Good Feed Manufacturing Practices for the Brazilian Aquaculture Industry

GOOD AQUACULTURE FEED
MANUFACTURING PRACTICES FOR THE
BRAZILIAN AQUACULTURE INDUSTRY
Alberto J.P. Nunes
Associate Professor
50th Annual Meeting of the
Brazilian Society of Animal Science
Royal Palm Plaza Hotel
Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
July 26th, 2013 - 02:00 – 02:30 pm

FACTS ON AQUACULTURE IN BRAZIL
1. Bulk of farm-raised fish and shrimp are fed on industrially
compounded feeds
2. Prevalent pond aquaculture systems are semi-intensive with
FCRs above 1.2, whereas in intensive aquaculture cage farming
systems for tilapia dominates with FCRs above 1.5
3. Extruded and pelleted feeds prevails in fish and shrimp
production, respectively
4. In fed-based aquaculture systems
a. Freshwater: Chitralada tilapia, tambaqui + hybrids and
Brazilian tiger catfish + hybrids
b. Marine: whiteleg shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei
5. Feeding still relies in manual practices. Little mechanization
6. Markets, stringent environmental regulations: driving growth in
countryside areas; intensification in coastal aquaculture
Alberto Nunes · alberto.nunes@ufc.br
50th Annual Meeting of the BSAS
Campinas, SP, Brazil - July 26th, 2013

MAJOR GROUPS, SYSTEMS AND FEEDS
Shrimp
Brackish/Marine
Earthen ponds
1–2.5 MT/ha/crop
2.5 – 3
1.0 – 1.5
Pelleted/Extruded
Sinking
30 – 35% SI
35 – 38% INT
Species
Environm.
System
Yield
Crops/yr.
FCR
Feed*
Protein
Indigenous fish
Freshwater
Earthen ponds
7–12 MT/ha/crop
1.5 – 2
1.0 – 1.7
Extruded
Floating
28 – 32% SI Omn.
40 – 45% SI Carn.
Tilapia
Freshwater
Cages
80-100 kg/m3
1.5 – 2
1.5 – 1.8
Extruded
Floating
---
32% INT
*Grower

BRAZIL: MARINE SHRIMP
Earthen ponds – brackishwater or marine
Photo: State of Pernambuco, Brazil

BRAZIL: MARINE SHRIMP
Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei

BRAZIL: MARINE SHRIMP FEED
Starter (crumbled)
Grower (pelleted)
Pelleted shrimp feed

BRAZIL: INDIGENOUS FISH
Earthen ponds - freshwater
Photo: State of Rondonia, Brazil

BRAZIL: TILAPIA CHITRALADA
Cages- freshwater
Photo: State of Pernambuco, Brazil

OMNIVOROUS
Tambaqui - Colossoma macropomum
+ hybrids

CARNIVOROUS
Pintado - Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum
+ hybrids
Pintado Amazônico
Photo credit: Otavio Serino Castro

CARNIVOROUS
Pirarucu - Arapaima gigas

BRAZIL: TILAPIA CHITRALADA
Tilapia – Chitralada strain
Oreochromis niloticus

BRAZIL: FISH FEED
Extruded feed for omnivorous freshwater fish

BRAZIL: FISH FEED
Extruded feed for carnivorous freshwater fish

HOW BIG IS AQUAFEED IN BRAZIL?
Poultry
Hog
Cattle
Pet
Horse
AQUA
Others
37.20
36.30
31.10
15.40
15.10
15.50
7.80
7.40
7.60
2.17
2.26
2.37
0.59
0.56
0.57
0.57
0.65
0.74
0.80
0.75
0.77
2011 2012 2013*F
Source: SINDIRAÇÔES. Boletim Informativo do Setor. Maio/2013
x MT/year

MARGINS AND GROWTH ARE ALSO IMPORTANT
110
130
161
160
168
240
300
345
500
575
665
144
120
66
67
57
84
80
84
71
75
75
262 257 243 256
276
352
403
464
611
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Fish feed¶ (MT/yr.)
Shrimp feed¶ (MT/yr.)
Aquaculture output* (MT/yr.)
Sources:
¶SINDIRAÇÕES. Boletim Informativo do Setor. Maio/2013. http://sindiracoes.org.br/produtos-e-servicos/boletim-
informativo-do-setor
*FAO. Global Aquaculture Production (online query). http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/global-aquaculture-
production/query/en
12% ANNUAL GROWTH RATE

