motivation
of African American high school students is inconsistent and
inconclusive (Oyserman et al.,
2003; Seller, Chavous & Cook, 1998; Spencer, Noll, Stoltzfus &
Harpalina, 2001, Worrell, 2007;
Harper & Tucker, 2006; Awad, 2007; Lockett & Harrell, 2003).
It is important to examine
African American racial-ethnic schemas to determine which
factors of African American culture
predict academic motivation.
Additionally, a large body of research has been conducted
focusing on self-efficacy, self-
concept, social support, and self-esteem of college students
(Martin, 2013; Rodger & Summers,
2008; Turner, Chandler & Heffer, 2009; Somers, Owens &
Piliawsky, 2008). However, there are
limited studies examining African American high school
students’ racial-ethnic identities and
academic motivation.
Statement of Purpose

396. The purpose of this study is to determine how racial-ethnic
identity of African American
students impacts their academic motivation based on the Racial-
Ethnic Identity Scale (REIS)
(Oyserman, Grant & Ager, 1995; Oyserman, Brickman &
Rhodes, 2007) and the Academic
Motivation Scale (AMS) (Vallerand et al., 1992). A
correlational analysis will be used to test the
theory of self-determination in regards to the racial-ethnic
identity of African American high
school students and academic motivation at one southeastern
Virginia high school. This study
22
will help address the gap in the literature concerning how
African American high school
student’s racial ethnic schemas impact academic motivation. By
examining racial-ethnic identity
and academic motivation, teachers, policy makers and school
leaders can possibly incorporate
culturally relevant educational practices within the school and
in turn, increase academic success
of African American students.

397. The criterion variable in this study is academic motivation.
Academic motivation is
defined by Vellarand et al. (1992) as intrinsic motivation—to
know, towards accomplishment,
and to experience stimulation; extrinsic motivation – external
regulation, introjected regulation
and identified regulation; and lastly, amotivation. The
Academic Motivation Scale (AMS)
developed by Vellarand et al (1992) will measure academic
motivation.
The predictor variables were selected based on the research
throughout the literature
review (Young, Johnson, Hawthorne & Pugh, 2011; Rust et al.
2011; Coker, 2003; Caldwell &
Obasi, 2010; Butler-Barnse, Williams & Chavous, 2011; Byrd &
Chavous, 2011; Robinson &
Biran, 2006; Oyserman et al. 2003). This study will use the
predictor variables of connectedness,
awareness of racism, and embedded achievement. These
variables were shown to be influential
to African American motivation. The REIS was selected because
it most closely measures the
aspects of African American culture reflected in the literature
(Young, Johnson, Hawthorne &

398. Pugh, 2011; Rust et al. 2011; Coker, 2003; Caldwell & Obasi,
2010; Butler-Barnse, Williams &
Chavous, 2011; Byrd & Chavous, 2011; Robinson & Biran,
2006). The REIS allows the
participants to express generalizations about their racial identity
and culture. The questions will
be used to determine the relationship between racial-ethnic
identity and academic motivation.
Understanding how racial-ethnic identity impact academic
motivation can potentially help
23
educators develop educational programs that will promote
academic success among African
American high school students in a culturally relevant way.
Significance of the Study
Educational outcomes are often linked to a person’s core value
system (Lent & Brown,
2006). Kao and Thompson (2003) found that when
socioeconomic status is controlled, African
American students still performed significantly less than
European American students.
According to Fryer and Levitt (2004), African American

399. children are approximately 1.5 standard
deviations behind European American students on standardized
math and reading tests. In
addition, Peterson et al. (2011) showed that in math proficiency,
European Americans scored
42%, while African Americans scored 11%. Math is not the
only area that African Americans
are scoring below European Americans on proficiency exams
(Peterson et al., 2011). African
Americans scored 13% in reading proficiency when compared to
40% by European Americans.
These statistics support the fact that there is a gap in academic
performance between the two
groups. These studies support why identifying variables that
will improve educational outcomes
for African American is significant because educators need to
determine if culture does affects
academic motivation and if so, to what extent. In addition to
gaining an understanding about
improving academic achievement for African American
students, research shows that there is a
positive link between racial identity and academic motivation
(Lent et al., 1993; Wolters,
Denton, York & Francis, 2013). It would logically be expected

400. based on this research that it is
important for educators to increase African American student
motivation by maintaining positive
racial identity. There are several studies that argue that
motivation is directly related to student
attendance, student effort, discipline and time spent on
homework (Bishop et al. 2003; Betts,
1996). When students increase academic motivation, students
are more likely to perform better
24
in school. By examining how racial-ethnic identity plays a role
in motivation, African American
students can achieve at the same levels as European American
students.
Understanding what factors contribute to African American
student motivation may help
educators reduce under achievement. It is important to identify
the unique needs of African
American high school students and how culture plays a role in
African American student
motivation. According to Johnson and Biran (2006), African
American students with a high

401. level of African self-consciousness have a higher level of
intrinsic motivation and feelings of
responsibility for the African American community. This study
supports that African Americans
value connectedness to the community. In addition to
academically self-consciousness, African
Americans are more motivated in school when there is a sense
of community (Johnson & Biran,
2006). This is further supported by Oyserman, Grant and Ager
(1995) study, which examined
racial identity and school persistence. The study found that a
balance of racial-ethnic variables
of connectedness, embedded achievement and awareness of
racism predicted academic
achievement. Stinson (2011) also found that schools that adopt
group centered ethos for African
American students are motivated in school. Following the
research in this area, schools are not
meeting the psychological needs of African American students
to be successful in school.
Research implies that African American students may have
different needs because of their
history of slavery and history of perceived inferiority that
continues to impact African American

402. students. When student basic needs are not met, academic
motivation and interest diminish
(Wang & Eccles, 2013).
Many times educational institutions do not take African
American racial-identity and
motivational factors into consideration when helping African
American students succeed
academically. Ultimately, racial integrity should not have to be
sacrificed in order for African
25
American students to be successful. By developing an
educational environment that promotes
African American racial-ethnic identity, schools may be able to
help increase academic
achievement of African American high school students.
It is unclear if African American racial-ethnic identity has an
impact on academic
motivation. The research does not explain if or how racial-
ethnic identity impacts student
academic motivation. There is a considerable need for research
to determine if African
American racial-ethnic identity impacts academic motivation.

403. Researchers have found that there
are different reasons why African American students lack
motivation. One reason according to
Fordham (1988) is that students have a difficult time balancing
the dual relationship between
African American racial-ethnic identity and the dominant
society’s cultural system because the
dominant society promotes individualism while the African
American racial-ethnic identity
promotes collectivism. African American students are forced to
adopt the racial-ethnic identities
of European American students. This may or may not impact
African American ability to be
motivated academically, which in turn may cause the
achievement gap
More information is needed to determine the cause of the lack
of motivation. It is
important to understand how academic motivation of African
Americans is possibly linked to
positive ethnic-racial identity. Determining what variables
promote academic motivation may
help educators and policy makers develop curriculum and
supports to help African American
students achieve in the same manner as European American

404. students. More research on African
American racial-ethnic identity can provide insight into
academic motivation in ways traditional
methods of educating African American students cannot
(Caldwell & Obasi, 2010).
The research focuses on African American college students and
how self-concept, self-
esteem, self-efficacy, and social factors impact academic
motivation. Building on Caldwell and
26
Obasi’s (2010) findings, the current study will examine African
American high school students
to determine how racial-ethnic identity impacts academic
motivation. Additional information is
critical to determine the possible impact of African American
racial-ethnic identity on academic
motivation. This possible link between African American racial-
ethnic identity and academic
motivation is just beginning to be explored through research and
has not been clearly defined.
Since the impact of racial-ethnic identity on academic
motivation of African American is not

405. clearly defined, it is important to examine these factors.
Recent research focuses on the differences in African American
racial-ethnic identity
and the school environment. For example, two studies (Brown-
Wright & Tyler, 2010; Tyler,
Brown-Wright, Stevens-Watkins, Thomas et al. 2010) found
perceived differences between the
values and operations in the school environment did not exist in
the home environment of
African American students. This is further explored through
limited quantitative studies that
examine how cultural values predict academic motivation.
These studies begin to reveal that
African American students experience school home dissonance.
Home and school dissonance may attribute to a lack of academic
motivation among
African American students. Many times, in addition to a lack of
connection to the values shared
in the home, African American students have had unequal
opportunities in the United States and
devalue the benefits of academic achievement, which leads to
lower educational outcome
expectancy (Caldwell & Obasi, 2010). Despite social, economic
and racial discrimination, some

406. African Americans have responded to adversity by developing
strong racial identity and
commitment to academic success (Sanders, 1997). In 2003,
Ogbu conducted a study that
analyzed the phenomenon of African American disengagement
within an affluent suburb. Ogbu
found that African American students were disengaged from
academics due to societal problems,
27
school dissonance and community influences. Further factors
consisted of race relations,
internalized white beliefs, collective identity, culture, and
language and peer pressure. By
examining how racial-ethnic identity impacts academic
motivation, educators can possibility
increase educational outcomes of African American students
and provide a solution to increase
academic engagement in schools.
Based on this research, it is clear that African American
students face larger issues that
are not being addressed in the academic setting. This pitfall in
the American educational system

407. may cause African American students to fail at a rate that is not
equal to European American
students in the same schools. This study will examine whether
African American racial-ethnic
identity may impact academic motivation. Educators will be
able to use this research to develop
culturally relevant curriculum and educational strategies to
improve educational outcomes for
African Americans.
Research Questions
The research objective for this study is to determine how racial-
ethnic identity impacts
the academic motivation in African American high school
students. Racial-ethnic identity is
defined as a social construction that “refers to a sense of group
or collective identity based on
one’s perception that he or she shares a common heritage with a
particular racial group” (Helms,
1993, p. 3). African Americans motivation varies based on
African self-consciousness
(Robinson & Biran, 2006) perceived social support
(connectedness to the community) (Young et
al., 2011), and the impact of specialized school’s culture,

408. neighborhoods and racism (Fraizer,
2012). The related research questions are shown below:
28
RQ1: What impact does the racial-ethnic identity component of
connectedness have on
academic motivation as measured by the AMS?
RQ2: What impact does the racial-ethnic identity component
awareness of racism have on
academic motivation as measured by the AMS?
RQ3: What impact does the racial-ethnic identity component of
embedded achievement have on
academic motivation as measured by the AMS?
Null Hypotheses
H01 There is no statistically significant predictive relationship
between the racial-ethnic identity
component of connectedness and academic motivation, as
measured by the AMS.
H02 There is no statistically significant predictive relationship
between the racial-ethnic identity

409. component of awareness of racism and academic motivation, as
measured by the AMS.
H03 There is no statistically significant predictive relationship
between the racial-ethnic identity
component of embedded achievement and academic motivation,
as measured by the
AMS.
29
Definitions
Academic achievement: When a student meets the educational
outcomes outlined by the
school or district.
Academic Motivation: The amount of intrinsic motivation or
extrinsic motivation a
person has to perform academically (Vallerand et al., 1992).

410. Amotivation: When a person is neither intrinsically or
extrinsically motivated. A person
does not perceive exigencies between the effects of their own
actions (Vellarand et al., 1992).
Extrinsic motivation – external regulation: A person’s behavior
is guided by external
rewards and punishments (Vellarand et al., 1992).
Extrinsic motivation – identified regulation: When a person
internalizes their chosen
actions and it is deemed as valuable, it is internalized as
important by the individual (Vellarand
et al., 1992).
Extrinsic motivation – introjected regulation: A person who
begins to internalize the
reasons for their actions and this is based on experiences
(Vellarand et al., 1992).
Intrinsic motivation – stimulation: A person who engages in an
action based on sensory
pleasure and fun and excitement from an activity (Vellarand et
al., 1992).
Intrinsic motivation – to accomplish: Participating in an activity
for pleasure and
satisfaction of attempting to accomplish or creating something

411. (Vellarand et al., 1992).
Intrinsic motivation – to know: Performing an activity for the
pleasure that a person
derives from learning and exploring new things (Vellarand et
al., 1992).
Racial Ethnic Identity -– “refers to a sense of group or
collective identity based on one’s
perception that he or she shares a common heritage with a
particular racial group” (Helms, 1993,
p. 3).
30
Values: “Standards that not only guide the behavior of the
individuals who hold them, but
serve as their basis for judging the behavior of others”
(Rokeach, 1973).

412. 31
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive
literature review of racial
ethnic identity and academic motivation. African American
students may be at an increased risk
of being less successful in school than European American
students. Researchers have found that
different cultural values may contribute to the success of
African American students (Caldwell &
Obasi, 2010).
Motivation is one of the most important factors in a student’s
academic performance
(Griffin, Mackewn, Moser & VanVuren, 2012). School climate,
educators, beliefs and

413. perceptions, family, and social values all influence motivation
(Rowell & Hong, 2012). Lack of
motivation can cause students to underachieve and increases
students’ chances of dropping out
of school (Rowell & Hong, 2012). African American students
with a strong racial identity, who
are aware of discrimination and who understand the
contributions that their race will possess
positive academic values and demonstrate higher academic
motivation and achievement (Smalls,
White, Chavous & Sellers, 2007; Kunjufu, 1995; Spencer et al,
2002). The purpose of this study
is to determine the relationship between racial-ethnic identity
and academic motivation. This
study uses a correlational analysis through a convenience
sample from a school in the
southeastern region of Virginia. This research will provide
more insight into how racial ethnic
identity of African American high school student’s impacts
academic motivation. This chapter
contains precedent literature and research organized to examine
the theoretical framework of
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) by exploring intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation. The latter part

414. of the literature review will analyze racial-ethnic identity of
African American students through
the components of connectedness, awareness of racism, and
embedded achievement.
32
An exhaustive review was conducted on this topic, using
keywords such as African
American motivation; racial identity; African American culture
and academic achievement. The
literature is centered on the following topics: motivation,
culture of African Americans and
racial-ethnic identity of African Americans, self-determination
theory, and academic motivation.
Literature related to each of these topics will be discussed and
summarized, with strengths and
weaknesses identified in an effort to provide an understanding
of what variables serve as the best
predictors of academic achievement of African Americans. The
purpose of this study is to
determine how racial-ethnic identity of African American
students based on the REIS (Oyserman
et al, 1995; Oyserman et al, 2007) impacts academic motivation

415. of African American high
school students as measured by the AMS (Vallenrand et al,
1992).
Theoretical Framework
Student motivation has been consistently researched throughout
the history of education.
Within the last twenty years, motivation of students from
different cultures has been explored.
African American student motivation, in particular, has been
studied using self-determination
theory to explain academic motivation, but to date, the focus
has been on African American
college students (Martin, 2013; Rodgers & Summers, 2008;
Turner, Chandler & Heffer, 2009;
Somers, Owens & Pilliawsky, 2008). African American student
motivation can be explored by
examining Self-Determination Theory (SDT). SDT is the study
of motivation, which can be
intrinsic or extrinsic, and holds that intrinsic and extrinsic
motivational factors stem from how
social and cultural development affect individual differences
(Deci & Ryan, 2008). According to
Deci and Ryan (2008), the conditions that best support
individual differences are autonomy,

416. defined as perception of independence despite external factors;
competence, defined as control of
an outcome and achieving mastery; and relatedness, defined as
being connected with others.
33
SDT implies that if these basic psychological needs are met,
then an individual will be
considered self-determined and will be able to reach their goals
(Deci & Ryan, 2008). In order to
understand African American student motivation, it is important
to examine SDT and how it
impacts African American students.
Numerous studies have examined academic motivation using
self-determination theory,
but the results are inconsistent. For example, Othman and Leng
(2011) found a weak relationship
between self-concept, intrinsic motivation, self-determination,
and academic achievement for
students who attended a Chinese Primary School. Byrd &
Chavous (2011) found that African
American students who received positive messages about race
from teachers reported higher

417. rates of intrinsic motivation. Another study examined valuing
achievement and behavioral
engagement and found that achievement values do not have a
significant influence on
achievement (Darensbourg & Blake, 2013). Socioeconomic
status, college experience in
previous family generations, and perceived social support
predicted intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation for African American students in accordance with
self-determination theory (Young,
Johnson, Hawthorne & Pugh, 2011). Gamboa, Rodriguez and
Garcia (2013) found that self-
motivation in any capacity determine academic outcomes.
Finally, Ryan and Deci (2000) include
connectedness to others as a source of motivation. The goal of
relating or feeling connected
stems from a person’s cultural values. In summary, the ways
Africans Americans feel self-
determined varies; however, it is important to determine how
African American students
experience autonomy, competence, and connectedness in order
to understand how their racial-
ethnic identity may impact their academic achievement.

