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2. 3.1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWOR
3.1.1. MEANING OF CONSTITUTION AND
CONSTITUTIONALISM
Constitution is a body of fundamental laws and principles
according to which apolitical sate is governed.
It is a collection of principles according to which:
 The powers of the government;
 The rights and duties of the governed;
It is any document or series of documents , customary
rules which deal with the basic structure and functions of
the state.
It is considered as ‘Power Map’ -the formal distribution of
authority within the state.
It is the basic law in a country. As a basic law, it includes
the basic principles, values, beliefs and tradition as that
directs the internal affair of a country.
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3. Constitutionalism is the condition where the provisions of
the constitution are fully implemented.
It is the situation where everything is done according to
the provisions of the constitution.
It is also related with the prevalence of the rule of law
where the government and public officials shall be held
accountable to the people and are responsible for their
actions.
3.1.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
CONSTITUTION
The historical emergence and evolution of constitution can
be traced back to earlier stages of civilization.
In the history of human societies, the evolution of
constitution is closely linked with the ever-increasing need
to limit the absolute powers of governors, with
guaranteeing the rights of the governed, and hence, with
the growth of constitutionalism.
Cont.
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4. In its modern sense, constitution emerged during the 17th
century in England.
Many cultures and civilizations influenced and shaped the
development of constitutional thinking.
The Law of Hammurabi:
 This was the first codified law in history.
 King Hammurabi of ancient Babylonia introduced a
powerful legal order to govern his subjects.
 He ordered his subjects to strictly obey the law and
those who refused to do so were seriously punished.
 Any criticism or challenge against the law was
unacceptable.
 The authority of the government was not limited.
 Historically significant because it introduced a legal
system of governance,
Cont.
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5. The Hebrews:
 The Hebrew was the first to practice constitutionalism.
 However, religious thinking and the idea of divine
power influenced the constitutional tradition. This is
called Theocracy.
 Officials were elected by assemblies of citizens, and for
a year at a time.
 constitutionalism was emphasized on limiting the
absolute power of rulers by the law of divine power.
The Romans:
 The Romans introduced a republican system of
governance.
 The Romans founded a system of civil and criminal
law, which is the source of the legal codes and practices
of many modern nations.
 The Romans exercised separation and distribution of
powers among different assemblies and offices.
Cont.
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6. The Greeks:
 The Greeks were the first to exercise democracy as a
form and method of governance.
 In this process, they developed a constitutional political
tradition.
 All active citizens had access to the public offices.
 When public officials tend to abuse power, condemnation
and exclusion from social acceptance was exercised.
 The office terms were also short.
 Therefore, political power was rationally shared.
 Officials and citizens also made observance to the rule of
Cont.
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7. Magna Carta:
 Is a Latin word meaning “Great Charter”.
 The origin of constitution is also related to a document
known as Magna Carta.
 King John of England was using his governmental
power unfairly for selfish purposes. The forms of abuses
of his power were asking unusual tax rates and
depriving of the established rights and privileges.
 As a result, those who suffered revolted and decided for
an armed confrontation with King John. However, King
John did not fight. Instead, he agreed to sign a charter
called Magna Carta in 1215 AD. The document is also
known as Charter of Liberties
Cont.
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8. 3.1.3. FORMS OF CONSTITUTION
In different political system of governments constitution
is differ from one another in many ways.
There are various methods of classifying constitutions
and we can employ them in different patterns.
we can classify constitutions based on their forms :
A. Written Constitution
 A Constitution in which main provisions
contained in a single document known as ‘Written’
or ‘Codified’ Constitution.
 Most of the constitutions of states across the world
are written constitution.
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9. Some benefits of Written [Codified]
Constitution
 It is full of clarity and definitions because key
provisions are written
 It has the quality of stability. That is, since people
know the nature of constitutional provisions, people
feel a sense of satisfaction.
 The rights and liberties of the people are secured since
all important points are reduced to writing.
 It has educational value; in that it highlights the
central values and over all goals and principles of
the political system.
 The power of the legislative is restricted.
Cont.
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10. B. Unwritten Constitution
 Unwritten Constitution of state refers to a set of rules,
regulations, declarations and laws passed by either a
parliament or other body of government at different
times.
 They have dispersed legal documents which serve as a
constitution.
 unwritten constitution is not compiled in a single
document.
Cont.
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11. Some benefits of unwritten Constitution
 It has the quality of elasticity and adaptability
to changing circumstances or situations
 It is dynamic in that it prevents chances of
popular uprisings [upheavals].
Cont.
 The absence of codified constitution of state
implies, most importantly, that the legislative body
enjoys sovereignty or unchallengeable sovereignty.
 There are very few countries who are referred to
have unwritten form of constitution Ex. Britain
and Israel.
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12. Moreover, constitutions based on their provision of
amendment procedures can be classified as: Rigid
Constitution, and Flexible Constitution.
Rigid Constitution
 Is a type of Constitution that requires special
procedures for amendment.
 Written Constitutions are rigid ones, because they
need special procedures for amendment
Flexible Constitutions
 Can be altered by a simple majority at the national
legislation.
Cont.
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 Unwritten constitutions are flexible constitutions.
 It does not require special procedures for
amendments.
 Constitutions are not ‘once and for all’ documents.
 They should be amended or interpreted in response
to changing circumstances.
 For instance the American Constitution has been
amended 26 times.
Cont.

