This document discusses the challenges of applying international humanitarian law (IHL) to new technologies like cyber, robotics, and space technologies. While IHL aims to regulate weapons and warfare, it is often one step behind technological developments. New technologies could minimize casualties through selectivity but also risk increasing attacks and destructive capabilities. Military uses of outer space have become a reality, though the legal status of satellites as military targets is unclear. The document argues that IHL principles of distinction, military objective and proportionality should apply to actions in space, but standards need to be clarified given humanity's collective interest in space.

1. 77thth
ESPI Autumn ConferenceESPI Autumn Conference
‘Space in a Changing World’‘Space in a Changing World’
Vienna 11-12 September 2013Vienna 11-12 September 2013
Space, Technology and Warfare:
Applying the Laws of Armed Conflict to
a Changing World
Steven FreelandSteven Freeland
Professor of International Law, University of Western SydneyProfessor of International Law, University of Western Sydney
Marie Curie Visiting Professor, iCourts Centre of Excellence for InternationalMarie Curie Visiting Professor, iCourts Centre of Excellence for International
Courts, DenmarkCourts, Denmark
Visiting Professor, University of ViennaVisiting Professor, University of Vienna

2. Technological Challenges for the
Humanitarian Legal Framework
• International Law and technology
• IHL – embedded into International Law – means and methods of warfare
• IHL – applies to novel types of weaponry and new technological
developments
but……
• is (usually) ‘one war late’
• How to react in law to technological challenges on the battlefield?
• What constitutes ‘the battlefield’?
• Are we (should we be) applying 20th
Century laws to 21st
Century
technology?
• Are the IHL laws applicable? relevant? appropriate? sufficient? clear?
• What ‘shapes’ what?

3. Technological ‘Challenges’ to
IHL include….
• cyber technology
• remote-controlled weapons systems
technology
• robotics technology
• space technology
• others?

4. Opportunities and RisksOpportunities and Risks
• Potential to minimize casualties
• Greater selectivity => an obligation to use?
• non-lethal / less-lethal means of warfare
but……
• Increasing trend to ‘long distance warfare’
=> a disconnect
• It’s ‘too easy’
• More attacks?
• A lower threshold?
• Increased destructive capabilities
• More likely to ‘render death inevitable’
• Moral and ethical challenges – moral disengagement
• Legal uncertainties

5. Outer Space Treaty – PrinciplesOuter Space Treaty – Principles
Relevant to Military UsesRelevant to Military Uses
• Freedom to explore and use / free access for allFreedom to explore and use / free access for all
• ‘‘province of mankind’ / ‘common heritage of mankind’province of mankind’ / ‘common heritage of mankind’
• No appropriation / claims of sovereigntyNo appropriation / claims of sovereignty
• International law applies (including UN Charter)International law applies (including UN Charter)
• Interests of maintaining international peace and securityInterests of maintaining international peace and security
• No nuclear weapons / weapons of mass destructionNo nuclear weapons / weapons of mass destruction
• ‘‘Peaceful Purposes’Peaceful Purposes’
• State responsibility / liability for ‘national activities inState responsibility / liability for ‘national activities in
outer space’outer space’
• International cooperation / keeping UN informedInternational cooperation / keeping UN informed

6. Military Uses of Outer Space – a realityMilitary Uses of Outer Space – a reality
• Peaceful PurposesPeaceful Purposes
– ‘‘Non-military’ v ‘non-aggressive’Non-military’ v ‘non-aggressive’
• a redundant argument?a redundant argument?
• Operation Desert Storm – the first ‘SpaceOperation Desert Storm – the first ‘Space
War’War’
• Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya etcKosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya etc
• Military satellites / space assets – anMilitary satellites / space assets – an
‘integrated battle platform’‘integrated battle platform’
• Commercial satellitesCommercial satellites
– ‘‘dual use’ satellitesdual use’ satellites
• CommunicationsCommunications
• GPS technologyGPS technology
• Remote sensingRemote sensing
• Weapons systemsWeapons systems
• Earth => Space - missile defence shield /Earth => Space - missile defence shield /
ballistic missiles / ASATSballistic missiles / ASATS
• Space => SpaceSpace => Space
• Space => EarthSpace => Earth
• ‘‘Fourth Territory’?Fourth Territory’?

7. Space Security – International /Space Security – International /
National PolicyNational Policy
•Activities of the Major Space Faring StatesActivities of the Major Space Faring States
– A ‘Space Pearl Harbour’A ‘Space Pearl Harbour’
•A Space Arms Race? – UNGA ResolutionsA Space Arms Race? – UNGA Resolutions
– the weaponisation of space?the weaponisation of space?
•Draft 2008 Treaty to Prevent WeaponsDraft 2008 Treaty to Prevent Weapons
•TCBMs – Draft International Code of ConductTCBMs – Draft International Code of Conduct

8. A Hypothetical? – AnA Hypothetical? – An
Application of IHL PrinciplesApplication of IHL Principles
• International law applies in outer spaceInternational law applies in outer space
• No ‘territorial’ limitation toNo ‘territorial’ limitation to jus in bellojus in bello
– IHL Principles applyIHL Principles apply
• in combat zonein combat zone
• where acts cause (direct) effects?where acts cause (direct) effects?
• Outer Space used forOuter Space used for
– ‘‘passive’ military activitiespassive’ military activities
– as an ‘active’ theatre of warfare?as an ‘active’ theatre of warfare?

9. Application of IHL PrinciplesApplication of IHL Principles
• Principles ofPrinciples of
– DistinctionDistinction
– Military ObjectiveMilitary Objective
– ProportionalityProportionality
• appropriate for actions in outer space?appropriate for actions in outer space?
• Can a satellite be a legitimate target of war?Can a satellite be a legitimate target of war?
– military satellitesmilitary satellites
– ‘‘dual-use’ satellitesdual-use’ satellites
• Effects?Effects?
– communities / States / regions etc reliant on satellite technologycommunities / States / regions etc reliant on satellite technology

10. Concluding CommentsConcluding Comments
• Space technology already used to conduct armed conflictSpace technology already used to conduct armed conflict
• Increasing likelihood that space may become a ‘theatre of war’Increasing likelihood that space may become a ‘theatre of war’
• Legal ‘status’ of satellites – legitimate military target?Legal ‘status’ of satellites – legitimate military target?
• How to apply / adapt theHow to apply / adapt the jus in bello?jus in bello?
• Need for specific standardsNeed for specific standards
– Definitions – ‘space’ / ‘peaceful purposes’ / ‘military uses’Definitions – ‘space’ / ‘peaceful purposes’ / ‘military uses’
• Need to adhere to the collective ‘humanity’ principles of space lawNeed to adhere to the collective ‘humanity’ principles of space law
and IHLand IHL