418. 34
Self-Determination Theory
SDT offers a way to understand academic motivation. After
reviewing the literature, it
became apparent that academic motivation could be explained
by self-determination. This link is
critical, because motivational skills stemming from self-
determination correlate with, and may be
causal factors in, achievement. SDT rests on an organismic view
of human nature, which
indicates a natural inclination to act and grow developmentally
(Ryan & Deci, 2008). The
organismic view of human nature suggests that a person will
seek out challenges and attempt to
make discoveries within their environment. Rigby et al. (1992)
indicates that humans have an
innate tendency to integrate their own experiences, knowledge,
and personality into a sense of
self, as well as to integrate with other individuals. Deci and
Ryan (2002) argues that external

419. factors can either inhibit or promote the integration process of
developing psychological
wellbeing. SDT reveals interactions between the natural
tendency to interact, develop and
external factors that suggests three basic psychological needs of
all individuals: autonomy,
competence and relatedness. If all these needs are met, then
most individuals will be able to
integrate and develop. While it is true that SDT is critical to
motivation, it is import to see how
African American students experience autonomy, competence,
and relatedness.
Autonomy is defined as the perception of a person’s ability to
have control over one’s
own behavior. Although external forces can influence
independence, individuals have the ability
to act on their own will because of the values that are integrated
within ones self (Deci & Ryan,
2002). Competence is best defined as a person’s perception of
their ability to feel successful in
their own environment. The need for competence is what drives
a person to seek out challenges
within their own environment, maintaining their ability levels
and in turn, increasing their sense

420. of competence (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Relatedness is defined as
the predisposition for people to
35
want to be and feel connected to others. Individuals want to feel
as if they belong to a
community (Deci & Ryan, 2002).
Deci and Ryan (2000) describe intrinsic motivation as “the
inherent tendency to seek out
novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise one’s capacities
to explore and learn” (p. 70).
Turner, Chandler and Heffer (2009) used SDT to determine how
parental styles, motivation to
achieve, and self-efficacy influence academic performance in
college students, but did not focus
on racial or ethnical differences. Another study used SDT as
one of the theoretical frameworks to
explain African American students academic success at
predominately white institutions and
motivational factors of college students (Rodgers & Summers,
2008). Additionally, Wang and
Eccles (2013) also used SDT to explain school context,
motivation to achieve, and academic

421. engagement among ethnically diverse students to measure
academic motivation.
In contrast to intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation “refers
to the performance of an
activity in order to attain some separable outcome and, thus,
contrasts with intrinsic motivation
which refers to doing an activity for the inherent satisfaction of
the activity itself” (Ryan & Deci,
2000, p. 72). Cokley found that African American college
students had higher levels of extrinsic
motivation when attending predominately white institutions, but
had lower grade point averages.
Cokley (2003) also noted that African American students who
attended historically black
colleges/universities reported higher levels of intrinsic
motivation and higher academic self-
concept. This is important because it suggests that African
American students may be
academically motivated in different ways than European
American students. Overall, the
differences in intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation
imply that African Americans
motivational needs are different, and that gaining an
understanding of academic motivation may

422. reduce academic disparities (Allen, 1988; Ford, 1996).
36
Behavior is regulated by either internal or external factors: a
student’s behavior can be
controlled, or self-determined. Self-determined behavior is
considered internally regulated, and
behavior that is controlled is externally regulated. Meeting the
psychological needs identified by
SDT improves self-determination. Students who have their basic
needs met are more likely to be
motivated to perform. In academic settings, teachers, peers, and
family members can promote or
hinder self-determination. When a student’s needs for
autonomy, relatedness and competence are
supported, students are likely to succeed academically. When
students are only focused on
external factors, such as earning grades or approval, the student
will be less self-determined.
While intrinsically motivated students exhibit greater self-
determination, both factors are
important. Cokely (2003) used the Academic Motivation Scale
(AMS) to measure academic

423. motivation, using the Academic Self-Concept Scale and the
Roseburg Self-Esteem Scale in a
structural equation model to analyze the data. Cokely (2003)
found that African American
students had significantly higher levels of intrinsic motivation
in academic self-concept, self-
esteem, and academic performance when attending historically
Black colleges/universities than
did African American students attending predominately white
institutions. This suggests that
African Americans basic needs are being met in a different
manner at historically Black
colleges/universities, and that racial-ethnic identity may play a
role in motivation. However,
another study from Cokely, Bernard, Cunningham and Montoike
(2001) found no difference in
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in African American students.
The researchers used the AMS
and the Academic Self-Concept Scale in a structural equation
model to analyze the data. These
mixed results indicate more research is needed related to racial-
ethnic identity and academic
motivation of African American students.

424. 37
In another study, Brown (2002) posits that when researchers
control for socioeconomic
status, level of parental education, and a variety of other factors
that contribute to achievement, a
racial gap in academic achievement persists. This supports the
idea that the current educational
practices exhibited by schools and teachers are
counterproductive to academic success of African
American students.
Intrinsic motivation. Motivation is based on three basic
psychological needs being met,
autonomy, competence and relatedness. Although people have
intrinsic motivational
characteristics, evidence suggests that if a person is not in an
environment that supports intrinsic
motivation, these can be easily thwarted. Vansteenkiste, Lens
and Deci (2006) determined that
there are additional ways to be intrinsically motivated, and that
autonomous motivation involves
a person’s ability to make choices. “Intrinsic motivation and
well-internalized forms of extrinsic
motivation are considered autonomous, whereas poorly

425. internalized forms of extrinsic
motivation are considered controlled” (Vansteenkiste et al, 2006
p. 19). Supporting and
developing teaching practices that satisfy the three basic needs
(autonomy, competence and
relatedness) will help develop students who are self-determined
and motivated (Kusharkar,
Croset, Ten & Cate, 2011).
According to Deci and Ryan (2000), students who are
intrinsically motivated are more
likely to pursue a college education in a field that they are
passionate about. This is primarily
true for European Americans. Cokely (2003) found that African
American students who attended
historically Black colleges or universities were more
intrinsically motivated because of culturally
relevant experiences. SDT can provide some insight on self-
determined behavior, but there is
limited research on how SDT applies to African American high
school students.
38
Extrinsic motivation. Vansteenkiste et al. (2006) discussed two

426. forms of extrinsic
motivation: external regulation and introjected regulation. The
least autonomous form of
extrinsic motivation, external regulation is motivation by
rewards, punishments, and deadlines,
none of which are internalized. Introjected regulation is a form
of extrinsic motivation that is
only partially internalized, whereby a person may comply with
something because of internal
pressure to avoid feelings of guilt and shame. The person does
not accept the motivation
internally as they would with intrinsic motivation.
In order for students to abide by school rules and regulations,
they must be presented in a
way that enhances students’ relatedness, competence, and
autonomy “with respect to relevant
behaviors” of the people involved (Vansteenkiste et al, 2006, p
21). African American students
may feel they are unable to achieve a desired outcome or feel
that they cannot complete an
activity effectively and thus may become demotivated
(Vansteenkiste et al, 2006). According to
Assor, Kaplan and Roth (2002), students have a need to feel
autonomous and when students do

427. not feel autonomy they will see schoolwork as irrelevant to
their goals or expectations.
Although, Ryan and Deci coined SDT in the 1970s, it has
progressed to incorporate
several mini-theories to explain motivation based on the three
fundamental psychological needs
(competence, autonomy, and relatedness). These four variations
of SDT theory include:
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), Causality Orientations
Theory (COT), Basic Needs Theory
(BNT), and Organismic Integration Theory (OIT). Each mini-
theory will be addressed in the
context of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
CET focuses on intrinsic theory and how environmental factors
affect it. Intrinsic
motivations are behaviors that are done willingly because there
is pleasure in simply doing the
39
behavior or activity (Deci & Ryan, 2000). DeCharms (1968)
found that it is important for people

428. to believe that they are in control of their own actions and
behaviors. Intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation negate each other. According to CET, the need for
autonomy and competence are
linked to intrinsic motivation; therefore, if internal forces drive
a person, that person’s behavior
will also feel controlled and autonomous (Deci & Ryan, 2002).
If a person is competent, intrinsic
motivation will increase because the individual is able to
effectively manage his or her
environment (Deci & Ryan, 2002).
Intrinsic motivation can increase autonomy and competence.
Unlike autonomy and
competence, relatedness is indirectly influenced by intrinsic
motivation. Deci and Ryan (2002)
claim that a child’s attachment to their primary caregiver
increases exploring behavior, which
indicates that relatedness is intrinsically motivated. This occurs
because children tend to be
naturally curious about their environment when in the company
of their primary caregiver as
opposed to a stranger. Although relatedness is not directly
affected by intrinsic motivation, it is
an intrinsically motivating factor.

429. Basic Needs Theory (BNT)
BNT focuses on the basic needs of autonomy, competence and
relatedness as they pertain
to well-being and mental health. This theory asserts that if a
person’s psychological needs are
met, they will have improved well-being and psychological
health. Deci and Ryan (2001) state
that when a person’s needs are satisfied, that person has greater
well-being. They also argue that
people experience negative consequences when their basic
needs are not met. The researchers
hypothesized that basic needs are universal across cultures, ages
and genders, but that how those
basic needs are met varies across demographics. Due to these
differences, Deci and Ryan (2002)
40
posits that motivation that satisfies one group may inhibit
another group, but that the process in
which basic needs are met remains the same.
Research on BNT falls into three categories. The first one
examines how people

430. experience well-being over time with other people. The second
category explores how people
pursue and attain personal goals and obtain well-being. The
third category examines satisfaction
of basic needs across cultures, suggesting that such satisfaction
relates to well-being regardless
of cultural differences.
In addition to these research categories, BNT also explores the
relationship between
aspirations and well-being. Kasser and Ryan (1996) suggest that
there are two types of
aspirations: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic aspirations are
personal goals, while extrinsic
aspirations are external factors, such as wealth and fame.
Aspirations that are extrinsic do not
satisfy the basic needs of autonomy, competence, and
relatedness. Extrinsic aspirations may lead
to depression and anxiety (Deci & Ryan 2002).
Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
OIT examines motivation and focuses on extrinsic motivation,
which is when a person
engages in a behavior or activity based on external factors. This
mini theory views extrinsic

431. motivation as a continuum varying of self-determination. OIT
argues that people may exhibit
behavior that is prompted by external factors, but may become
intrinsically controlled over time.
The degree of that integration of control occurs leads to self-
determination (Deci & Ryan, 2002).
There are four motivational OIT categories positioned on the
continuum, ranging from high self-
determination to low self-determination respectively: integrated
regulation, identified regulation,
introjected regulation, and external regulation. The continuum
does not contain intrinsic
motivation. On the other end of the spectrum, amotivation is the
absence of self-determination.
41
Integrated regulation is defined as the most self-determined
form of extrinsic motivation.
Integrated regulation is when a person’s values are integrated in
themselves or comes from
within. This regulation allows a person to achieve outcomes that
may not be inherent or natural
actions despite being integrated within the self (Deci et al.,
1996). Identified regulation is the act

432. of knowing that there is value in a goal and accepting that
value, but the integration is not a core
value; therefore, it cannot be considered completely self-
determined (Deci & Ryan, 2002).
Introjected regulation incorporates some regulation, but there is
a significant level of control
present to protect the ego from things such as shame or guilt
(Rigby et al., 1992). Finally,
external regulation is the least self-determined form of
regulation, satisfying an external source
to avoid punishment or receive a reward (Deci & Ryan, 2002).
Deci and Ryan (2002) argue that relatedness plays a critical role
in regulation.
Regulation may develop from an external reward, but the
outcome is achieved by a person’s
need to feel connected with others. However, competence also
plays an important role in
regulation. If an individual does not feel that the action or
behavior can be done successfully the
person will not perform the act. Relatedness and competence
both must be present for
integration and autonomy to occur (Deci & Ryan, 2002).
Causality Orientations Theory (COT)

433. COT focuses on individual differences of one’s positioning on
being self-determined.
There are three main causal orientations that develop based on
how a person interacts with their
environment. According to Deci and Ryan (1985), autonomous
orientations are persons that
tend to be intrinsically motivation and integrated or
extrinsically motivated. An individual’s
behaviors are regulated based on one’s own sense of self. The
majority of people’s behavior
stems from internally regulated factors. Unlike autonomous
orientation, controlled orientations
42
are dictated by external pressure, by status, success or to seek
approval from others. Controlled
orientation occurs from excessive involvement in controlling
environments. This leads to
impersonal orientation, which is the absence of self-
determination that develops from feelings of
inability and powerlessness to deal with the environment (Deci
& Ryan, 1985).
Vallerand (2002) expanded COT into levels of generality:

434. global, contextual and
situational. The global level is stable motivation that is based
on how the individual perceives
motivation throughout one’s life. It is mainly intrinsic,
extrinsic or amotivated. The contextual
level is based on interactions and relationships in life and is
somewhat stable despite being based
on social factors. Lastly, the situational level examines why
people are motivated in specific
situations at specific times. The situational level is unstable
because it is dependent upon
environmental factors. The motivational orientations affect
each other. A person’s global level
motivation orientation has an impact on the contextual level,
which also influences the
situational level. The vice versa is also true. If a person at the
situational level has positive
experiences this encourages a person to have more intrinsic
motivation at the contextual level
and ultimately the global level (Vallerand, 2002).
Summary
Overall, SDT examines motivation and the factors that nurture
or hinder its development.

435. The current school environment is not conducive to African
American motivation because
African American student’s basic psychological needs are not
being met. SDT can be attributed
to a student’s motivation in education. Students have become
increasingly less motivated and
SDT may help provide some context to the lack of motivation.
CET argues that people have an
innate need to explore their environment. OIT implies that
students may integrate their
experiences and social environment and become self-
determined. COT argues that a person’s
43
experiences affect their motivational orientation. Lastly, BNT
states that basic needs are deeply
rooted in physical and emotional wellbeing. SDT implies that
there may be many factors that
affect self-determination. The different ways that people are
motivated vary based on cultural or
individual factors. African Americans have experienced
motivational barriers and in order to
determine how self-determination is affected by African
American culture. It is important to

436. understand African American culture by analyzing the natural
factors and external factors that
affect the psychological needs essential for self-determination.
African American culture will be
analyzed by examining autonomy (perception of control from
external factors), competence
(perception of success) and relatedness (connectedness to the
community) in education.
Factors That Affect African American Motivation
Post desegregation, African Americans have struggled
academically when compared to
European Americans (Peterson et al., 2010). In 2001, the No
Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
was enacted by the US Department of Education to address the
achievement gap and required
that all schools make adequate yearly progress (AYP) towards
academic growth (Department of
Education, n.d.). Many African Americans continue to fail
despite these government initiatives.
Consequently, many African Americans have not had successful
academic experiences. It is
important to identify why many African American students are
not succeeding at the same rate

437. as European Americans.
African American students should be able to achieve
academically in the same manner as
European Americans in public schools, but the research states
that this is not happening for all
students. According to Kunjufu (2010), approximately 100,000
African American males drop
out of school each year. He also reports that these students
often have poor attendance,
excessive absences and lack of motivation due to lack of
parental involvement. According to the
44
National Center for Educational Statistic’s 2009, graduation
rates were severely disproportionate
among European American and African American students.
European Americans are graduating
at rate of 80.3% while African Americans are graduating at a
rate of 60.3% (Stillwell, 2009).
Overall, the high school dropout rate leads to underachievement
and lack of success, which
affects the student’s capacity for success. According to the
Alliance for Excellent Education