ARE WE PREPARED TO DELIVER AQUAFEEDS?
NORTH
41.8 MT (8.7%)
NORTHEAST
145.9 MT (30.4%)
SOUTHEAST
71.8 MT (15.0%)
SOUTH
150.0 MT (31.3%)
MIDWEST
69.8 MT (14.6%)
3 feed mills (6%)
14 feed mills
(29%)
7 feed mills
(14%)
7 feed mills
(14%)
18 feed mills
(37%)
Sources: MPA (2012) and Sindirações
FREIGHT IS A MAJOR COST

GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMP)
Set of technical standards and guidelines involving hygienic, sanitary and
operational procedures, intended to ensure the quality, compliance and product
safety of feeds to aquatic farm-raised animals
Comply with Regulatory Instruction #
4, Feb. 23, 2007 of the Brazilian
Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Food Supply
Obtain GMP certification with an
accredited independent entity
IN4-MAPA
GMP Certification
HOMEWORK
1.adequate manufacturing
equipment and facilities
2.well-established settings,
parameters and procedures in
manufacturing and quality control
3.trained personnel

WHAT FEED QUALITY INVOLVES?
Raw
Material
Processing
Finished
Feed
PHYLOSOPHY – EXPERTISE - CARE

FEEDS DELIVER DIFFERENT PERFORMANCE
 Feed brands in Brazil deliver different
growth performance to tilapia Chitralada
 Differences in growth between one feed
and the other can be higher than 15%
5.2
5.6
6.0
6.4
6.8
7.2
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
FEED A
Final Body Weight (BW, g)
FEED B FEED C FEED D
Daily Weight Gain (DWG, g/day)*
857
991
968
890
5.86
6.92
6.85
6.17
*calculated starting at > 195 g fish to harvest weight
Growth of tilapia Chitralada in 4-m3 cages at 250
fish/m3. Fish were fed different commercial feed
brands.
CASE: Castanhão Dam, CE, Brazil
65.2%
20.9%
1.6% 2.0%
Break-down of costs to farm tilapia Chitralada at
Castanhão Dam, State of Ceará, Brazil in intensive
low-volume cages. Data refers to a production of
172.6 MT of fish harvested.
FEED+FINGERLING
BANK LOAN
SALARY
DEPRECIATION
OTHER EXPENSES
1.34 USD/kg
0.21 USD/kg
0.43 USD/kg
0.03 USD/kg
0.04 USD/kg
TOTAL COST
2.06 USD/kg

PHYSICAL FACTORS
1. Excessive fines in the feed
2. Sinking pellets with buoyancy (shrimp)
3. Poor water stability (shrimp)
4. Poor floatability of floating extruded feeds
(fish)
5. Irregular pellet length and diameter
6. Rapid loss of physical integrity in water
(shrimp feeds)
7. Lumps or foreign bodies in the feed
8. Variable coloration of pellets
9. Feed bags underweight
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
1. Contamination with fungi, insects or other
organisms
2. Odor not compatible with fresh feed
3. Poor fish/shrimp performance (feed intake,
growth, FCR)
4. Reduced shelf life
FINISHED FEEDS: MAJOR QUALITY ISSUES

CROOKED PELLETS

FISH FEEDS: FINES IN EXCESS

FISH FEEDS: FINES IN EXCESS
Preferable: <0.5% fines
Tolerable: <1% fines
Legislation: up to 2% fines

FISH FEEDS: NO FINES

SHRIMP FEEDS: POOR GRINDING
Cracks and fissures in a shrimp feed = poor water stability

SHRIMP FEEDS:
EFFECTIVE GRINDING AND OIL COATING
Shrimp grower feed

Purchasing
Reception
Weighing
Mixing
Conditioning
Grinding
Extrusion/Pelleting
Drying
Post-Cooking
Storage
Handling
Warehousing/Shipment
GMP IN AQUAFEEDS
Packaging
Labeling
Cooling
Oil Coating
Sieving