14. 3.1.4. PURPOSES (FUNCTIONS) OF CONSTITUTION
Constitution of state has the following basic functions:
 It serves as a framework for government –
Legislative -Peoples House of Representative
Executive -The council of ministers
Judiciary -Courts
 It provides government stability -In allocating duties,
powers and functions among various organs and institutions
of government,
 It limits the power of government,
 The Supreme [the highest] law of a country,
 Protects individuals and collective rights and freedoms of
their citizens,
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15. 3.2. CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN
ETHIOPIA
The history of constitutional practices in Ethiopia is
traced back to the formation of the earliest states of
ancient Ethiopia.
Until the early 1930s, the rule of the Ethiopian
Emperors was based on traditional and customary
political and legal premises.
The traditional constitutional experience was
characterized by the dominance of myths and legends.
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16. 3.2.1.THE FETEHA NEGEST AND KIBRE NEGEST
The traditional constitutional experiences were based
upon the idea of the divining right of kings.
The Kibre Negest the Fetha Negest and the Sirate
Mengist served as the traditional constitutional
documents in the monasteries, Churches, Palaces and
courts.
 Fetha Negest - was basically a legal code providing
secular and religious legal provisions.
 The Kibre Negst - which literally means the glory of
kings, gives the account of Solomonic legend (appeared
during the 13th century).
 Serate Mengist - provided certain administrative and
protocol directives to the constitutional process.
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17.  The myths and legends provide no opportunity for the
Ethiopian people to participate in political affairs and
to influence decision-making processes of their nations.
3.2.2. THE 1931 CONSTITUTION
Ethiopian had the first written constitution in 1931.
The introduction of this constitution marked the
development of modern constitutional process in Ethiopia.
It was founded upon the very idea of the divine right of
kings.
It did not provide genuine freedom to the Ethiopian
peoples.
In this constitution, the king is presented as Niguse Negst
Seyume Egziabher, which literally means king of kings
elect of God.
Cont.
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18. The 1931 constitution was formulated for two basic
purposes:
To give Ethiopian the image of “Modernity” to the
international communities.
 To provide a legal framework for the subordination
of the powerfultraditional nobility to the Emperor.
It was introduced in order to achieve Ethiopia’s
diplomatic recognition a board and to strengthen the
Emperor’s authority at home.
It laid some foundations for experimenting with
practices of modern government in Ethiopia. This is
because, it introduces:
Cont.
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19. A. Parliamentary system - has two Chambers:
 The Camber of the senate (Yehiig Mewesegna
Meker Bet)
 The Chamber of Deputies (Yehig Memeria
Meker Bet)
B. Ministerial system - the constitution also provided the
constitutional framework for the
ministerial system.
C. Annual Budget - the constitution introduced the idea of
providing fixed annual budget for
government.
D. Judicial Branches - the constitution introduced two
separate systems of courts civil and
criminal
Cont.
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20. 3.2.3. THE 1955(THE REVISED) CONSTITUTION
The basic reasons for the Revision of the 1931 constitution
include:
 One of the essential prerequisites for constitutional
revision was the Act of the Federation of Eritrea
with Ethiopia in 1952,
 Pressure from the growing number of educated
people with radical idea; and
 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
The revised Constitution was the second phase of Ethiopia’s
modern constitutional development.
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21. The Revised constitution was a “gift” from the Emperor
to his subjects on the occasion of celebrating his twenty-
five years in power (silver-jubilee) on 4 Nov.1955.
The revised constitution more strongly established the
absolute power of the monarch.
It declared the “inviolability” of the emperor’s dignity.
It was also determining the administrative affairs of the
church itself.
the Revised constitution consolidates the executive,
legislative and judicial power of the Emperor.
Cont.
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22. 3.2.3. THE 1987 (THE PDRE) CONSTITUTION
For a period of 13 years Ethiopia remained without a
written Constitution. Hence the country was governed by
government Decrees.
In 1987 the Dergue promulgated the Constitution of 1987.
The name of Ethiopia was Peoples Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia(PDRE).
This Constitution contained the preamble and 4 parts, with
119 articles .
Part I- nature of the political and economic system in
Ethiopia:
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23.  Unitary State structure;
 Constitution granted the power of the State to the
Working people of Ethiopia;
 State organs and party politics were explained.
 The Constitution gives the State the right to intervene
into the National economy.
Part II- Elaborates freedoms, rights and duties of citizens.
Part III- Structure and function of state institutions.
 State institutions such as Parliament, the Council of
State , the Council of Ministers, and Courts were
explained.
Cont.
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24. A unicameral parliament known as the National
Shengo - Supreme Organ of the State.
 The Secretary General of the single party was also
the executive President of the Republic, the
President of the Council of State, the Chairman of
the National Shengo, and Commander in chief of
the Armed force.
Part IV- this part of the Constitution contains general