438. (2007) high school dropout in (2005) was earning $17,299,
while high school graduates’
earnings was $26,933 (Baker, 2012).
Despite these statistics, there are African Americans students
who are academically
successful. Although African American students are not
performing at the same rates
academically as European Americans, African Americans value
success (Coker, 2003). One
study found that achieving educational goals was a function of
African American culture and
lives (Coker, 2003). There is not enough information to
determine what aspects of African
American cultural values support African Americans desire to
be academically motivated. The
current literature focuses on college student’s academic
motivation (Young, Hawthorne, & Pugh,
2011). More research is needed to determine how African
American high school students are
motivated and if culture or racial-ethnic identity plays a role in
their academic motivation (Rust
et al. 2011; Caldwell & Obasi, 2010). The present literature
focuses on academic motivation of
African American college students using the variables of

439. academic self-concept (Martin, 2013;
Cokley, 2002), self-esteem (Rust et al. 2011; Cokely, 2002),
grade point average (Cokely, 2002;
Rust et al., 2011), family and community (Coker, 2003;
Caldwell & Obasi, 2010), cultural
mistrust (Caldwell & Obasi, 2010), cultural difference (Young,
Johnson, Hawthorne, & Pugh,
2011; Rust et al., 2011) and religiosity (Butler-Barnse, Williams
& Chavous, 2011), and racial
identity (Byrd & Chavous, 2011; Robinson & Biran, 2006).
Many variables have been
45
researched and racial-ethnic identity appears to be the most
influential factor in academic
motivation. This study will utilize two instruments to
determine the impact of racial-ethnic
identity on academic motivation. One instrument, the REIS
contains 3 subscales that measure
Connectedness, Awareness of Racism and Embedded
Achievement. The second instrument is
the AMS – High School version that measures a student’s
motivation to learn. The AMS

440. measures intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and
amotivation. This study will determine
the impact of racial-ethnic identity on academic motivation of
African American students. The
next section will outline African American racial-ethnic
variables and as it pertains to embedded
achievement, community and family.
Racial-Ethnic Identity of African Americans
Racial-ethnic identity is social construction that “refers to a
sense of group or collective
identity based on one’s perception that he or she shares a
common heritage with a particular
racial group” (Helms, 1993, p. 3). There are multiple studies
that examine the effects of racial-
ethnic identity and academic outcomes (Oyserman, Grant &
Ager, 1995; Oyserman,
Kemmelmeir, Fryberg, Brosh, & Hart-Johnson, 2003; Altschul,
Oyserman & Bybee, 2006;
Oyserman, Harrison & Bybee, 2001; Oysersman, Bybee &
Terry, 2003: Cokley, 2005).
Oyserman, Brickman and Rhodes (2007) used the structure that
racial-ethnic identity is linked to
self-concept and self-schemas that affect the cognitive
structures that are associated with

441. motivation and behavior. The researchers above argue that
schools have social contexts that
cause students to create a separate person outside of the family
structure. African American
students often have a difficult time developing a positive
academic concept due to negative
academic stereotypes (Oyserman et al., 1995).
46
Oyserman et al., 1995 suggests that there are three components,
connectedness, and
awareness of racism and embedded achievement of racial-ethnic
identity that impact academic
outcomes of African American students. Connectedness is the
“extent to which individuals feel
a positive sense of connections to their racial-ethnic group”
(Oyserman et al., 2007 p. 96).
Awareness of racism is the second component of racial-ethnic
identity, which is defined as how a
person responds to prejudice or racism (Oyserman et al., 2007).
Lastly embedded achievement
“which comprises beliefs that achievement is a goal that is
valued by the in-group and therefore

442. provides a specific goal (such as doing well in school) for
motivation derived from the desire to
enact group identity” (Oyserman et al., 2007, p. 98). The three
components of racial-ethnic
identity act together to promote well-being and academic
achievement (Oyserman, 1995).
The three components together promote success in school and
the components for
student’s overtime (Oyserman et al., 2007). The three
components of racial-ethnic identity were
tested with several studies. One study (Oyserman et al., 1995)
asked 7th and 8th grade African
American students in to answer questions open-ended question
about what it means to be African
American before and after completing a math task or after
completing a math task. The study
found that students who described their racial-ethnic identity in
terms of all three components,
connectedness, awareness of racism and embedded achievement
before the math task performed
better on the math tasks than all other conditions. None of the
racial-ethnic identity components
alone had a significant effect on the math task.

443. In addition to using an open-ended racial-ethnic identity scale
and Oyserman, Bybee and
Terry (2003) found in a yearlong longitudinal study that African
American middle school
students that scored high in all areas – connectedness,
awareness of racism and embedded
achievement overtime became more concerned with school.
This study used the REIS and found
47
similar results to Oyserman et al., 2001 study using the closed-
ended racial-ethnic scale that
found that African American students did not have a decline in
self-efficacy. In addition to the
researcher’s results, Altschul, Oyserman and Bybee (2006)
found that the relationships between
the components were stable across gender, race-ethnicity and
time. Overall, several studies have
shown how racial-ethnic identity impacts academic outcomes.
The next sections will outline
how connectedness, awareness of racism and embedded
achievement affects African American.
Connectedness of African Americans

444. Connectedness is defined as how an individual positively feels
about a sense of
connection to one’s racial-ethnic group (Oyserman et al., 2007).
This includes a sense of
membership in the African American community, traditions of
familialism, kin support and a
worldview focused on spiritualism (Oyserman et al., 2007).
This aspect of the scale is tied to
student’s self-esteem (Oyserman et al., 2007). According to
Snowden and Hines (2000), media
preferences, key group relationships, comfort with and
immersion in African American
socializations and settings and African American styles of
thinking and patterns of behavior
convey African American culture. African American culture is
different than other American
subcultures because it is the only culture that is rooted in
slavery. Slavery has shaped African
Americans social, psychological, economic, educational, and
political development. European
Americans worked to eradicate education from African
American culture and superimpose the
message that education was only for European Americans
(Davis, 2005). African American

445. education was purged during the acculturation process and
stripped African Americans of
African identity which is still prevalent in African American
culture (Davis, 2005). African
Americans become disengaged in the educational process that
results in a lack of motivation
(Rocques & Paternoster, 2011). It is important for educators to
use culturally responsive
48
teaching to develop academic motivation (Davis, 2005).
Notwithstanding this best practice,
many educators fail to understand African American culture and
ultimately fail to successfully
motivate African American students.
Culture of community. This next section will examine the
culture of community and
how spirituality impacts African American culture. Carson
(2009) argued that collectivism or a
culture of community has taken place throughout history for
African Americans in the pursuit of
education in order to improve academically by educating each
other within the community. The

446. African American community came together to dispel myths
that they were inferior (Perry,
2003a, b). One study showed that African Americans felt
responsible for encouraging academic
achievement for their college community and collectivism
developed these beliefs, although they
did not feel connected to the larger university (Carson, 2009).
African Americans value collectivism or community and
cooperation whereas
mainstream American culture places emphasis on individualism
and competition (Maryshow et
al., 2005). Schools typically focus on middle class European
American values that can vary
from the learning style and values exhibited by African
American students. The academic
disparities among African Americans and European American
students may arise by the discord
in cultural norms and values of African American students
compared to European American
students. African American students often feel there is not a
link between the values and
operations present in home and outside of the home
environment (Brown-Wright & Tyler, 2010).
African Americans are connected in their own communities, but

447. often experience
difficulty connecting to the dominant society. Oftentimes,
African American students have
different principles, vernacular, patterns of communication and
other factors that are different
then the dominant culture (Cokely & Chapman, 2008).
American society has many stereotypes
49
about African Americans, one, is a lack of intelligence. This
stereotype may make African
Americans susceptible to internalizing stereotypes because they
are perceived by the dominant
culture (Reyna, 2000). According to Cokley and Chapman
(2008), stereotypes about minorities
affect student goals and inhibit the student’s ability to be
successful in school. Academic under
achievement may be intensified by negative experiences in
school due to teacher bias, lack of
appropriate resources and culturally relevant instruction
(Cokely & Chapman, 2008). African
Americans are unable to escape race relations. Strmic-Pawl and
Leffler (2011) indicated that

448. racial socialization was a prevalent theme in their study. Racial
socialization was described as
messages provided about racial identity. In the African
American community, there are direct
and indirect messages about race and African American families
pass on to their children.
African American students may be impacted by difficulties
experienced within the
community or within school. Many African American students
drop out of school for many
reasons including past school experiences, personal
characteristics, familial responsibilities and
family background (Schargel, Thacker & Bell, 2007). African
American students indicated that
the decision to drop out of high school was a gradual process
that occurred through repeated
negative experiences that lead to feeling unmotivated
(Bridgland, Dilulio, & Morrison, 2006). In
a recent study, it was cited that students dropped out of high
school because there was no
connection between the student’s lives and goals for the future
(Bridgeland, Balfanz, Moore &
Friant, 2010). African American students do not have control
over the external life factors, but

449. with improved leadership, instructional practices that relate to
the student’s lives and data driven
instruction may improve student dropouts despite the ability to
control external factors (Baker,
2012). Overall, this lack of autonomy for African Americans
has had a negative effect on
academic outcomes. According to the US Census Bureau (2006),
over 50% of the US population
50
will comprise of African-Americans, Hispanics or Asians (Li,
2012). In addition to expected
census results, Scheuermann (2000) found that non-cognitive
factors such as personality traits,
emotional stability, experience, agreeableness and
conscientiousness are equally important in the
academic success of students. The previous study is particularly
important because there must be
a balance between academic and social characteristics, in
conjunction with a supportive
environment to increase intrinsic motivation and develop goals
(Li, 2012). With the lack of
balance experienced by African American high school students
within the school community and

450. socially has led to differing attitudes about academic success.
Robinson and Biran (2006) posit that African American culture
of community consists of
spiritualism and collective responsibility. The school system
fails to provide African American
students with a cultural base. Without a cultural base, African
American students are unable to
maintain a focus on academic success. Although the current
educational system does not
promote intrinsic motivation among African American students,
many excel academically.
When African American students are academically successful it
is because they care about their
environment and strive for harmony and spiritualty in the
community. Having a high level of
African American self-consciousness provides intrinsic
motivation and feelings of responsibility
for the African American community. The study also found a
positive link between self-reported
GPA and African American identity. There was also a positive
link between self-reported SAT
score and feeling connected to other African Americans
(Robinson & Biran, 2006). The culture

451. perpetuated by the school system determines a student’s self-
concept (Robinson & Biran, 2006).
Self-concept of an African American student is determined by
how well an African American
student behaves in comparison to values, beliefs and practices
set by the culture within the
school (Robinson & Biran, 2006; Oyserman et al., 2001).
Schools are utilizing different rewards
51
and punishments that are not representative of African
American culture; therefore, diminishing
a student’s ability to be self-determined. Robinson and Biran
(2006), Oyserman et al., (2007)
found that African American students are struggling
academically because of conflicting
culturally based expectations within school and the community
such as negative stereotypes of
African Americans, lack of African American role models, and
limited emphasis on African
American contributions and lack of positive societal depictions
of African Americans. These
attributes hinder intrinsic motivation among African American
youth. Despite these conflicts,

452. many African Americans develop a sense of purpose and excel
academically. Examining which
cultural or racial-ethnic factors increase intrinsic motivation
and extrinsic motivation among
African American students will improve academic outcomes for
African American students.
Spirituality. Throughout history African Americans have had a
firm faith-based belief.
Sabbath schools were developed in the South after the Civil War
to increase spirituality and
improve education (Span & Benson, 2009). These schools were
operated by former African
American slaves and were developed to teach basic literacy
skills and religion education (Span &
Benson, 2009). According to Mitchell (2010), history has
maintained that European American
northerners developed schools for African Americans, but in
fact, there were a large number of
schools developed by African Americans that had a significant
role in improving the literacy
rate. Anderson (1988), indicated that the African American
churches had a great influence in
improving the literacy rate of the community from 6% at the
end of the Civil War to 77% in

453. 1930. The role of the church in the African American
community produced remarkable
educational results (Mitchell, 2010). The African American
community ties to the church also
extended to higher institutions including multiple faith based
universities in the late 1880s
(Mitchell, 2010).
52
African Americans have thrived in the community with the use
of the church. According
to Butler-Barnes, Williams, & Chavous (2012), found that
African American students who had
lower academic motivation and lower religious importance were
at the highest risk for low grade
point averages. Overall, African Americans made a large
contribution after emancipation without
wealth and political power with the leadership of the African
American church (Mitchell, 2010).
African Americans rely heavily on spirituality to deal with
adversity.
In summary, African Americans have a culture of competence
despite hardships. African

454. Americans have countered segregation by building a strong
sense of collectivism and
belongingness within the community. African Americans have
embraced a strong religious
foundation that has provided the African American culture and
community with access to
education and the ability to provide wealth and political power
within the community. African
American culture has also extended to different family practices
and values that have affected
African Americans.
Family Practices and Values
Various experiences in the African American community such
as slavery and segregation
have affected how African Americans families function. The
core of African American family
values stem from collectivism and spirituality (Shorter-Gooden,
2004). African American
families have dealt with external factors by adopting
Afrocentric values including social support
developing a family cohesiveness to address social injustices.
When compared to European
American families, African American families are often viewed

455. as dysfunctional, but despite the
stereotype African American families have significant strengths
(Strmic-Pawl & Leffler, 2011).
Strmic-Pawl and Leffler (2011) found three themes that are
essential to African American
families, extended and fictive kinship, racial socialization and
education. Regardless of
53
socioeconomic status African American families are still
influenced by racism and maintain a
sense of African American identity. The participants in the
study identified how aunts, uncles
and grandparents played a significant role in raising them.
There were also members of the
community who were not related to the family but were active
in the participant’s life. These
relationships provided a flexible familial unit. Nobles (2007)
noted that African American
families value these types of relationships because of the
extended relationships that developed
during slavery and when family members were bought and sold.
African American families also

456. place value on the elders in the community because their
strength and dealing with the hardships
they had to endure. Boyd-Franklin (2003) also noted that
African American families have
family members and close friends that take an active role in the
home. In a study conducted by
Hill (1999) identified strong kinships, strong achievement
motivation, and strong religious and
spiritual and strong work orientation as characteristics of
African American families. These
characteristics have allowed African Americans to strive in
difficult circumstances despite a non-
traditional family structure.
Awareness of Racism
Awareness of racism is defined as understanding negative
responses to African
Americans and having awareness of racism and others prejudice
(Oyserman et al., 2007).
According to a study conducted by McSwine (2010), African
American cultural hegemony
(negation of one culture by another) has caused African
Americans to experience complex
psychological factors such as delineation, color prejudice and
xenophobia, implicit and explicit

457. European American supremacy ideology has been the
sabotaging force of academic achievement
among African American. Therefore, African American
students need to be grounded in their
culture before they can function in the larger American society.
Without a connection to the
54
African American culture, African American students will
continue to internalize the values of
the oppressors and in turn maintain their oppression (Freire,
1972).
African American students have dealt with acculturation in
various ways. Thomas and
Columbus (2009) found that there were three types of culture
identification, oppositional identity
raceless identity and primary cultural identity. Oppositional
identity is a person who does not
identify with the dominant culture. Raceless identity is a
person who feels they can be
successful despite negative stereotypes because if they work
hard they can achieve their goals.
Primary cultural identity maintains that a person will work hard

458. in school for the good of their
culture and value school and education for the good of
themselves and the good of the group.
Overall, the study found that African American students who
maintained an oppositional identity
were less successful academically.
After segregation, African American student’s cultural
experiences were not considered
in educational experiences and were expected to excel
academically. The oversight of African
American acculturation after educational segregation of African
American students has suffered.
African American students need to feel connected to their
histories by utilizing an Afrocentric
approach to education (Shockley & Frederick, 2010). Educating
Americans should take on a
different process that reflects the individual needs of all races
and ethnicities within American
culture. Shockley and Frederick (2010) posit that Afrocentric
private schools may offer a
solution to the achievement gap.
In order for African American students to value education,
ethnic identity should be

459. stressed in academics. African American students need to
explore ethnic identity, which will
develop internally and ethnically grounded reasons to achieve
academically despite negative
stereotypes and messages (Pizzaloato, Podobnik, Chaudhari,
Schaeffer & Murrell, 2008).
55
Maintaining ethnic identity will promote psychosocial well-
being. Mandara (2006) found that
African American students that exhibited racial pride performed
better academically. These
students also spend a large amount of time in school and
involved in school related activities.
Schools have the propensity to either affirm or deteriorate racial
identity and racial stereotypes.
Schools can serve as a racial socialization hub by providing
positive messages of race and
academic achievement (DeCuir-Gimby, Martin & Cooper,
2012). One study showed that
parents who developed their child’s African American identity
by encouraging African
American cultural activities and having African American
playmates and involvement in African