AQUA FEEDS: PRODUCTION FLOW
Raw
material
intake
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Premix-/micro-
weighing and
mixing
Conditioning,
extrusion and
drying
Coating
and cooling
Finished
feed
silo/packing
Weighing Grinding
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Source:

WHAT MAKES MANUFACTURING OF
AQUATIC FEEDS DIFFERENT?
Reduction of
particle size
Increase in
temperature
Heat
and
pressure
texture of the raw
material↗
uniform distribution of
food particles↗
water stability↗
digestibility↗
anti-nutritional
factors↙
starch gelatinization↗
pellet density control↗

Chemical analysis* with
standard methods or
with a NIR (Near
Infrared Reflectance)
QC
FORMULATION
*Brazilian Compendium of Animal Feed (CBAA)
PURCHASING
PURCHASING OF RAW MATERIALS
Animal proteins require
continuous chemical
assessments

YOU GET WHAT YOU PAY FOR!!
Salmon meal
66.1% CP
Swine Plasma
78.4% CP
Blood meal
87.2% CP
Meat & bone
41.1% CP
Feather meal
75.7% CP
Meat & bone
47.6% CP
Tilapia meal
62.8% CP
Poultry & feather
62.4% CP
Poultry meal
58.5% CP
FML by-catch
50.3% CP
USD 777/MTUSD 1,439/MT USD 460/MTUSD 5,000/MT USD 432/MT
USD 576/MT USD 1,093/MT USD 806/MT USD 806/MT USD 1,036/MT
Source: SANTOS et al. (2013). M.Sc. Thesis. LABOMAR, Brazil.
Animal proteins used in aquafeeds in Brazil. FOB prices (June, 2011).
Digestibility in pepsin at 0.0002%
76.6% 99.1% 61.7% 45.5% 11.1%
54.6% 79.6% 42.5% 59.3% 51.7%

Animal by-products are highly variable on their chemical profile and freshness
(sources and processing methods). Monitoring of chemical evaluation is required in
almost every batch of raw material purchased.
VARIABILITY OF RENDERED BYPRODUCTS
66.1%
78.5%
87.2%
41.1%
75.6%
47.6%
62.8%
62.4%
58.5%
50.3%
76.6%
99.1%
61.7%
45.4%
11.1%
54.6%
79.0%
42.5%
59.3%
51.7%
Salmon meal,
66% CP
Swine plasma,
79% CP
Blood meal,
87% CP
Meat & bone,
41% CP
Feather meal,
76% CP
Meat & bone,
48% CP
Tilapia meal,
63% CP
Poultry &
feather, 62%
CP
Poultry meal,
58% CP
Fishmeal by
catch, 51% CP
% Ash
Peroxide (meq O2/kg)
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
% Fat% Digestibility in pepsin
% Crude Protein
Source: SANTOS et al. (2013). M.Sc. Thesis. LABOMAR, Brazil

PURCHASING OF RAW MATERIALS
1. Quality standards: physical, chemical
and microbiological parameters that
fall within an acceptable range
2. Need to consider variations: seasonal,
suppliers, batches from the same
origin
3. Only acquire RMs from reputable
ingredient suppliers who comply with
the mill’s and MAPA s quality
standards
4. Basic standards: odor, color, moisture,
density, particle size, texture,
aflatoxin, odd materials
Moisture (max.)
Crude Protein (min.)
Digestibility in pepsin 1:10000
to 0.2% in HCl 0.075N (min.)
Total fat (min.)
Acidity expressed as meq
(NaOH 0.1N/100 (max.)
Ash (max.)
Calcium (max.)
Phosphorus (min.)
Total insolubles in HCl 1:1
(max.)
Quality standards for fishmeal
(Portaria No 7, Nov. 09, 1998
MAPA)
10.00%
55.00%
90.00%
10.00
10.00%
20.00%
6.00%
2.70%
2.00%
1. Chemical analysis with standard
methods or with a NIR (Near Infrared
Reflectance)
2. Critical ingredients: animal proteins