provisions such as:
Flag specification;
National Anthem;
National Language...etc.
Cont.
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25. The Constitution generally establishes: Legislative,
Council of minister , Council of state, the bureaucracy
and the Judiciary.
Significant contributions:
 Establishes a government through election for the first
time;
 Children's right were considered;
 Equality of women was considered
 Marriage without consent was prohibited;
 Right to work, rest and health care achieved recognition.
Cont.
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26. 3.2.4 .THE 1995 CONSTITUTION OF FDRE
Proclamation No 1/1995 pronounced the coming into
effect of the Constitution of the Federal Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia.
 This Constitution is different from all previous
Ethiopia Constitutions.
 The State and Government established by this
Constitution are different both in form and
content from the previous State and Government of
Ethiopia.
 It provides for a Federal state and a Parliamentary
democracy with a Multiparty system.
 The name of Ethiopia under the Constitution of 1995
has become the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia.
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27. Following the downfall of the Dergue (or the PDRE), Ethiopia
entered into what is known as “Transitional Period”.
The period terminated on August 21, 1995. During this
period, our country was under the “Transitional Period
Charter of Ethiopia”.
Charter is a document of important principles and laws
that serve, in this case, as a highest law in place of
constitution of the state.
The charter which served as a constitution was formulated
and proclaimed by the peace and democratic conference,
held in Addis Ababa from July 1 to 5, 1991.
On this conference various ethnic based political parties
were invited to reflect and represent the specific interests
of their ethnic groups.
Cont.
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28. 3.2.4.1. MAJOR AIMS OF THE TRANSITIONAL
GOVERNMENT CHARTER
To end or eliminate the previous dictatorial regime in
Ethiopia,
To facilitate the ground for the Ethiopians in order to
build democratic administration,
To open a new chapter for equality, freedom, and to decide
upon the nations, nationalities and peoples interest up to
secession,
To establish good relationships with neighbor countries
without any hostilities, and
To establish a government administration with free and
fair elections that is responsible to the people.
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29. 3.2.4.2. FORMULATION STAGES OF THE 1995
FDRE CONSTITUTION
The FDRE Constitution adopted On 8 December, 1994 and
marked the end for the era of the transitional Period and
passed three major stages before its formulation as a
constitution. These are the following:
 The Drafting Stage - was the first stage in the
formulation process of the 1995 FDRE Constitution.
The responsibility of drafting task was given to a body
known as “Constitution Commission”.
 Discussion and Development Stage - This stage
involved extensive public discussion on the draft of the
constitution. This can be termed as popular
discussion and ratification of the constitution.
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30. The Ratification Stage - This stage was the last stage
where by the constitution was ratified. This stage is also
known as “Adoption” or “Endorsement” stage.
3.2.4.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE FDRE CONSTITUTION
a. OBJECTIVES OF THE FDRE CONSTITUTION
The FDRE Constitution which enforced into work
on 21st of August 1995 has many objectives:
 Building a political community based on the popular
will or agreement that is the destiny of all Nations,
Nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia;
 To have the rule of law as the foundation of the political
community built based on popular will;
Cont.
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31.  Ensuring lasting peace, democracy and development that
characterize the process of building prosperous country;
 Maintaining and consolidating the effective and successful
unity based on diversity through guaranteeing and
securing the rights of Nations, Nationalities, and
Peoples of Ethiopia to self-determination including up to
secession.
B. PRINCIPLES OF THE FDRE CONSTITUTION
The basic principles which enshrined in the FDRE
Constitution are:
 Popular Sovereignty
Supremacy of the Constitution
Cont.
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32. Secularism
Transparency and Accountability
Recognition of Diversity
Respecting Human Rights
3.2.5. CONSTITUTIONAL POWER AND FUNCTION OF FDRE
GOVERNMENT
I. THE LEGISLATIVE BODY
The Parliament has the power for legislation in all matters
assigned to the Federal Government.
The parliament under the FDRE constitution is bi-
cameral, that is, comprising of the House of People’s
Representatives and the House of Federation.
Cont.
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33. The House of People’s Representatives
 Special representation of minority nationalities and
peoples shall not exceed 550 seats, of these not less
than 20 seats are allocated to represent minority
nationalities and peoples.
Some of powers of The House of People’s Representatives
 It makes laws, approve general policies, and strategies of the
country.
 Supervises activities of the executive and has the power to call and
question the prime Minister and other federal officials on the
conduct and discharge of their responsibilities.
 In conformity with article 93 of the constitution it shall declare a
state of emergency; it shall consider and resolve on a decree of a
state of emergency declared by the executive.
 On the basis of a draft law submitted to it by the council of
Ministers it shall proclaim a state of war.
Cont.
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34.  It shall approve the appointment of Federal Judges,