460. American churches increased educational outcomes (DeCuir-
Gimby, Martin & Cooper, 2012).
The study also found that these African American students that
have a firm grasp on their
African American identity because they felt distinctive due to a
lack of diversity. It was
important to the students to maintain their identity. The
adversity experienced by the
participants in the group caused students to develop a sense of
African American pride and
develop their sense as an African American. The student’s
connection to the African American
community despite negative experiences in the schools helped
students to be successful
academically (DeCuir-Gimby, Martin & Cooper, 2012).
Embedded Achievement of African Americans
Embedded achievement is described as the beliefs that African
Americans value
achievement and that motivation is derived from being part of
the racial-ethnic group (Oyserman
et al., 2007). Despite the achievement gap between African
American and European American
students, there are many high achieving African American

461. students. African Americans have
been able to overcome adversity throughout history. African
American students who are
academically successful appear to have strong connections.
According to Williams and Bryan’s
56
(2013) study they found that African American students who are
connected to the school and
community are more academically successful. The students that
were interviewed indicated how
they were involved in extracurricular activities such as church,
clubs or organizations. Williams
and Bryan (2013) also found that student’s parents had high
academic expectation for their
children. In addition to this study, The Kinder Institute of
Urban Research at Rice University
(2013) conducted a survey and found that 90% of the African
Americans surveyed indicated that
success in life required post-secondary education. This was
higher than any other racial group.
This further proves that African Americans understand the value
of academic achievement. In

462. addition to this study, other studies have found that school
belongingness predicts student
success (Buote, 2001; Anderman 2002). Sense of school
belonging within school has a
significant effect on student achievement. Previous studies
have used existing elements to
determine student success such as grades and time spent on
homework (Taylor et al., 1994).
According to a study conducted by Taylor (1999), student’s
perceptions of school belonging of
African American adolescents had direct effect on student grade
point average.
Despite the myth that African Americans do not value
education, Strmic-Pawl and
Leffler (2011) found that African Americans do value family
and education. According to
Benjamin (2007), African Americans embrace the fact that the
education is the primary route to
increasing economic status. The participants in that study
explained how messages from elders
and fictive kinships stressed the importance of education.
African American families
emphasized education as a cultural value by teaching the
importance of overcoming oppression.

463. Even with the knowledge that in order to be successful you have
to go to school, African
American students may be impacted by negative factors. There
are variables that promote or
hinder academic achievement and motivation among African
American students. According to
57
Kao and Thompson (2003), there are cultural orientations that
promote/discourage academic
achievement. In conjunction to cultural orientations, structural
positions of ethnic groups affect
children's environment including parent, peer and school.
“Ethnic groups have cultural
orientations, which can benefit or hurt their odds of economic
(and in this study, educational)
success relative to other groups” (Kao & Thompson, 2003, p.
419). Along with these variables
that may promote or hinder academic motivation of African
American students, variations in
grades or achievement can be attributed to parental background,
student characteristics and
behavior. Several studies also found that grade variation is
similar to test scores. Kao and

464. Thompson (2003) found that grades are highly correlated to
parental socio economic status.
Differences in academic achievement among African Americans
and European Americans were
further supported in a study conducted by Kao, Tienda and
Schneider (1996). The mean grade
point average (GPA) for African American students remained
statistically significantly lower
than European American students when parental socio economic
(SES) status was controlled.
Unfortunately stereotypes about African American students
reinforce low ability grouping
among African American students in schools. African American
students are more likely to be
placed in low ability groups and vocational curricular then
affluent European American peers.
When students are placed in low ability groups, students
develop negative attitudes and
behaviors related to learning (Kao & Tienda, 1996). This
decreases African American student’s
competence in education leading to decreased self-
determination and motivation.
Factors That Affect African American Motivation Summary

465. Overall, African Americans have may have differing cultural or
racial-ethnic experiences
that lead to academic success or failure. The current research
does not fully cover how to
improve academic outcomes of African American students. The
research indicates various
58
reasons why African Americans educational experiences vary
(Martin, 2013; Cokley 2003; Rust
et al., 2011; Coker, 2003; Caldwell & Obasi, 2010; Young et
al., 2011; Byrd & Chavous, 2011;
Robinson & Biran, 2006). It is important to determine what
educators can do to improve
academic outcomes for African American students.
The research outlined highlights the hardships that African
American students face in the
current educational structures and academically successful
African Americans. The studies
suggest that African American students are most successful
when they are connected to the
community through clubs, organizations or church (Robinson &
Biran, 2006; Butler-Barnes et

466. al., 2012). According to the research, it is important to
understand the complexity of racial-
ethnic identity of African American and how the construct of
racial-ethnic identity motivates
students (Wright, 2009). African Americans have the ability to
be successful in the academic
setting. Oftentimes African Americans are not successful
because there is school home
dissonance, lack of connection to the school community, and
lack of control over external life
factors. When African Americans have their basic
psychological needs met, they will be
motivated and academically successful.
Overall, African Americans have had a tumultuous history in
education and many
African Americans have had both positive and negative
experiences. African American students
face continued sociocultural obstacles. The research shows that
African Americans have
experienced the basic psychological needs of self-determination
(autonomy, competence, and
relatedness) in a variety of ways. Some may have had negative
experiences in education due to
internal or external factors while others may have had positive

467. internal and external experiences
in education. There are a variety of way racial-ethnic identity
impacts African Americans that
may cause African Americans to experience self-determination
differently than European
59
Americans. It is important to understand the impact of racial-
ethnic identity on academic
motivation of African American high school students to improve
academic outcomes. It is
unclear how SDT contributes to the academic success of African
American students. It is clear
that African American students’ basic psychological needs of
autonomy, competence and
relatedness are not being met in the current academic setting.
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to provide background and
support for how racial-ethnic
identity impacts African American academic motivation.
Overall, based on the literature
reviewed it can be predicted that racial-ethnic identity can have
a positive (Mandura, 2006;

468. Decuir et al, 2012) or negative affect (Worrell, 2007; Harper &
Tucker, 2006) on academic
motivation of African American students. Embedded
achievement (Strmic et al, 2011) and
connectedness (Buote 2002; Anderman 2002) are likely to
increase academic motivation. In
addition, awareness of racism such as interracial attitudes and
segregation are more likely to
decrease academic motivation. According to the research,
African American students thrive in
environments where they feel connected and can see the
usefulness education (Buote 2002;
Anderman 2002). This study will examine how racial-ethnic
identity impacts academic
motivation.
60
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

469. This chapter outlines the methodology for the exploration of
academic motivation and
African American racial-ethnic identity. Participants will
complete two surveys, the REIS
questions and the AMS. A simple linear regression analysis will
be used to determine the impact
of racial-ethnic identity on academic motivation of African
American high school students. This
chapter will discuss the purpose of this study and outline the
research design, research questions,
hypothesis, participant demographics, setting, instrumentation,
procedures, and data analysis.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine whether racial-ethnic
identity impacts academic
motivation in African American high school students, and if so,
what aspects of racial-ethnic
identity best predict academic motivation in African American
high school students. Ideally, this
research will provide a foundation to develop racially relevant
strategies to motivate African
American high school students and subsequently improve their
academic performance. By

470. examining the possible impact of racial-ethnic identity on
academic motivation, this study will
begin to establish evidence that could inspire changes to
existing curricula and learning
strategies.
As previously noted, as a group, African American students
consistently lag behind their
European American counterparts (US Department of Education,
n.d.). With increased academic
motivation, academic outcomes may improve for African-
American students, helping to close
racial achievement gaps. By identifying how racial-ethnic
identity affects academic motivation,
teachers can implement more effective teaching strategies that
address the unique racial-ethnic
needs of African American high school students. This research
may help African American
students increase their motivation and in turn, better relate to
instruction and understand its value
61
in their lives (Bridgeland, Balfanz, Moore & Friant, 2010). In
addition, other studies have

471. examined racial factors for various ethnic groups and
determined that self-determined behavior
varies across cultures (Leake & Boone, 2007; Shogren, 2012;
Trainor, 2005; Zhang, 2005).
Research Design
This study will utilize a correlational research design to
determine the extent of the
relationship between the AMS and REIS variables. A linear
regression analysis will be used with
the REIS components (connectedness, embedded achievement
and awareness of racism) and the
AMS. A correlational design is “used to determine the
correlation between criterion variable and
a combination of two or more predictor variables” (Gall, Gall &
Borg, 2007, p. 353). This design
allows the researcher to investigate the relationship between
academic motivation and racial-
ethnic identity components (connectedness, embedded
achievement and awareness of racism) of
African American high school students.
Research Questions
The research objective for this study is to determine which
racial-ethnic variables best

472. predict academic motivation in African American high school
students. The related research
questions are shown below:
RQ1: What impact does the racial-ethnic identity component of
connectedness have on
academic motivation as measured by the AMS?
RQ2: What impact does the racial-ethnic identity component
awareness of racism have on
academic motivation as measured by the AMS?
RQ3: What impact does the racial-ethnic identity component of
embedded achievement have on
academic motivation as measured by the AMS?
62
Null Hypotheses
H01 There is no statistically significant predictive relationship
between the racial-ethnic identity
component of connectedness and academic motivation.
H02 There is no statistically significant predictive relationship
between the racial-ethnic identity
component of awareness of racism and academic motivation.

473. H03 There is no statistically significant predictive relationship
between the racial-ethnic identity
component of embedded achievement and academic motivation.
Participants
A convenience sample was taken from African American
students in grades 9-12 enrolled
in the 2015-2016 summer school program at a high school in
southeastern Virginia. The school’s
student body was predominantly African American (85.13%);
out of a total 962 African
American students, 504 were male (52.39% of the African
American student body) and 458 were
females (47.61% of the African American student body). A
minimum of 74 participants was
needed to perform a simple linear regression analysis according
to Green’s (1991) formula of 50
+ 8k, where k is the number of predictor variables.
The students in this study were enrolled in the summer
program, which required payment
for participation, to obtain course credits for high school
graduation. The school district was
located in a suburban district with a population of 242,803
residents, where incomes ranged from

474. high to very low; the poverty rate was 17.9%. 75% of students
at the high school are eligible for
free and reduced priced meals. Participant ages ranged from 14-
20 years, and students were
enrolled in grades 9-12. All participants who completed the
survey (n = 84) self-identified as
African American (Virginia Department of Education, 2016); 44
were male, and 40 female
(Table 1).
63
Setting
The setting for the study was an urban high school in the
southeastern area of Virginia,
referred to here as “ABC High School”. During the 2015-2016
academic year, the student body
of ABC High School was 85.13% African American, 6.19%
European American, 3.36%
Hispanic, 3.10% multiracial, and 2.22% from various other
racial groups (Table 2). A total of
962 African Americans students are enrolled in the school
across grades 9-12, 77% of who are

475. economically disadvantaged.
64
Instrumentation
Demographic data was collected using a questionnaire in
conjunction with two
instruments. Academic motivation was assessed using the AMS,
and African American identity
was measured using the REIS. According to George and Mallery
(2003), Cronbach’s alpha
scores that are closer to one have more internal consistency and
a score of .80 will be used for
overall scores. In addition, Nunnally and Bernstein (1994)
recommend that Cronbach alpha
scores between 0.6 and 0.7 are acceptable for subscales of
instruments assessing performance on
clinical and psychoeducational tasks. Validity was determined
through confirmatory factor
analyses and construct validity through multiple group
differences (Vallerand, Pelletier, Blais,
Brierre, Senecal & Vallieres, 1992).
Academic Motivation Scale (AMS)

476. The AMS (Vallerand, et al., 1992) was developed to measure
intrinsic motivation,
extrinsic motivation, and amotivation for academic
achievement. The scale is comprised of three
different subscales (intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation
and amotivation). The intrinsic
65
scale contains three components that measure intrinsic
motivation: knowledge, accomplishment,
and stimulation. The extrinsic motivation subscale is also
comprised of three components:
identified, introjected and external regulation. Overall, the AMS
consists of a total of 28
questions asking students to determine why they attend school
using a seven-point Likert scale
ranging from “corresponds exactly” to “does not correspond at
all.” The AMS produces an
overall Self-Determination Index (SDI) based on components of
intrinsic motivation, extrinsic
motivation, and amotivation. Possible SDI scores range from -
18 to + 18. Students with higher
scores are considered more intrinsically motivated.

477. Intrinsic motivation sub-scale. This scale examines three types
of intrinsic motivation:
intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic motivation toward
accomplishments, and intrinsic
motivation to experience stimulation. Each type of intrinsic
motivation is assessed with four
questions (for a total of twelve), and one total score is formed
from the three subscores. “Intrinsic
motivation to know” is defined as performing an act for the
pleasure and satisfaction of learning
and experiencing something new (Vellarand et al., 1992).
“Intrinsic motivation toward
accomplishment” focuses on satisfaction gained from attempting
to accomplish a goal. For
example, if a student completes additional work for an
assignment in order to outshine himself or
herself, that student is intrinsically motivated toward
accomplishment. Finally, “intrinsic
motivation to experience stimulation” is the pursuit of sensory
pleasure, aesthetic experiences,
and excitement. For example, a student who attends class to
experience stimulating class
discussion might be described as intrinsically motivated to
experience stimulation (Vellarand et

478. al., 1992).
Reliability and validity of intrinsic motivation subscales.
Vallerand et al. (1992)
conducted reliability tests utilizing Cronbach’s alpha test retest
(Table 3). The Cronbach’s alphas
66
are as follows: external regulation (0.83), interjected regulation
(0.73), and identified regulation
(0.71). The reliability exceeds the benchmark. A confirmatory
factor analysis confirmed a 7-
factor structure to show validity. The confirmatory factor
analysis showed the researcher found
the same 7 factors (amotivation, external regulation, introjected
regulation, identified regulation,
intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic motivation towards
accomplishment and intrinsic
motivation to experience stimulation) after re-testing the
results, including gender differences
(Table 4). This is in agreement with the validity requirements
stated above.
Extrinsic motivation subscale. This scale measures three types
of extrinsic motivation:

479. identified, introjected, and external regulation. Each type of
extrinsic motivation is assessed
using four questions (for a total of twelve) and one total score is
calculated from the three
subscores. Extrinsic motivation is defined as behavior that is
motivated by external rewards.
Identified regulation is the act of knowing that there is value in
a goal and accepting its value,
but the integration is not a core value; therefore, it cannot be
considered completely self-
determined (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Introjected regulation
incorporates some regulation, but there a
significant level of control is needed to protect a person’s ego
from things such as shame or guilt
(Rigby et al., 1992). Finally, external regulation is the least
self-determined form of regulation,
and is defined as satisfying an external source to avoid
punishment or receive a reward (Deci &
Ryan, 2002).
Reliability and validity of extrinsic motivation subscales.
Vallerand et al. (1992)
conducted reliability tests utilizing Cronbach’s alpha test retest
(Table 3). The Cronbach’s alphas

480. are as follows: intrinsic motivation to know (0.79), intrinsic
motivation towards accomplishment
(0.83), and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation (0.80)
that exceeds George and Mallery
67
(2003) established criteria. As stated above, the factor analysis
confirmed a 7-factor structure to
indicate validity, which included gender differences.
68
Racial Ethnic Identity Scale (REIS)
Oyserman et al. (2001) developed the REIS, which includes 3
sub-scales: connectedness,
awareness of racism, and embedded achievement. There a total
of 12 items, scored based on a 5
point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly
agree.” Each of the sub-scales
contains 4 items. The scale was developed from an open-ended
scale used by Oyserman et al.