 All raw materials entering the
plant need to be inspected for:
1. Signs of humidity (mold
confirms deterioration)
2. Presence of metals, stones,
dirt or other non-biological
contaminants
3. Presence of insects
4. Color and odor: rancid and
ammonia smell, over toasting
 Moisture need to be determined
by quick methods
 Dry ingredients with moisture
content > 13% are highly
susceptible to quality problems
PRELIMINARY INSPECTION
Quick moisture analyzer

PRELIMINARY INSPECTION: SAMPLING
SPEAR SAMPLING
1
2
3 5 7 9
10
1
1
126 84
Bulk cargo
12 sampling points
5% or about
10 bags
BAGGED RAW MATERIAL
Premix, Vitamins,
Amino Acids,
Antifungal, Antioxidant
Enzymes, Mycotoxin
binders
1 bag (200 g)
Spear inserted horizontally and
diagonally

Feedstuff Recommended Analysis1
Grains M, R, PC, PI, MC, T, D
Rendered animal
byproducts
M, A, ET, PZ, PC, PI, T, C, O
Terrestrial plant
byproducts
M, PZ, PC, PI, T, C, O, UA2
Oils A, C, O
Minerals M, PC, PZ, C
Additives and Premix M, PZ, C
1M, moisture; R, rating/classification; A, acidity; PC, presence of contaminants; PI, presence of insects;
MC, mycotoxins; T, temperature; D, density; EB, Eber test; PZ, particle size; C, color; O, odor; UA, uretic
activity
2For soy products (meal, extruded or deactivated soy)
RECCOMENDED ANALYSIS FOR FEEDSTUFFS*
*Source: Pastore et al. 2013

QUALITY OF FEED RELIES ON THE
FRESHNESS OF RAW MATERIALS
1. Degree of Rancidity (Peroxide Index)
2. Acidity
3. Deterioration of the protein fraction
4. Contaminants
5. Moisture
6. Particle size
7. Mycotoxins
8. Microbiology (Salmonella)
9. Protein digestibility in pepsin
10.Uretic activity
11.Color and odor
Feed mills need
to design:
1. quality
standards for
each raw
material
2. procedures in
case RM is not
acceptable
(agree with
suppliers)
For details check Pastore et al., 2013

STORAGE OF RAW MATERIALS
1. Proper identification to
avoid cross contamination:
product ID, batch number,
date of arrival, bag weight;
temperature, date of
chemical analysis, notes
2. Adopt first-in first-out
procedure: properly
discard expired raw
materials
3. Keep storage area clean,
ventilated, free from
rodents, insects, birds and
from direct sunlight
Labels should contain information on moisture
content, crude protein, fat, fiber, ash, calcium,
phosphorous

CLIMATE-CONTROLLED STORAGE UNITS
STABILITY:
Vitamins, premixes,
larval diets,
probiotics

Natural Assisted
Pressurized Recirculated
VENTILATION SYSTEMS TO CONTROL HUMIDITY
 Relative air humidity is dependent on temperature
 Rising temperatures = moisture in air to cause saturation increases
Sources:Carpenter,1988.Goddard,1996.

 Toxic metabolites produced by
various fungal species (e.g.,
Aspergillus., Penicillium, Fusarium)
 Control temperature and moisture
 More than 100 different types of
mycotoxins: aflatoxin, fumonisin,
deoxynivalenol (DON, vomitoxin),
trichothecenes
 Even in low concentration can affect
fish and shrimp performance
 Brazil: Maximum total aflatoxin
B1+B2+G1+G2) levels: 50 µg/kg in
feedstuffs and prepared feeds
 Elisa kit for quick quantitative and
qualitative analysis
Supplementation of mold inhibitors to
prepared feeds:
1. Propionic acid
2. Benzoates
3. Formic acid
MYCOTOXINS
TEMPERATURE > 25oC + MOISTURE >12%

MYCOTOXINS IN AQUATIC FEEDS
MYCOTOXIN MAXIMUM LEVEL (µg/kg )
Aflatoxin
Omnivorous fish species < 50
Shrimp < 20
Trichothecenes
Omnivorous fish < 150
Carnivorous fish species < 100
Shrimp < 100
Deoxynivalenol (DON,
vomitoxin)
Shrimp < 300
Fumonisin
Omnivorous fish < 1,000
Shrimp < 750
Zearalenone
Shrimp < 200
Ochratoxin
Shrimp < 120