members of the Council of Ministers, Commissioners, the
Auditor General, and of other officials whose
appointment is required by law to be approved by it.
The House of Federation
 The House of Federation is composed of the
representatives of the Nations, Nationalities, and
Peoples of Ethiopia. 61(2)
 Each Nation, Nationality or People are represented
by at least one representative in the House of
Federation.
 In addition, each Nation, Nationality or People will
have one more representative for each additional
one million of its population.
Cont.
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35. Some power of the House of Federation
 to interpret the constitution and decide on a constitutional dispute
submitted to it.
 It has the power to decide on issues of self-determination, including
the right to secession as well as setting territorial disputes among
regional states.
 It also determines the allocation of budget and subsidies provided by
the Federal Government to the regional states.
 it shall also order Federal intervention if any state, is in violation of
the constitution, which endangered the constitutional order.
II.THE EXECUTIVE BODY
The Prime Minister and the council of Ministers form the
executive branch of the Federal Government of Ethiopia.
The Federal executive authority is constitutionally divided
between the office of the President of Federal government
and the office of the prime Minister.
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36. A. THE PRESIDENT OF FDRE GOVERNMENT
The President of the Republic is elected under a joint
session of the two Houses of the Parliament by a two-
third majority vote.
His/Her term of office of the President is six years and
once elected President he/she ceases to be a member
of either House’s.
He/She is the head of state.
He/She opens the joint sessions of the Houses of the
parliament and proclaims laws and international
agreements in the ‘Negarit Gazeta’ which approved by
the House of Peoples’ Representatives.
He/She upon the recommendation of the Prime
Minister appoints Ambassadors and other Envoys to
represent the country abroad; receives credentials of
foreign Ambassadors and Envoys; grants high
Cont.
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37. B.THE PRIME MINISTER AND THE COUNCIL OF
MINISTERS
The Prime Minister is elected from among the
members of the House of People’s Representatives.
(article 73 :1) As the chief executive:
He/She plays the role of a head of government;
He/She is the commander-in-chief of the national
armed forces;
He/She presides over the council of Ministers;
nominates the Ministers from among members of the
two Houses or other competent persons outside of
the Parliament; but the nomination must be approved
by the House of People’s Representatives;
He/She has the overall power to supervise the
implementation of the country’s foreign policy.
Cont.
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38. III. THE JUDICIARY BODY
The FDRE constitution ensures the establishment of an
independent judiciary.
The judiciary as an independent organ neither the Council
of Ministers nor the parliament interferes with the legal
activities and decisions of the courts.
There are three stages of courts at federal as well as
regional level.
the Supreme Court,
the High Court, and
the First Instance Court.
The highest and final judicial power over the federal
matters is given to the Federal Supreme Court [FSC] and
such final deciding power on State matters is left to the
State Supreme Court [SSC].
Cont.
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39. Appointment of Judges
The president and Vice-President of the Federal Supreme
Court, who concurrently worked as the President and Vice-
President of the constitutional Enquiry respectively,
appointed by the House of Peoples Representatives upon the
recommendation of the Prime Minister.
The President and Vice-President of the State Supreme
Court appointed by the State Council upon the
recommendation by the chief Executive of the State.
Council of Constitutional Inquiry
The Council of Constitutional Inquiry which has the power
given by the constitution to investigate constitutional disputes
and submits its recommendations to the house of Federation
composed of eleven members
Cont.
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40. 3.2.6. SALIENT FEATURES OF THE FDRE
CONSTITUTION
1. Federalism - previous Constitutions of Ethiopia had
established a Unitary system of government;
2. Ethnic federalism - the Constitution recognizes the
existence of different ethnic groups and empowered the
sovereign power on them;
3. Sovereignty -sovereign power resides on the N.N.&P. of
Ethiopia.
4. Self-determination-right to develop the language,
culture, history and identity; and also the right to
secession.
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41. 5. Ownership of rural and urban land-common property of
Ethiopians;
6. Secularism- State and Religion separate;
7. Accountability;
8. Constitutional supremacy;
9. Constitutional interpretation- the HF is empowered to
interpret the Constitution;
11. Parliamentary form of Government;
12. Fundamental rights and freedoms 32 articles are devoted to
discuss it.
Cont.
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42. Human rights are basic and fundamental rights which are
held equally by all human beings regardless of race, age,
religion, nationality, class, language, color, birth, political
belief, social status or any other grounds.
Human rights are inalienable that do not have to be earned
or inherited. One cannot loss his/her human rights as far as
he/she alive.
Human rights are lost only at death of a person.
The FDRE constitution under its article 10 includes the
human and democratic rights as major features of its part.
BASIC HUMAN RIGHTS
The Rights to life
Right to Liberty
Prohibition against Inhuman Treatment
The Security of Person and Liberty
Cont.
42