481. (1995) to measure racial-ethnic identity quantitatively.
Connectedness. Connectedness is defined as an individual’s
positive feelings about a
sense of connection to their racial-ethnic group (Oyserman et
al., 2007). This includes a sense of
membership in the African American community, familial
traditions, support of kin, and a
worldview focused on spiritualism. This aspect of the scale is
tied to student self-esteem
(Oyserman et al., 2007). One total score is used for
Connectedness. A sample item from the
connectedness sub scale is, “It is important to me to think of
myself as an African American.”
Reliability and validity of connectedness. Oyserman et al.
(2007) conducted reliability
and validity testing on connectedness. Test-retest reliability
used Cronbach’s alpha’s test and the
sub-scale connectedness was a 0.78, which meets reliability
requirements (George and Mallery,
2003). To determine structural validity, a confirmatory factor
analysis was conducted to
determine whether the scale structure is similar across groups.
The scale was reliable across
races, genders, and age groups (Oyserman et al., 2007).

482. Awareness of racism. Awareness of racism is defined as
understanding negative
responses to African Americans and having awareness of racism
and others’ prejudices
(Oyserman et al., 2007). One total score is calculated for the
subscale Awareness of Racism. An
example of an awareness of racism question is, “Some people
will treat me differently because I
am African American.”
69
Reliability and validity of awareness of racism. The awareness
of racism subscale has
a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.81, indicating the test is reliable
(George and Mallery, 2003). A
confirmatory factor analysis was conducted across races,
gender, and age groups and determined
the test is valid.
Embedded achievement. Embedded achievement is described
as beliefs that African
Americans value achievement, and that motivation is derived
from being part of a racial-ethnic

483. group (Oyserman et al., 2007). A sample item from this
subscale is, “If I am successful it will
help the African American community.”
Reliability and validity of embedded achievement. The
Embedded Achievement
subscale was found reliable based on its Cronbach’s alpha score
of 0.65. According to Nunnally
and Bernstein (1994), this score is acceptable for a subscale.
The scale was determined to be
structurally valid based on gender, age group, and race using a
confirmatory factor analysis.
Summary
Overall, the AMS measures intrinsic motivation, extrinsic
motivation, and amotivation.
The REIS measures connectedness, awareness of racism, and
embedded achievement. All
subscales meet validity and reliability criteria according either
to George and Mallery’s (2003)
decision rule of .80, or Nunnally and Bernstein’s (1994)
recommendation that acceptable
Cronbach’s alphas between 0.6 and 0.7 are acceptable for
subscales on tests of clinical and
psychoeducational tasks.

484. The Cronbach’s alpha scores for the AMS range from 0.71
(identified regulation) and
0.83 (external regulation and intrinsic motivation –
accomplishment) (Table 3). The Cronbach
alpha scores for the REIS range from 0.65 (embedded
achievement) to 0.81 (awareness of
racism).
70
Procedures
Approval from the Liberty University Institutional Review
Board (IRB) was acquired
before research began. The researcher contacted the district
research evaluator to obtain approval
to conduct the study in the school district, and the district
granted permission pending principal
approval. The researcher sent a copy of IRB approval to the
school district’s research department
and the school principal. The school and district’s individual
needs were accounted for to ensure
that the research process will minimally affect school
procedures.
The building principal determined that the best time to conduct

485. the study was during
summer school, which had a total enrollment of 213 students.
The researcher sent a letter to the
teachers to explain how to conduct and return the survey
(Appendix B). The survey includes
instructions for the students, demographic data, the AMS, and
REIS.
One week prior to administering the survey, the teachers were
provided with copies of
the opt-out permission form (Appendix A) to distribute to the
students, who brought them home
to give parents and families the opportunity to opt out of
participating in the study. Students who
did not opt out were asked to complete the survey; however,
student participation was voluntary
for all students whether or not the opt-out form was returned.
Teachers collected the opt-out
forms until the day the survey was administered. Five students
returned the opt-out form.
Teachers received a handout with step-by-step standardized
directions for survey
administration (Appendix C). Before the survey was
administered, the teachers reviewed the
directions. On the day of survey, the teachers read the following

486. statement from the researcher:
“Today you will be taking a survey. This survey will look at
academic motivation and racial
ethnic identity. Your participation is appreciated if you did not
return the opt out form. The
survey should take approximately 20 minutes. Your answers are
important and will be used to
71
make educational decisions. It is important to try to answer all
of the questions. Does anyone
have any questions? If you have questions during the survey
raise your hand. Thank you for your
participation. The researcher appreciates your participation in
the survey. You may begin your
survey now.” After 20 minutes, the teacher thanked the students
for participating and returned
the completed surveys in the self-addressed envelope.
The teachers were able to answer questions and contact the
researcher at any time during
the survey. The researcher did not receive any calls from
teachers administering the survey. The
researcher received the completed surveys four weeks after the

487. surveys were mailed to the
school. The researcher then converted the data into Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS) format.
Data Analysis
A linear regression analysis was used to determine whether
racial-ethnic identity
components predicted academic motivation of African American
high school students. This
study utilized a predictive regression analysis to examine how
racial-ethnic identity
(connectedness, awareness of racism, and embedded
achievement) predicts academic motivation.
A linear regression analysis was an appropriate choice for this
type of data analysis: according to
Gall, Gall and Borg (2007), standard regression analysis
requires at least 74 participants, using
the 50 + 8k formula where k is the number of predictor
variables. This study will examine how
the three racial identity subscales best predicts intrinsic
motivation and extrinsic motivation
academic motivation sub-scales. A significance value of p <
.02 was used based on multiple

488. bivariate regression using a Bonferroni-adjusted alpha level of
.0167 per test (.05/3) to determine
whether to reject or accept the null hypothesis (Warner, 2013).
Assumption testing was
performed to test for linearity, extreme outliners, and normality.
A simple linear regression
72
model was used to describe the linear dependence of one
variable on another. This model also
predicts values of one variable from values of another, and
corrects for the linear dependence of
one variable on another using variability features.
73
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is report the findings of the current
study. This study
examined the relationship between academic motivation and

489. racial ethnic identity of African
American high school students using a correlational design. The
correlational design was
appropriate because the study involved a relationship between,
rather than a manipulation of, two
variables. The independent variables were the racial/ethnic
identity components of
connectedness, awareness of racism, and embedded
achievement; the dependent variables were
self-reported academic motivation.
To attempt to address the racial education gap in the United
States, this study will help
teachers understand what factors contribute to African
American students’ educational needs.
Stinson (2011) found African American students are more
motivated in schools that adopt a
group-centered ethos. Additionally, identifying variables that
promote academic motivation may
help educators and policy makers develop curricular support to
help African American students
achieve at the same rate as their European American
counterparts. More research on African
American racial-ethnic identity can provide insight into
academic motivation in ways that

490. traditional methods of educating African American students
cannot (Caldwell & Obasi, 2010).
The link between African American racial-ethnic identity and
academic motivation is just
beginning to be explored through research, and has not been
clearly defined. Therefore, it is
important to examine these factors.
This chapter provides an overview of the descriptive data,
followed by more specific
analysis of each null hypothesis and the related findings.
Results are organized in three sections.
First, the study research questions and hypotheses are restated.
Next, descriptive statistics are
74
discussed. The results section is organized by hypothesis.
Assumption testing for each statistical
test follows. The assumption data is explained and reviewed.
Tables and charts are presented
confirming the assumptions. Next, data for each hypothesis was
analyzed to either accept or
reject the null hypothesis. The results of each hypothesis are
stated.

491. The three null hypotheses were evaluated using three bivariate
regressions. To reduce
family-wise error and decrease the possibility of type I error, a
Bonferroni correction was used,
α/n = (.05/3) to set a more conservative p value α = .02
(Warner, 2013).
Research Questions
The research questions used in the study are outlined below:
RQ1: What impact does the racial-ethnic identity component of
connectedness have on
academic motivation as measured by the AMS?
RQ2: What impact does the racial-ethnic identity component
awareness of racism have on
academic motivation as measured by the AMS?
RQ3: What impact does the racial-ethnic identity component of
embedded achievement have on
academic motivation as measured by the AMS?
Null Hypotheses
H01 There is no statistically significant predictive relationship
between the connectedness
component of racial-ethnic identity and academic motivation.

492. H02 There is no statistically significant predictive relationship
between the awareness of racism
component of racial-ethnic identity and academic motivation.
H03 There is no statistically significant predictive relationship
between the embedded
achievement component of racial-ethnic identity and academic
motivation.
75
Descriptive Statistics
A total of 84 participants participated in the study after
eliminating participants who did
not identify themselves as African American, and those whose
surveys were incomplete. The
means and standard deviations for each of the predictor
variables (n = 84) of connectedness,
embedded achievement and awareness of racism are displayed
in Table 5.
The participants’ survey responses from the Academic
Motivation Scale (AMS) and the
Racial Ethnic Identity Scale (REIS) were analyzed. The REIS

493. was used to measure the racial-
ethnic identity predictor variable using items that measured
what it means to be African
American. This scale used a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly
disagree to 5 = strongly agree)
measuring racial ethnic identity using the components
embedded achievement, connectedness
and awareness of racism. The embedded achievement scale
yielded a mean score of 3.185 (SD =
.903); the connectedness subscale yielded a mean score of
3.9554 (SD = .90361); and the
awareness of racism scale yielded a mean score of 3.6786 (SD =
.91964). Each subscale of the
REIS impacts academic success (Oyserman, 2007).
76
The AMS was used to generate an SDI score measuring
academic motivation. The AMS
used a 7-point Likert scale (1 = Does not correspond at all to 7
= corresponds exactly); the SDI
scores yielded a mean score of 2.86 (SD = 4.001). Table 1
displays the descriptive statistics for
three predictor variables and the criterion variable for this

494. study.
Results for Research Question One
Null hypothesis one states that there is no statistically
significant predictive relationship
between the racial-ethnic identity component of connectedness
and academic motivation as
measured by the AMS. A bivariate regression was conducted to
test this null hypothesis. Since
three bivariate regressions were conducted, a Bonferroni-
corrected alpha level of α = .02 was
used to determine significance (Warner, 2013; Rovai, Baker, &
Ponton, 2013).
Assumption Testing
A simple linear regression analysis was conducted to determine
whether academic
motivation could be predicted from the connectedness
component of racial-ethnic identity. The
null hypothesis tested that the regression coefficient (slope) was
equal to 0. The data was
screened to for violations of assumption prior to analysis.
Linearity. The scatterplot (Figure 1) of the connectedness
component of racial-ethnic
identity and academic motivation indicates that the assumption

495. of linearity is reasonable. As the
racial-ethnic component of connectedness increases, academic
motivation generally slightly
increases.
77
Figure 1- Scatterplot of independent variable and
dependent variable
Normality. The assumption of normality was tested via an
examination of the scatterplot
of the REIS connectedness and AMS (Figure 1). The scatterplot
data appears to be normally
distributed.
No significant outliers. There are no significant outliers
(Figure 1).
Results summary assumption testing. Overall, the
connectedness component of racial-
ethnic identity has met all of the assumption testing. See Table
6 for the results of the
assumption testing for research question one.

496. 78
Hypothesis One Testing
Descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics for the simple linear
regression are presented
in Table 5. Descriptive statistics was collected for the simple
linear regression for 84 participants
after eliminating 9 surveys from students who did not identify
themselves as African American
and 3 surveys from students who did not complete the entire
survey. There were no significant
outliers.
Analysis. A simple linear regression was carried out to
ascertain the extent to which the
connectedness component of racial-ethnic identity can predict
academic motivation. A very weak
but still-significant positive correlation was found between the
connectedness component of
racial-ethnic identity and academic motivation scores (r = .278),
and the regression model
predicted 8% of the variance. The regression equation for
predicting the dependent variable of
academic motivation is y = 1.23xconnectedness – 2.01. The 95%
confidence interval for the slope,

497. .295 to 2.163, does not contain the value of zero, and therefore
overall connectedness is
significantly related to overall academic motivation. There was
sufficient evidence to reject the
null hypothesis and conclude that perceived connectedness to
other African American high
school students (M = 3.9554, SD = .904) significantly predicted
those students’ academic
motivation (M = 2.850, SD = 4.014), F(1, 82) = 6.853, p = .011.
Table 7 provides a summary of
79
the regression analysis for the variable predicting academic
motivation. Accuracy in predicting
academic motivation is weak.
Results of null hypothesis one. H01 stated that there is no
statistically significant
predictive relationship between the connectedness component of
racial-ethnic identity and
academic motivation. The first null hypothesis was rejected.
Tests of three-priori hypothesis
were conducted using Bonferroni adjusted alpha level of .017
per test (.05/3); inspection of the

498. simple linear regression indicated that the connectedness
component of racial-ethnic identity was
a significant positive predictor of academic motivation. F(1, 82)
= 6.853, β = .278, R2 = .077, p =
.011. This indicates that the self-reported racial-ethnic
component of connectedness as measured
by the REIS increased African American high school students
self-reported academic motivation
as measured by the AMS. Specifically, this indicates that
African American high school students
were academically motivated when they felt connected to other
African Americans and the
school community. The regression equation is indicative of a
weak positive relationship.
80
Results for Research Question Two
Null hypothesis two states that there is no statistically
significant predictive relationship
between the racial-ethnic identity component of awareness of
racism and academic motivation as
measured by the AMS. Since three bivariate correlations were
conducted, a Bonferroni-corrected

499. alpha level of α = .017 was used to determine significance.
Assumption Testing
A simple linear regression analysis was conducted to determine
to whether academic
motivation could be predicted from the awareness of racism
component of racial-ethnic identity.
Testing the null hypothesis revealed that the regression
coefficient (slope) was equal to 0. The
data was screened for violations of assumption prior to analysis.
Linearity. The scatterplot (Figure 2) of the awareness of racism
component of racial-
ethnic identity and academic motivation indicates that the
assumption of linearity is not tenable.
Figure 2 - Scatterplot of independent variable and dependent
variable
81
Normality. The assumption of normality was tested via an
examination of the scatterplot
of the REIS awareness of racism and AMS (Figure 2). The
scatterplot data appears to be

500. normally distributed.
No significant outliers. There are no significant outliers
(Figure 2).
Results summary assumption testing. The awareness of racism
component of racial-
ethnic identity has met all of the assumption testing. See Table
8 for the results of the assumption
testing for research question two.
Null Hypothesis Two Testing
Descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics for the simple linear
regression are presented
in Table 5. Descriptive statistics was collected for the simple
linear regression for 84 participants
after removing surveys from 9 students who did not identify
themselves as African American
and from 3 students who did not complete the entire survey.
There were no significant outliers.
Analysis. A simple linear regression was carried out to
ascertain the extent to which
scores for the awareness of racism component of racial-ethnic
identity can predict academic
motivation. No relationship was found between the awareness of

501. racism component of racial-
82
ethnic identity and academic motivation scores (r = .005), and
the regression model predicted 0%
of the variance. A regression equation for predicting the
dependent variable of academic
motivation could not be created. The 95% confidence interval
for the slope, -.933 to .978 does
contain the value of zero, and therefore awareness of racism is
unrelated to academic motivation,
as measured in this study. The researcher failed to reject the
null hypothesis and concluded that
awareness of racism (M = 3.679, SD = .9197) did not
significantly predict academic achievement
(M = 2.85, SD = 4), F(1, 82) = .002, p =.962. Table 9 provides
a summary of the regression
analysis for the variable that was unable to predict academic
motivation. Accuracy in predicting
academic motivation could not be determined. There was no
accuracy in predicting the
dependent variable.

502. Results of null hypothesis two. The second null hypothesis
stated that there was no
statistically significant predictive relationship between the
awareness of racism component of
racial-ethnic identity and academic motivation as measured by
the AMS. Results of this study
indicate failure to reject the null hypothesis. Tests of three-
priori hypothesis were conducted
using a Bonferroni-adjusted alpha level of .0167 per test
(.05/3). Inspection of the simple linear
regression indicated that the awareness of racism component of
racial-ethnic was not a
significant positive predictor of academic motivation F(1, 82) =
.002, β = .005, R2 = .000, p =
83
.962. This indicates that the self-reported racial-ethnic
component of awareness of racism, as
measured by the REIS, does not accurately predict African
American high school students’ self-
reported academic motivation, as measured by the AMS.
Specifically, this indicates that African
American high school students may or may not be academically
motivated when they are aware

503. of racism. The scatterplot confirms the null hypothesis shows
no relationship.
Results for Research Question Three
Null hypothesis three states there is no statistically significant
predictive relationship
between the embedded achievement component of racial-ethnic
identity and academic
motivation, as measured by the AMS. Since three bivariate
correlations were conducted, a
Bonferroni-corrected alpha level of α = .017 was used to
determine significance.
Assumption Testing
A simple linear regression analysis was conducted to determine
whether academic
motivation could be predicted from the embedded achievement
component of racial-ethnic
identity. The null hypothesis testing showed that the regression
coefficient (slope) was equal to
0. The data was screened to for violations of assumption prior
to analysis.
Linearity. The scatterplot (Figure 3) of the embedded
awareness component of racial-
ethnic identity and academic motivation indicates that the

504. assumption of linearity is not tenable.
84
Figure 3 - Scatterplot of independent variable and dependent
variable
Normality. The assumption of normality was tested via an
examination of the scatterplot
of the REIS embedded ahievement and AMS (Figure 3). The
scatterplot data appears to be
normally distributed
No significant outliers. There are no significant outliers
(Figure 3).
Results summary assumption testing. The embedded
achievement component of
racial-ethnic identity has not met all assumption testing. See
Table 10 for the results of the
assumption testing for research question three.
85
Hypothesis Three Testing

505. Descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics for the simple linear
regression are presented
in Table 5. Descriptive statistics was collected for the simple
linear regression for 84
participants after removing surveys from 9 students who did not
identify themselves as African
American and from 3 students who did not complete the entire
survey. There were no significant
outliers.
Analysis. A simple linear regression was carried out to ascertain
the extent to which the
embedded achievement component of racial ethnic identity can
predict academic motivation. No
correlation was found between the embedded achievement
component of racial-ethnic identity
and academic motivation scores (r = .241). The regression
equation for predicting the dependent
variable of academic motivation could not be created. There was
sufficient evidence to fail to
reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the embedded
achievement component of racial-
ethnic identity (M = 3.812; SD = .894) does not significantly
predict academic motivation (M =
2.85, SD = 4), F(1, 83) = 5.070, p =.027. Table 4 provides a

506. summary of the regression analysis
for the variable predicting academic achievement. Accuracy in
predicting academic motivation
could not be determined.
86
Results of hypothesis three. The third hypothesis stated that
there is no statistically
significant predictive relationship between the embedded
achievement component of racial-
ethnic identity and academic motivation, as measured by the
AMS. Results of this study indicate
a failure to reject the third null hypothesis. Tests of three-priori
hypothesis were conducted using
a Bonferroni-adjusted alpha level of .0167 per test (.05/3).
Inspection of the simple linear
regression indicated that the embedded achievement component
of racial-ethnic identity was a
not significant positive predictor of academic motivation F(1,
82) = 5.070, β = .241, R2 = .058, p
= .027. This indicates that the self-reported embedded
achievement component of racial-ethnic
identity, as measured by the REIS, does not significantly predict

507. African American high school
students’ self-reported academic motivation, as measured by the
AMS.
Summary
Overall, the racial ethnic components of connectedness and
embedded achievement were
found to be weak predictors of African American high school
students’ academic motivation.
Assumption testing was conducted for each of the three
variables. The assumptions of linearity
and normally distributed values were violated for the awareness
of racism component of racial-
87
ethnic identity, and linearity was violated with the embedded
achievement component. The
conclusions and implications of the study are discussed next.

508. 88
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Discussion
The purpose of this correlational study was to determine if
racial-ethnic identity
components of connectedness, embedded achievement and
awareness of racism had a linear
relationship with academic motivation in African American high
school students. Racial-ethnic
identity was measured using the REIS and the AMS was used to
measure academic motivation.

509. The disparity in academic motivation between African American
and European American
students continues to be a problem (NAEP, 2015, Rocques &
Paternoster, 2011). Oyserman et
al. (2007) found that African American students that were
highly connected to their racial-ethnic
group better perceived the value of their education, and the
student was then more likely to have
positive academic experiences. Unfortunately, a gap still
persists between African American and
European American students. This study examines which
components of racial-ethnic identity
correlate with academic motivation of African American high
school students using three
bivariate correlations.
Hypothesis One
A bivariate correlation was used to evaluate the first research
question of this study,
which concerned the relationship between the connectedness
component of racial-ethnic identity
and academic motivation. Connectedness was found to be a
significant predictor of academic
motivation for African American students. A weak but
significant relationship was found among

510. the variables (r = .278). Results from the study support the
hypothesis that African American
high school students were more likely to possess academic
motivation if the student was
identified as being connected to their African American racial-
ethnic identity (p = .011).
Previous work by Bridgeland et al. (2010) supports this finding
by confirming that some students
89
dropped out of high school because there was not a connection
between the student’s life and
their goals for the future. This provided evidence that African
American students need to feel a
strong connection to the school community and feel that what
they are learning has value.
Carson (2009) further explores connectedness among African
American students, noting
that African Americans felt responsible for encouraging
academic achievement for their college
community and feelings of collectivism helped to develop these
beliefs. African American
students are motivated to learn, but this motivation is often

511. negated by negative messages
perpetuated by the school system, media, and society. Li (2012)
extended these findings by
confirming that there must be a balance between academic and
social characteristics in
conjunction with a supportive environment in order to increase
intrinsic motivation and develop
goals. This finding further supports the self-determination
theory of motivation. Deci and Ryan
(2002) argue that for a person to be motivated, their three basic
psychological needs (autonomy,
competence, and relatedness) must be met. Results of
hypothesis one found that meeting the
basic psychological need of relatedness helps African American
high school students to feel
motivated academically.
Hypothesis Two
An additional bivariate regression was used to analyze the
second hypothesis, which
tested the relationship between the awareness of racism
component of racial-ethnic identity and
academic motivation. However, no relationship was found
between these variables (p = 0.962).

512. Conflicting research in this area suggests that this finding may
be incorrect. Research supports
the literature that awareness of racism predicts academic
motivation (McSwine, 2010; Pizzaloato
et al 2008; Mandura, 2008; Shockley & Frederick, 2010;
Decuir-Gimby et al. 2012). This study
found that the awareness of racism component of African
American racial-ethnic identity is not a
90
significant predictor of academic motivation. Nevertheless,
Pizzaloato et al. (2008) noted the
importance for African Americans to develop an internally and
ethnically grounded self to
despite negative stereotypes. This also supports Deci and
Ryan’s (2002) SDT, which indicates
that when a student feels competent in conjunction with
autonomy and relatedness, they will be
academically motivated. SDT can support the assumption that
when African American students
are aware of racism and yet feel competent despite social
barriers, they will be more
academically motivated. Although this study does not support
the current research, teachers and

513. curriculum developers can help support an awareness of racism
by using culturally relevant
curriculum and make sure that the history of African Americans
is well represented in the
education of all students to increase academic motivation and
ultimately support African
American students’ feelings of competence.
Hypothesis Three
A final bivariate correlation was used to evaluate a third
hypothesis, which examined
how the embedded achievement component of racial-ethnic
identity predicts academic
motivation. There was no significant relationship between the
embedded achievement
component of racial-ethnic identity on academic motivation (p =
.027). Although this study did
not find a significant relationship between the two variables, the
research shows that there is
sufficient evidence suggesting that embedded achievement
positively correlates to academic
motivation (Strimc-Pawl & Leffer, 2011; Benjamin, 2007;
Williams & Byran, 2013). African
Americans have a tumultuous history, but have been able to

514. strive and be academically
successful. Strimc-Pawl and Leffer (2011) found that African
Americans value family and
education. The value of education shows that African
Americans have embedded achievement.
Embedded achievement may be hindered because of the lack of
connection that African
91
American students have in the current academic educational
structure (Maryshow et al. 2005;
Cokley & Chapman, 2008). The presence of embedded
achievement among African American
students is further supported by the findings of Benjamin
(2007), who found that African
Americans embrace the fact that education is the primary route
to increasing economic status. In
conjunction with the previous study, William and Byran (2013)
found that African American
parents have high academic expectations for their children,
which supports a value of embedded
achievement. According to the Kinder Institute of Urban
Education at Rice University (2013),

515. 90% of African Americans surveyed indicated that success in
life required post-secondary
education, which was higher than any other racial group. This
study clearly supports the finding
that African Americans value education. Despite the fact that
this study did not support the
research, the literature supports that African American students
have embedded achievement.
Conclusion
There is a significant education disparity between African
American and European
American high school students (NAEP, 2015). The research
shows that there is a relationship
between racial ethnic identity and academic motivation
(Oyserman et al., 2003; Seller, Chavous
& Cook, 1998; Spencer, Noll, Stolzfus & Harpalina, 2001). The
results of this study indicated a
weak significant positive relationship between connectedness
and academic motivation. A study
conducted by Whales and Noel (2011) supports this finding, as
they found substantial empirical
evidence that identification with African American racial-ethnic
identity promotes academic
motivation. The research suggests that despite negative

516. stereotypes, African American students
have that ability to be academically successful when their basic
needs are met, in accordance
with self-determination theory (Moore-Thomas, 2009; McSwine,
2010; Maryshow et al. 2005).
Historically, African Americans have used education to respond
to oppressive circumstances
92
(Johnson-Blake, 2010; Buchard, 2010). This supports the idea
that a strong racial-ethnic identity
encourages academic motivation. Additionally, the African
American community possesses
strong educational achievement orientation (Perry, Steele,
Hilliard, 2003; Sanders, 1997).
Overall, African American racial-ethnic identity can promote
academic achievement and
motivation (Oyserman et al 1995; Spencer 1999; Whaley, 2003).
In addition to African American racial-ethnic identity predicting
academic motivation,
SDT posits that in order to be academically successful, students
must have their basic
psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

517. met (Deci & Ryan, 1985). The
researcher proposes that teachers can promote racial-ethnic
identity of African American
students in order to increase academic motivation. Promoting
racial-ethnic identity would ensure
that African American students have their basic psychological
needs met, and subsequently
promote academic motivation. Studies support the idea that
when students’ racial-ethnic
identities are embraced, it is supportive of academic motivation
(Oyserman et al 1995; Spencer
1999; Whaley, 2003). In addition, African Americans who are
academically successful have
developed a sense of community that supports African
Americans to be academically motivated
despite negative stereotypes. Along with community, Spencer et
al. 2001, found that when
students had a positive sense of self (racial-ethnic identity as an
African American), they
achieved more academically. This negates Ogbu’s (2003) theory
of academic disengagement of
African American students due to the burden of “acting white.”
Academic disidentification or
lack of academic motivation is not a racial-ethnic norm in the

518. African American community
(Spencer et al. 2001). In order for African American students to
have their basic psychological
needs met in accordance with SDT, it is clear that Afrocentric
education and socialization should
play a significant role in the education system. Whaley and
McQueen (2004) found that an
93
Afrocentric socialization program improved academic
performance of African American
students. These researchers (2010) extended their findings by
conducting another study that
discovered that when African Americans were provided with
explicit, culturally based
interventions, students had positive views of African American
identity.
Due to the fact that African American students may need to feel
connected to their
communities and schools, African American students make a
distinction between learning and
performing (Cokely, 2003). In other words, African American
students may not perceive school

519. as a place for learning, and disidentification may stem from lack
of connection to African
American racial ethnic identity.
In addition to the African American racial-ethnic identity
supporting academic
motivation, research has also shown that African American
students still had high educational
expectations regardless of their neighborhood environment
(Chavous et al. 2003; Chavous et al.
2008; Cunningham, 1999). This is not to say that teachers and
the school environment do not
play a role in the academic success of African American
students. It is important that teachers
work to reduce and ameliorate the prejudice and discrimination
that African American students
experience, because this likely contributes to those students
performing poorly or dropping out of
school (Mattison & Aber, 2007). African American students
need to perceive their school
environments as fair in order for them to believe that education
will pay off in the future (Brown
& Jones, 2004). This further supports the importance of
teachers’ roles in the academic outcomes
of African American students.

520. Overall, the research shows that supporting students’ racial-
ethnic identity positively
impacts academic achievement (Chavous et al., 2003; Oyserman
et al., 2001, 2003; Spencer et
al., 1997, 2001). These findings have considerable implications
for school policy and pedagogy.
94
African American students need to feel connected, which will
provide them with a sense of
community that will in turn influence academic motivation
(Oyserman et al. 1995). Embedded
community must also include skills to successfully navigate
European American society without
destroying African American values to sustain academic success
(Carter, 2006). In conjunction
with explicit in-school interventions, African American
students’ awareness of racism should
continue to be developed through family socialization in order
to continue to develop academic
motivation. To eliminate the achievement gap, racial
socialization interventions that promote
academic excellence of African racial-ethnic identity should be

521. implemented within the school
system (Whaley & McQueen, 2004). Positive teacher
relationships and high expectations are
additional factors that further support academic motivation
(Cokley, 2003; Spencer et al., 1997).
Implications
Studies have shown that racial ethnic identity positively impacts
academic achievement
and motivation (Chavous et al., 2003; Oyserman et al., 2001,
2003; Spencer et al., 1997, 2001).
Dominant social perceptions of African Americans, as well as
racism in schools, adversely affect
students’ academic motivation (Brown & Jones, 2004; Mattison
& Aber, 2007). This study has
added to the body of literature showing how racial-ethnic
identity positively impacts academic
motivation or achievement by examining the relationship
between racial-ethnic identity and
academic motivation. Teachers and policy makers must support
African American students by
understanding biases that exist in pedagogy, as well as in school
policy. Teachers must also
examine their own prejudices and receive culturally relevant
training and support to help African

522. American students feel connected. This may help eliminate
disengagement from school and
learning, as African American students will experience less
dissonance between values at home
and at school. In addition, African American students will be
better able to develop a healthy
95
sense of self when curricula are culturally relevant. Overall,
African American students will feel
more connected to their schools and communities when their
culture and racial-ethnic identity is
represented in the educational system.
Limitations
The first limitation involves a possible threat to the reliability
of the dependent variable,
the embedded achievement component of the REIS. The
embedded achievement subscale meets
reliability requirements for a subscale, with a Cronbach’s alpha
score of 0.65 (Nunnally &
Bernstein, 1994). However, the Cronbach’s alpha score is lower
than typically preferred for

523. instruments (George & Mallery, 2003). The lower Cronbach’s
alpha score for this variable may
account for the lack of a statistically significant relationship
between the embedded achievement
component of racial-ethnic identity and academic motivation as
predicted by the literature.
Another limitation of this study involves a threat to external
validity. This study did not
control for gender, socioeconomic status, or high school grade
level. Some of the literature refers
to gender differences regarding academic motivation among
African American students (Cokely
et al., 2011). Also, this study did not address socioeconomic
status, since 85% of the students at
this school receive free and reduced lunch.
Finally, another threat to external validity may be present. This
study included a limited
convenience sample of 84 students, which satisfied the
minimum requirements (Green, 1991).
This study might have yielded stronger correlations using a
larger sample. The sample also was a
homogeneous convenience sample, which may have impacted
the results. The findings of this
study are limited based on the lack of randomization. The

524. results of the study cannot be
generalized to larger groups due to the use of a population of
students enrolled in a summer
96
school program. Additionally, the data was collected during a
short academic window and did
not capture all students at the school.
Recommendations for Future Research
Although many studies have previously examined the effects of
racial-ethnic identity and
academic achievement or motivation, more information is
needed to address the achievement
gap between African Americans and European Americans.
Additional studies are needed to
examine African American racial-ethnic identity, and
specifically how it contributes to academic
achievement and motivation. Further studies are also needed to
explore the opposing view that
African American culture negatively impacts academic
achievement and adversely affect African
American student motivation.