43. Democratic rights are political and civil rights, alongside
human rights, from a second group of rights.
Their aim is to ensure that every person is free to take
part in his/her community’s political life, without fear of
unwarranted punishment.
BASIC DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS
Right of Thought, Opinion and Expression
The Right of Assembly, Demonstration and Petition
Freedom of Association
Freedom of Movement
Cont.
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44. 3.2.7. CONSTITUTIONALISM AND ARMED FORCES
The FDRE constitution after its formulation in 1995,
organized a National Armed Forces which composed of
different Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of the country.
The armed forces of the FDRE government make different
from the previous regime because of its composition and
its democratic culture.
Principles For National Defense Under The FDRE
Constitution :
 The composition of the national armed forces shall
reflect the equitable representation of the Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia.
 The Minister of Defense shall be a civilian
.
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45.  The armed forces shall protect the sovereignty of the
country and carry out any responsibilities as may be
assigned to them under any state of emergency declared
in accordance with the constitution.
 The armed forces shall at all times obey and respect the
constitution.
 The armed forces shall carry out their functions free of
any partisanship and political organization(s).
Cont.
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2.4. Corruption
2.4.1. Definition of Corruption
 Corruption is the misuse of public power (by elected
politician or appointed civil servant) for private gain.
 It has been broadly defined as the misuse of public
office for private gain and the abuse of public power.