525. This study also used a correlational analysis, which examines
relationships among
variables. Future research should examine the cause and effect
interactions between racial-
ethnic identity and academic motivation in conjunction with
predictive relationships. Such future
research would help to determine why African American
students are not as academically
successful as European American students in the traditional
school setting.
This sample was also limited to high school students in one area
of the country. Future
research should be regionally diverse and focus on different age
ranges in order to explore how
racial-ethnic identity impacts different age groups.
Additionally,, longitudinal studies should be
conducted to see how African American racial-ethnic identity
grows over time and how that
affects academic achievement and motivation based on
academic experiences. This study could
also be replicated in different regions of the United States to
see if the study would yield similar
results. Finally, future research could also focus on the
development of a measure to assess

526. 97
traditional school structures and how effective these structures
are at meeting the needs of
diverse learners.
98
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Appendix A
Opt-Out Parent Letter
Student Survey
July 2016
Dear Parent/Guardian:
Your son/daughter, along with other high school students
enrolled in your child’s school, has
been invited to participate in an educational research study
about academic motivation and ethnic
identity development. As part of the study, students will take a
20-minute survey during the
school day. Your student's responses will be anonymous;

558. meaning, your student will not include
his or her name on the survey.
The Institutional Review Board at Liberty University has
approved the study. The results will be
used by Meliane Hackett, a student at Liberty University, to
write her doctoral dissertation.
Participation is voluntary and will not affect your
son's/daughter's grades.
If you decide that you do not want your student to take the
survey, please sign and date this
letter and have your child return to their teacher or your son or
daughter may just leave the
survey blank on the day it is administered.
If you have any questions about the research study or wish to
review the questionnaire, please
contact Meliane Hackett at 857-400-7786 (text or call).
Thank you for helping us learn more about students’ educational
experience.
Sincerely,
Meliane Hackett M.Ed
Doctoral Candidate, Administrative Leadership
Liberty University

559. I DO NOT WANT MY CHILD TO PARTICIPATE IN THE
SURVEY:
_____________________________________
__________________________
Sign Date
116
Appendix B
Dear Teachers,
Please let me begin by thanking you in advance for taking the
time from your extremely
busy schedule to administer this survey to your students. My
name is Meliane Hackett and I am
working on my doctoral dissertation in administrative
leadership. I am conducting a study to
determine how racial-ethnic identity impacts academic
motivation of African American high
school students. This study could possibly provide government
agencies and school districts with
data to develop culturally relevant teaching practices. I

560. anticipate this research may provide
educators with academic motivators of African American
students that could possibly increase
student achievement.
One week prior to taking the survey, you will receive copies of
the opt-out letter to
distribute to the students (see attached). This is a voluntary
study and students who return the
opt-out letter may not participate in the study. Please
encourage students to take the survey
seriously and to answer all of the questions.
Please provide students with the surveys and demographic
questions and return the
surveys in the self-addressed envelope provided once students
completed the survey.
Please call, text or email me with any questions or concerns.
Again, thank you so very much for
your time.
Thank you
Meliane Hackett

561. 117
Appendix C
Directions
Today you will be participating in a survey. This survey will
look at academic
motivation and racial ethnic identity. The information you
provide will be confidential. This
means your information and answers will not be shared with
anyone. The answers on this survey
will have no effect on your grade in this class. You may
participate if you did not return your
opt out form. The survey should take approximately 20
minutes. Your answers are important
and will be used to make educational decisions. It is important
to try to answer all of the
questions. There are demographic questions and two surveys
that you will be asked to complete.
On both surveys, the higher numbers indicate you agree with the

562. statement and the lower
numbers indicate you do not agree with the statement. Does
anyone have any questions? If you
have questions during the survey raise your hand and ask your
teacher. Thank you for your
participation. The researcher appreciates you. You may begin
your survey now.
Thank you,
Mrs. Hackett
118
Appendix D
SCORING THE AMS
Key for AMS High School version -28 items
Item Type/domain/orientation of motivation
2, 9, 16, 23 Intrinsic motivation – to know

563. 6, 13, 20, 27 Intrinsic motivation - toward accomplishment
4, 11, 18, 25 Intrinsic motivation - to experience stimulation
3, 10, 17, 24 Extrinsic motivation - identified
7, 14, 21, 28 Extrinsic motivation - introjected
1, 8, 15, 22 Extrinsic motivation - external regulation
5, 12, 19, 26 Amotivation
Calculations
To calculate a participant’s score on the AMS, the mean
response for each of the sub-scales was
found. These means varied between 1 and 7. The means were
then inserted in the following
formula, which was used to calculate a self-determination
index, which was taken as the
participant’s academic motivation score. The formula had been
adapted from Vallerand,
Pelletier, Blais, Briere, Senecal, and Vallieres (1992).
2{(know+acc+stim/3)} + iden – {(intro+reg/2) + 2amo}=
Academic Motivation. know =
intrinsic motivation to know; acc = intrinsic motivation to
accomplishments; stim = intrinsic

564. 119
motivation to experience stimulation; iden = identification;
intro = introjected regulation;
external regulation; amo = amotivation.
This formula gives scores ranging from -18 (very little self-
determination/ academic motivation)
to +18 (extreme self-determination/ high academic motivation).
Highest level of self-
determination: 2((7+7+7/3)) + 7 - ((1+1/2) + 2*1)

565. 120
Appendix E
Running head: DISSERTATION REVIEWS 1
Dissertation Reviews
Liberty University
Advanced Research and Writing
EDUC798-D03

566. Dr. Lovik
May 1, 2016
DISSERTATION REVIEW 2
Peer Mentoring: Effects on Ninth Grade Student Achievement
Summary
The purpose of Hardegee’s (2012) quantitative study was to
determine if students who
received peer mentoring as first time ninth graders would affect
scores on “post-test interim
assessment scores, passing rates, and numerical averages in
Integrated Algebra I” (Hardegree,
2012, p. 3). Hardegee (2012) predicted that there would not be a
significant gap between the
group of students who received the peer tutoring program and
students who did not in
performance on the final benchmark test. Additionally, it was
predicted that the pass/fail rate and
individual course averages were independent from the peer
mentor program (pp. 16-17).
In Hardegee’s (2012) research the students were broken into
two groups: the students

567. who were a part of the peer mentoring program and the students
who did not receive a peer
mentor, the control group. The peer mentor group consisted of
40 students who met with their
peer mentor once a week for one class period. The control group
also consisted of 40 students
creating equal control and experimental groups. Both groups
contained students who were
equally at risk of failing Integrated Algebra I. The single
independent variable was identified as:
the experimental peer mentor program. Dependent variables
included: numerical averages at the
end of the course, pass and failure rates student scores on the
final benchmark (Hardegree, 2012).
The literature that expounded on the problem of students falling
behind when they fail
Integrated Algebra I and highlighted the national legislation of
No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
and the standardized testing that accompanied the NCLB.
Schools are graded based upon the
student performance on standardized course exams (Hardegree,
2012). Hardegree (2012)
summarizes from multiple sources that the improvement of
American schools will not be

568. because of an exam, but rather the innovations and hard work
completed by teachers and
DISSERTATION REVIEW 3
students (p. 21). The need for innovation in the classroom dates
back to 1992 when 60 percent of
Americans identified education as a crucial issue. Literature
included indicates that there is not
new strategies, but decades old research; specifically, students
aiding other students (Hardegree,
2012).
The framework that the researched is based upon is Lev
Semyonovich Vygotsky, and his
“fundamental concept of the sociocultural theory, indicating
that the mind can be mediated by
the relationships that are encountered with those around us”
(Hardegree, 2012, p. 22). Vygotsky
theorized that people do not directly alter the physical world,
but mold the physical world with
our labor activities and tools. Through this association of
changing the world with labor

569. activities, such as peer mentoring, using Vygotsky’s theory, one
can assume that learners can
assist one another by helping each other acquire and refine
knowledge.
The literature review also includes topics such as: training of
mentors, Algebra I and high
failure rates, ninth grade transition, settings, design types, and
dependent variables found in peer
mentoring.
The two control groups were randomly selected from a large
public high school in the
metro Atlanta area with diverse representation of all types of
learners. The students were selected
by using the system’s curriculum and scheduling program
(SASI). To be included in the random
selection the students had to score between a 50-69% on the
first six weeks of the 2010-2011
school year and be a first time ninth grade student. One group
of 40 students were assigned a
peer mentor, the experimental group, and the control group did
not receive mentor assignment.
The students who were assigned a cross age peer mentor met
with the mentor once a week for 12
weeks for 38 minute sessions. The peer mentors received

570. training and were randomly assigned to
the experimental group. The 38 period represented a time called
Academic Content Time (ACT);
DISSERTATION REVIEW 4
the intent of ACT is to remediate, advise and intervene.
Students who were a part of the control
group attended the ACT class and complete the programs within
while the experiment group met
with mentors (Hardegree, 2012).
Hardegree (2012) concludes that there was no evidence that
having a peer mentor would
increase academic achievement of first time ninth grade
students in Integrated Algebra I which
challenges previously conducted middle or junior high school
setting to a high school setting.
research. The recommendation for future research is one calls
for school districts to examine the
cost benefit analysis of a peer mentor program with specific
calls to determine how to measure
academic success to financial cost.

571. Analysis
Hardegree’s (2012) studies design is very clearly laid out. The
criteria for selection of
participants in both the control group and experimental group
are equal and consistent. The
explanation of how students are chosen to be a peer mentor and
subsequent mentor training
creates a base level for all mentors. This helps to eliminate
some variances in the mentor
selection and implementation design. The explanation of the
ACT program is very clear and
outlines how time was created for the peer tutoring program to
be implemented.
Hardegree’s (2012) investigation into Integrated Algebra I
course success is of interest to
many schools and school districts; there is a definite need for
research that addresses how
schools can implement programs to intervene in the failure of
the first Math course taken in high
school. Another strength to the study is all participants were
chosen at random and without bias.
Also, the cross-age peer tutors all met certain academic
requirements, held teacher
recommendations, and received some form of training before

572. endeavoring to assist the Integrated
Algebra I students.
DISSERTATION REVIEW 5
While the study is very clear about the frequency and schedule
of meetings between
student and peer tutor only 456 minutes, or 7.6 hours, were
dedicated to intervention from the
peer tutor. Another limitation to the study would be that the
peer tutors and freshmen students
were randomly assigned. Of the 40 peer mentors in the study,
only six were trained at the
monthly during the school year at the local county Chamber of
Commerce. This left six junior
and senior students responsible to take detailed notes and spread
the training practices
information to the other peer tutors which totaled 54.
One design improvement, that could allow the 7.6 contact hours
that the tutor and student
spend together to increase the impact of tutoring, would be to
create a questionnaire that was put

573. into a database and matched the peer tutors with the students
together based on responses. As
early as a 1983 study, Wheeler (1983) details how she took a
class of struggling high school
readers and used a cross-age group model to tutor elementary
students who had a difficulty
reading and poor attitudes about reading. The initial program
was expanded and there was
marked success. The success is attributed to the students
sharing a commonality in their ability,
or lack, to read. Alsup, Conard-Salvo, and Peters (2008) present
research that outlines how
college students who are in training programs to become
secondary English teachers benefit
from tutoring in the campus Writing Lab at Purdue University.
Alsup, Conard-Salvo, and Peters
(2008) research suggests that “the tutoring practicum gives
students a practical and theoretical
foundation for writing center work” (p. 330). This practice of
matching students based on the
tutors’ strengths and the students’ needs is mutually beneficial.
Again in a 2000 study, tutoring
effectiveness was evaluated based on matching students by
gender, ethnicity and previous

574. tutoring experiences (Rheinheimer, 2000). What Rheinheimer
(2000) reports is that matching
DISSERTATION REVIEW 6
based on gender did not impact the student outcome; however,
with increased time spent with the
tutor the level of achievement increased.
The findings and results would be more persuasive if there had
been more experimental
and control groups. The groups could have also been replicated
in the spring semester. With the
findings being consistent across multiple semesters and various
groups, the conclusions would be
more profound. Another piece of information that would be
informative to determine
effectiveness is to know what the students were missing during
the ACT instructional time while
the experimental group’s students were with their mentor. Was
the information presented in ACT
time necessary for the students to perform well in the classroom
including Integrated Algebra I?
Also, while the students went to their mentor, the Hardegree

575. (2012) research design outlined that
there was room for 60 students to receive tutoring, but only 40
were selected for the study to
allow other students to attend tutoring. During the time that the
students were with their tutors,
was the additional ebb and flow of students from outside of the
experiment group distracting or
detrimental?
Other data that needed to be touched on is: what would a
student or tutor do if there was
an absence, how many times were the students in the
experimental group and the control group
absent from school, were any of the students, in either the
control group, experimental group, or
mentor group, identified with a learning disability(s) ? Of the
six students that received the
monthly training, did their students perform better is a question
that the researcher leaves
unanswered. If the Integrated Algebra I students were paired
with the mentor student that
received training, did the Integrated Algebra I student perform
better than a student whose
mentor was not in attendance at the actual training, depending
on the data, would it warrant

576. furthering the training for all peer mentors?
DISSERTATION REVIEW 7
Personal Analysis and Practical Application
Peer tutoring is a program that can be an implemented during
SMART lunch. When
looking that the effectiveness of the Hardegree (2012) study, it
is clear that a cross-age peer
tutoring program must be designed with care. Time spent within
the tutoring session must be
meaningful and relevant to the struggling student. Relevance
can be found in analyzing the
structure of this particular study as compared to other cross-age
peer tutoring programs and how
to best implement a tutoring program into SMART lunch.
Another consideration or application to examine, when
implementing a peer tutoring
program, is do you select students who struggled as freshmen as
mentors? The Wheeler (1983)
study suggest this should be given some consideration. The
purpose of a peer tutoring program is

577. to improve student mastery of skills to help students earn
credits toward graduation. As high
school requirements and expectations continue to increase, there
will be a continued need from
students who need assistance. In 2012, Bowers, Sprott and Taff
(2012) estimate the national
average of graduation as between 70 to 80 percent. More
specifically to Madison High school,
the graduation rate is 80.6 percent. In a small school of roughly
600 students, this equates to an
astounding 116 students not completing requirements to
graduate with their cohort
("Accountability," 2016). Clearly, there are interventions
needed to combat this astounding
number. These interventions, according to Bowers, Sprott, and
Taff (2012), are many times
accurately targeting the correct population only 60 percent of
the time. With this in mind, the
question that needs to be addressed is: how can SMART lunch,
cross-age peer tutoring, and
identified at risk students be used in conjunction to raise the
graduation rate?
The design of this study is an example of how qualitative
research could be conducted to

578. analyze the effectiveness of SMART lunch. Data could be
gathered on the end of course testing
DISSERTATION REVIEW 8
results (Biology, English II, and Math I) from schools who have
a SMART lunch program, the
experimental group, and compared to schools who use a
traditional lunch program, the control
group. Other data sets between the experimental and control
groups that might be analyzed could
include: dropout rates, numbers of courses failed or no credit
received, attendance rates and NC
final exam scores (any core course that is not an NC Final).
One could match the experimental and control school based on
enrollment, demographics
and funding. This would help to compare schools with likeness,
similar staffing, resources, and
building space. The data of a large urban school as compared to
a rural school might skew the
results. Conversely, once could compare schools on opposite
ends of the spectrum that both

579. incorporate SMART lunch to examine if the program works
better in a small or large school.
The research Hardegree (2012) presents is also applicable in
understanding how a
tutoring program may not always fit the needs of students,
courses, and schools. The call to
further investigate the cost-benefit analysis of tutoring is
beyond the money that is spent on
training, and maintaining a peer tutoring program. A school
must ask itself: if the benefit for the
tutors is positive, and what are the students gaining from
tutoring that outweighs instructional or
non-instructional activities and time missed?
This is relevant to the field of education as the increased
pressure to perform on
standardized tests increase and funding remains stagnant or
reduced. A peer tutoring program is
an option that some schools will explore to create a sustainable
way to provide students with a
support.
Overall, the research Hardegree (2012) presents data that one
cannot ignore. When
planning structures there are many considerations that must be
explored, a school must ensure

580. that they are not causing academic hindrance, of either the tutor
or student, rather than the
DISSERTATION REVIEW 9
learning progression. The research presents a conscience picture
of way to compare control and
experimental groups when using a programs that creates an
example of how schools that use
SMART lunch and schools who have traditional lunches can be
compared.
DISSERTATION REVIEW 10
References
Accountability and testing results. (2016). Retrieved from
http://www.dpi.state.nc.us/accountability/reporting/
Alsup, J., Conard-Salvo, T., & Peters, S. J. (2008). Tutoring is
real: The benefits of the peer tutor
experience for future English educators. Pedagogy, 8(2), 327 -
347.

581. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/15314200-2007-043
Bowers, A. J., Sprott, R., & Taff, S. A. (2012, December 1). Do
we know who will drop out? A
review of the predictors of dropping out of high school:
Precision, sensitivity, and
specificity . High School Journal, 96(2), 77-100. Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=
ip,custuid&custid=s8455
861&db=f6h&AN=87647488&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Hardegree, Jr., M. S. (2012). Peer mentoring: Effects on ninth
grade student achievement
(Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/educ_doc_dis/.
Rheinheimer, D. C. (2000, Winter). Gender matching, floor
effects, and other tutoring outcomes.
Journal of Developmental Education, 24(2), 10-18. Retrieved
from
http://ncde.appstate.edu/publications/journal-developmental-
education-jde
Wheeler, P. M. (1983, February). Matching abilities in cross-
age tutoring. Journal of Reading,
26(5), 404-407.
http://dx.doi.org/http://www.jstor.org/stable/40034496

582. DISSERTATION REVIEW 11
Dissertation Review
Kristina Lowe
Liberty University
Advanced Research and Writing
EDUC 798- D03
Dr. Lovik
May 1, 2016

583. DISSERTATION REVIEWS 12
Effects of Summer School Transition Program and Grade Level
on Seventh, Eight, and Ninth
Grade Students’ Grades, Attendance, and Behavior
Summary
Smith’s (2012) research identifies the problem of students
transitioning from one school
to the next as an area of academic concern particularly freshmen
entering high school. To combat
the issues of freshmen having more disciplinary action and
courses failed, one approach to
combat the issue is to implement a transition program to serve
as a guide between middle school
and high school. Transition programs can include activities such
as guest speakers, school site
visits, meetings with guidance counselors, and team building
activities among others. Well
designed and established transition programs can attribute to
such things like improved course
performance and lower drop-out rates. Smith’s (2012) goal is to
understand if a transition
program has any effect on a students’ grades, attendance, or
behavior.

584. Smith (2012) proposed that there would not be a correlation
with students’ attendance in
a transition program and their school year attendance, nor a
difference in the students’ grades.
Furthermore, Smith (2012) theorizes that there will not be a
difference between the group who
attended a transition program and those who did not in the areas
of number of students who
failed a course, and the number of behavior referrals. The
participants in Smith’s (2012) are self-
selected, and the data for the study was pre-existing. The study
was conducted examining for a
cause and effect relationship, thus a causal-comparative design
was determined most appropriate.
The transition program encompassed rising seventh, eighth, and
ninth grade students who
attended a three week program free of cost from 8:00-1:00 with
free transportation, breakfast,
and lunch. The transition program was not open to all students;
they were selected based on the
criteria of: low test scores, course grades, remedial courses
taken, teacher recommendations and

585. DISSERTATION REVIEWS 13
state testing data. The students were instructed by the teachers
they would be assigned to the
following school year.
Smith (2012) explains the relevance of the study as a tool to
provide students and
administrators with data that would allow districts to make
informed decisions regarding
transition programs using available funding in the most
resourceful way. The transition programs
also allow students to build positive relationships with teachers;
additionally, transition programs
provide small group learning experiences. Literature reviewed
in support of the research is
organized into the following areas:
(a) relevant theories, (b) educational legislation in regard to
school performance, (c) the
characteristics of students considered at-risk, (d) the importance
of the ninth grade year
for future academic success, (c) the problems associated with
high school dropouts, (e)
the problems associated with high school dropouts, (f) the
warning signs students send

586. prior to dropping out of school, (g) characteristics and
perspectives on transition and
transitional programs, (h) the importance of relationships in
educational settings, (i) the
effects of various transitional programs. (Smith, 2012, p. 14)
Smith (2012) conducted a quantitative study that used a causal-
comparative research
design. The study used pre-existing student data to understand
the correlation, if any, summer
school transition program had on students’ grades, attendance,
and behavior. The dependent
variables were numerically measured and examined in a pre-
treatment versus post-treatment
comparison for both the control group and the experimental
group. By using this method it
allowed the research to account for some external factors
throughout the school year that would
affect all students. Smith (2012) designed the study “to control
circumstances that could have an
impact on the dependent variables” (p. 62). Since the control
and experimental groups both have
DISSERTATION REVIEWS 14

587. the same experiences in the areas of school climate, teachers,
and special occasions it limits
outside school influential factors.
The variables that Smith (2012) aimed to compare were
attendance, grades and behavior
among students, and these variables served as the dependent
variables in the study. Smith (2012)
predicted that there would be no difference between the control
and experimental groups in the
areas of students’ attendance, course fail rates, amount of
behavior referrals. Additionally, Smith
(2012) did not forecast there to be a difference in attendance
among the different grade levels,
courses failed based on grade levels, and behavior based on
grade level. The independent
variables that Smith (2012) identified for the study were:
participation in the summer school
transition program, and the grade level the student was
transitioning to.
The study was conducted in a suburban, northwest Georgia and
spanned two school years
and encompassed five schools. There were 123 students that the
summer school transition

588. program was offered to, and 83 accepted the offer to attended
the program. The control group,
those were chosen for the program but elected to not attend,
totaled 33. The experiment group
numbered 59.
Smith (2012) found that all but two of the initial predictions to
be true. The prediction
that there would be no difference in students’ attendance based
on grade level was found to be
partially correct as the data did show a difference was the rising
ninth graders. The rising ninth
graders decreased the rate in which they missed school while
the rising eighth graders data
displayed a rise in the rate of absences. Also, the prediction that
there would be no difference in
the attendance of student before and after attendance in the
summer school program, regardless
of grade level, was rejected based on the data based on
significant result in the attendance of
students who did attend versus did not attend.
DISSERTATION REVIEWS 15

589. Analysis
Smith’s (2012) study was well explained and easy to
understand, thus allowing the reader
a clear picture of the research that had been performed and what
limitations the research. The
design element that allowed for the students in the study to
attend the same schools enabled the
results to be unvarying. As Smith (2012) points out, experiences
across the control group and the
experimental group are uniform. The amount of tables that
Smith (2012) elected to include to
fully examine all research questions were vital to the
understanding of findings presented. They
did not detract from the information presented, rather they
added benefit to the reader. The
inclusion of how students were selected demonstrated how the
intervention was designed to
work and showed that there was no bias from the researcher in
selecting participants. Also
important, to the transition program and the design of the
research, is teachers were not
mandated to participate and students were partnered with
teachers that they could potentially

590. have for the next school year.
One limitation to the study is that it is not longitudinal in
design. It would be more certain
to state that the program had little to no influence on students’
grades, behavior, and attendance
if the results were consistent over a span years. Also, dynamics
of each grade level, in respect to
students’ attendance, grades, and behavior, if the research were
done longitudinally could be
tracked from rising sixth graders for a period of three years to
see if they fluctuated. It was not
discussed if any of the students who attended the program and
wanted, or did not want to have, a
specific teacher the following year were granted this request.
This could influence students’
behavior, grades, and attendance either positively or negatively.
A confusing component to the
study was that Smith (2012) reported that the study would be
conducted over a two school year
DISSERTATION REVIEWS 16
period (p. 66); however, did not present findings for respective
years in the data charts or

591. examine in the discussion chapter.
Smith’s (2012) research did present the limitations of a well-
designed study thoroughly.
The study also had a control group and an experimental group
that were not outside of a
reasonable range of participants since they were not equal, and
there was an explanation as to
why the initial group numbers shifted due to some students
being transient.
An improvement that could be made to Smith’s (2012) study is
to make the study
longitudinal. If the results held consistent across multiple years,
it would be a more absolute
conclusion that the summer school transition program did not
have a profound effect of students’
behavior, grades, or attendance. An additional piece of
information that would strengthen the
rejection of the prediction that students’ attendance would not
change when comparing the
experimental and control groups is to analyze the attendance
policy of the two schools. Could the
policies differ and hold an influence over the one group that
transitioned away from the middle

592. school? Also, the research could have used a Likert scale for
students to rate their satisfaction
with teachers, attendance policy, and school climate at the
conclusion of the ninth grade to
determine if teacher-student relationships, school climate, shift
in attitude about education, or a
different attendance policy altered some students’ attendance
rates.
Smith’s (2012) study did not need to be changed drastically.
The one change to the study
that would create more certainty and insight is to alter the study
to track students through all
three years of the summer school transition program. With this
change, one could compare a sub-
group of students, those attending multiple times to those
invited and declining multiple times, to
see if the repetitiveness created any changed in attendance,
behavior, and failure rates. The
inclusion of a discussion, in regards to students being paired
with students and teachers they
DISSERTATION REVIEWS 17
interacted with at the summer transition program, regarding if

593. the teachers moved away after
completing the program and building rapport with students
would strengthen the design and
conclusions drawn. A statistic that could be examined is the rate
the middle school versus high
school perused truancy charges against parents. If the high
school more actively monitored
truancy, it could explain the increased attendance at the high
school level.
Personal Analysis and Practical Application
The high school that the writer is employed at is currently
exploring the idea of having a
transition summer program for rising ninth graders with the
freshmen academy teachers. This
research is interesting as it negates the findings of Roybal,
Thornton, and Usinger (2014).
Roybal, Thornton, and Usinger (2014) outline that there are
seven attributes to a successful ninth
grade transition program: “the role of peers; school supportive
strategies and activities; challenge
due to unfamiliar processes and procedures; changes in scope of
learning activities; confidence
and success of students; homework issues; and roles of
teachers” (Roybal, Thornton, & Usinger,

594. 2014, p. 480; Ganeson and Ehrich). Roybal, Thornton, and
Usinger (2014) explain that for a
transition to be successful and have a positive impact on
students it must contain many strategies
to target these specific areas for students. As the design for the
ninth grade transition program
begins, Madison High school needs to create a system that is
supportive of the areas that students
need aided, and the program needs to encompass many
strategies that are clearly defined and
articulated to freshmen teachers. To make a determination if the
transition program and freshman
academy is achieving its goals, the strategies have to be
implemented with diligence and
consistency across multiple school years.
When designing the transition programs strategies Roybal,
Thornton, and Usinger (2014)
offer that
DISSERTATION REVIEWS 18
the research indicate that the following interventions have been
effective: planning

595. session between middle, schools and high school teachers,
involvement of parents in high
school activities, assistance for students with homework,
incentive programs for
attendance, grades and citizenship, system to earn credit each
semester or each quarter,
block schedules for core classes, closed campus, small learning
communities,
celebrations of student successes. (p. 480-481)
This also supports the SMART lunch model as it provides an
opportunity for many of
these interventions. SMART lunch’s purpose is to help student
achieve at a higher level through
maximizing their resources and time. If freshman academy
teachers can incorporate the
interventions into a transition program, the freshman academy,
and SMART lunch, it will be
doubly supporting the freshmen. This added support can
positively affect students’ behavior,
attendance, and pass/failure rates that Smith’s (2012) examined
the effects a transition had on.
While Smith’s (2012) research did not show a positive impact
on students’ behavior, attendance

596. (across the board), or pass/failure rate, only a transition
program was used. Applying the study to
the design of a transition program and SMART lunch and
analyzing the outcome it could
determine if the transition program was successful in
conjunction with other support programs.
Additionally, the design of Smith’s (2012) study is one that
would allow schools who use
a SMART lunch program to be compared to schools who do not
use a SMART lunch program.
The ability to compare student characteristics to each grade or
to the previous year’s students
would glean useful data for a school that wanted to evaluate its
own SMART lunch program.
The data that the researcher would have to obtain would be
attendance rates to tutoring sessions,
SMART lunch detention assignment numbers, pass/fail rates for
courses, end of course testing
results, attendance. Each year, or even semester, as
interventions are added or altered one could
DISSERTATION REVIEWS 19
use a causal-comparative design to determine if the effect

597. garnered a positive or negative effect
on any of these areas.
Freshmen that do not attain credits are more likely to drop out
and any intervention
program that endeavors to thwart a student from being a dropout
is relevant to the educational
field, and deserves to be examined by those who can create
programs, supports, and
interventions to prevent it.
DISSERTATION REVIEWS 20
References
Ganeson, K., & Enrich, L. C. (2009, February). Transition into
high school: A phenomenological
study. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 41(1), 60-78.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2008.00476.x
Roybal, V., Thornton, B., & Usinger, J. (2014, June 1).
Effective ninth-grade transition programs
can promote student success. Education, 134(4), 475-487.
Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=

598. ip,custuid&custid=s8455
861&db=a9h&AN=97060962&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Smith, K. E. (2012). Effects of summer school transition
program and grade level on seventh,
eighth, and ninth grade students’ grades, attendance, and
behavior (Doctoral
dissertation). Retrieved from
http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/educ_doc_dis/
Dissertation Reviews Grading Rubric
Criteria Levels of Achievement
Content 70%
(175 points)
Advanced 94-100% (A) Proficient 87-93% (B) Developing 1-
86% (< C) Not present
Assessment
70 to 75 points
Key points are concisely summarized
with balance, clarity, and relevance.
65 to 69 points
Mostkey points are summarized with

599. clarity and relevance.
1 to 64 points
While somekey points are addressed,
thereis a lack of focus, and important
information is neglected.
0 points
Research
Analysis Critique
47 to 50 points
Relevant and legitimate information
clearly supports an informed critique of
the quality of the search conducted. It
is thoughtful and focused, with an in-
depth analysis of the significant topic
and research design.
43 to 46 points
Information provides reasonable support
for a critique of the quality of the
research conducted. It displays evidence
of a basicanalysis.
1 to 42 points
Information supports a critique of the
quality of the research conducted. Analysis

600. is basicand general. Reader gains few
insights.
0 points
Personal and
Practical
Application
47 to 50 points
Applies the information learned
appropriately with good personal
insight for application or future use in
the candidate’s future proposed
research and in light of relevance to
the field of education.
43 to 46 points
Applies most of the information learned
appropriately with somepersonal insight
for application or future use in the
candidate’s future proposed research
and in light of relevance to the field of
education.
1 to 42 points
Applies someof the information learned
appropriately with little personal insight

601. for application or future use in the
candidate’s future proposed research and
in light of relevance to the field of
education.
0 points
Structure 30%
(75 points)
Advanced 94-100% (A) .5 Proficient 87-93% (B) Developing
1-86% (< C) Not present
Sentence
Structure
28 to 30 points
Sentences are well-phrased and varied
in length and structure. Writing
displays concise, interesting, and
focused introductory and concluding
sentences.
25 to 27 points
Sentences are well-phrased, and thereis
somevariety in length and structure.
Writing displays clear introductory and
concluding sentences.
1 to 24 points
Some sentences are awkwardly

602. constructed so that the reader is
occasionally distracted. Writing displays
vague introductory and concluding
sentence.
0 points
Mechanics,
Word Count, and
APA Format
42 to 45 points
The writing is free of errors. Meets the
assigned page count (12 pages, not
including title and referencespages).
39 to 41 points
There are 1–3 errors, but they do not
represent a major distraction or obscure
meaning. Meets the assigned word
count.
1 to 38 points
The writing has many errors. Does not
meet the assigned page count.
0 points

603. EDUC 798
DISSERTATION REVIEWS INSTRUCTIONS
This paper will consist of 2 separate 6-page reviews of 2
different doctoral dissertations in 1
Microsoft Word document. You will locate 2 Liberty University
doctoral dissertations written
within the past 5 years.
All the School of Education doctoral dissertations can be found
here:
http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/educ_doc_dis/.
The dissertations are organized chronologically with 2014 on
top. Clicking on the title of a
dissertation will take you to a page with some basic info for that
dissertation, including the
abstract. Clicking on the “Download” button will pull up a full-
text document for the
dissertation. You will not need a special login to access these
PDFs.
One of these dissertations must focus on the proposed research
topic of personal interest that you
identified in Discussion Board Forum 2; the other dissertation
must employ a research design
type similar to that which you will propose in your Research
Methodology Presentation in
Module/Week 7.
The review must include:

604. • A Title page
• For Each Dissertation,
o 2-page summary of the dissertation
o 2-page analysis of the quality of the research conducted (What
are the strengths
and limitations of the research? What was done well? What
could be improved?
How would you do the research differently?)
o 2-page personal analysis and practical application discussion
(describe personal
lessons learned from the dissertation and the relevance of the
reviewed work
within the field of education)
• A References page
The body of the paper must be at least 12 pages (not counting
title and reference pages), must
include references and citations for the 2 dissertation sources,
and must be formatted in current
APA style.
Review the grading rubric provided before submitting your
dissertation reviews.
Submit the Dissertation Reviews by 11:59 p.m. (ET) on Sunday
of Module/Week 3.