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2.3.1. Forms of corruption
1. Petty and Grand Corruption
 Petty Corruption - Practiced on a smaller scale. Defined
as the use of public office for private benefit in the course
of delivering a public service. (small amounts of money,
including bribery).
 Grand Corruption - The most dangerous and hidden
type of corruption. Instances where policy making, its
design and implementation are compromised by
corrupt practices. Occurs at financial, political and
administrative centers of power.

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2. Political and Business corruption
 Business Corruption – it is not regarded as a crime,
rather it is a means to accelerate business processes.
Example: bribery, money laundering, embezzlement, tax evasion
and accounting irregularities.
 Political Corruption - associated with the electoral
process.
Examples: voting irregularities, nepotism and cronyism,
of candidates and parties, influencing voters by the
distribution of money, etc.

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3. Chaotic and Organized corruption
 Chaotic Corruption - A disorganized system where there is
no clarity regarding whom to bribe and how much
payment should be offered. There is no guarantee that
further bribes will not have to be paid to other officials.
 Organized Corruption - A well-organized system of
corruption in which there is a clear idea of whom to bribe;
how much should be offered and are confident that they
will receive the favor in return. Perpetrated by crime
gangs and syndicates and includes white-collar crime and
identity theft.

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2.3.2. Factors of Corruption
Corruption is like diabetes, can only be controlled, but not
totally eliminated.
Major causes of corruption:
 Bad political and public administration systems - which may be
associated with Emergence of political leaders who believe in interest
oriented rather than nation-oriented programs and policies.
 Absence of societal vigilance to protect public property that is
tolerance of people towards corruption.
 Lack of transparency, especially at the institutional level.

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.
 Weak justice administration system.
 Downplaying or reacting kindly to corruption charges.
 slow judicial processes.
 Lack of moral criteria in promotions.
 Cultural environments that condone corruption.
Example: defending or even admiring crooks (“you have to be pretty smart
to evade taxes”). Rationalizing false arguments with no moral
basis (“everyone does it”; “take advantage while you can”;
“life is short”).
 In a highly inflationary economy, low salaries of government officials
compel them to resort to the road of corruption.

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The effect of corruption is not just robbery of public money and
property. It also endangers a democratic system and good
governance in the society and it is:
 A cause to violation of basic human rights.
 Ant A cause for injustice and inequality.
 Antithesis to socio-economic development.
 Dangerous to national security and order.
 A major cause eroding the confidence that the public has to the
government.

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2.3.3. Effects of Corruption
I. Effects of corruption on people
There are different effects of corruption on people.
These are:
 Lack of quality in services - In a system with corruption
there is no quality of service.
 Lack of proper justice - Corruption in judiciary system,
leads to improper justice.

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 Chances of Unemployment - This we can see with an
example. The private education and training institutes
are given permits to start providing education. Instead
of 10 faculties a college is run by 5. So, even if well
qualified persons wish to get job there, they will not be
offered.
 Poor Health and hygiene - no fresh drinking water,
proper roads, quality food provided sub-standard
quality goods and services.

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 Pollution - Pollution is mostly emitted in the form of water
pollution, air pollution and land pollution.
 Accidents - Sanction of driving license without proper
check of driving skills.
 Failure of genuine research - Research by individuals
needs government funding. Some of the funding
agencies have corrupt officers.

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II. Effects of corruption on Society
 Disregard for officials - People start disregarding the
official involved in corruption by talking negatively
about him.
 Lack of faith and trust on the governments - People vote
to a ruler based on their faith in him/ her.
 Lack of respect for rulers - Rulers of the nation like
president or prime ministers lose respect among the
public.

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 Aversion for joining the posts linked to corruption -
Sincere, honest and hard working people develop
aversion to apply for the post though they like to as they
believe that they also need to be involved in corruption if
they get into post.

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III. Effects of corruption on Economy
 Delay in growth - Due to desire to mint money and other
unlawful benefits, the official who need to pass the
clearances for projects or industries delay the process.
 Lack of development - Many new industries wiling to
get started in particular region change their plans if the
region is unsuitable. Example: lack of infrastructure,
like, proper roads, water and electricity.

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 Differences in trade ratios - standard control institutes
are corrupt that they can approve low quality products
for sale in their country.
For example: China products which can’t be just
dumped into Europe and US markets. But can be
done in African markets.

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2.3.4.Combating Corruption
 Preventive Approach - This approach focuses on the
preventive role that these laws can play. For instance,
those laws and rules related to financial administration
and auditing systems have a direct role in preventing
corruption.
 Curative Approach - includes receiving complaints,
investigate corruption cases and bring the corrupt officials
before justice. We need to have committed citizens to fight
against corruption.

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