GRINDING
 Process by which feed
ingredients are ground to
smaller particles
 Accounts for a major cost in
feed processing
• > 95% = <250 microns
• Remainder should not
exceed 400 microns
 Ingredients with particles >
2.5 mm should be pre-
ground
 Worn hammers and
increased feed rates can
result in coarser particle
sizes
Screens of an industrial grinder
Hammers inside a grinder
0.6 a 1.2 mm

• Increases contact with heat during processing
• Help to destroy anti-nutritional factors
• Improves mixing of individual feed particles
• Promotes digestibility in shrimp and fish
steam
Poor cooking = poor
starch gelatinization
LARGER SURFACE AREA
enzymes
WHY EFFECTIVE GRINDING IS NECESSARY?
SMALLER SURFACE AREA

GRINDING
Sorghum, wheat
bran, soybean
meal, corn
require grinding
Animal ingredients should be mixed with cereal
grains or solvent extracted oil seeds

MIXING
Liquid spray
(lecithin, fish oil,
fish solubles)
 Critical to obtain a uniform mix
 Mix uniformity = feed ingredient/nutrient
consistency
 Particle size, shape, density, static charge,
hygroscopicity and adhesiveness lead to
ingredient segregation = nutritional
imbalance
 Addition of vitamins, binders and other
additives
 Control duration of mixing and loading of
ingredients
 Vertical = 12 to 15 minutes
 Horizontal = 3 to 5 minutes
Top view of a
horizontal
mixer
No fish oil in
mixing
Addition of fish
oil in mixing
Ribbon/horizontal mixer
Clean to be free
from build-up of
residues
Noozle spray
INGREDIENT CLUMPING

CONDITIONING
 Aqua feeds contain ingredients with
high starch content
 Need to gelatinize starch and denature
proteins: biding proprieties increased
 Gelatinization promoted by heat and
water
 Type of starch, time, temperature and
amount of moisture will determine
level of gelatinization
Source:
WHY CONDITIONING?
Extruded – floating – fish
Reduces wear costs
Increases capacity of extruder
Improved control of floating
Ingredient flexibility
Pelleted – sinking – shrimp
Water stability
Pellet appearance
Greater production capacity
Shafts + paddles

PELLETING – SINKING – SHRIMP
> 90oC temperature
Steam pressure 60 – 150 PSI
> 90-second retention
From mixer (13 – 14%
moisture)
16 – 18% moisture before die
Double conditioning cylinders
Press rollers
Die
Die
 The bulk of shrimp feed is produced
through pelleting
 Shrimp are slow feeders
 Conditioning is critical to keep feed
stable while immersed in water
 80% water stable for
4 hours
Cooked mash
POST-COOKING
Knife

WET EXTRUSION – FLOATING - FISH
Preconditioning:
20-25% moisture
90oC temperature
3 to 5-minute retention
Extruder barrel
Live bin
Die
and
knife
Dried feed mix
Preconditioning cylinder
Steam
Water+heat
Extruder
drive
Dual shaft
Colling and drying
Extrusion:
120-150oC temperature
215-435 psi steam pressure
Retention 25-30 seconds

FINES IN EXCESSDRYING AND COOLING
 Shelf-life: control growth of
microorganisms during storage
 No need to use heat to dry pelleted
shrimp feed; cooling suffices
 Extruded fish feeds require drying
and cooling
 15-20 min. retention. Max. temp.
177oC: 10% final moisture
Cooling fan
Fan 1 Fan 2 Fan 3 Fan 4
Exhaustion fan
Conveyor dryer
Conveyor cooler
Source: Pastore et al., 2013
Dryer attached to a cooler.
Source: Extru-tech

FINES IN EXCESSOIL COATING
 Feeds can be oil-coated through several
methods
 Critical to be accurate in the amount of oil
added = formula
 Preferably coat while feed still hot
 Vacuum coating systems required when oil
>10%
feed after oil coating
before oil coating
Vacuum coater

FINES IN EXCESSREMOVAL OF FINES AND OVERS*
*Oversized pellets or clumps of pellets and debris
1. May remove up to 5% of
fines and overs for
recycling
2. > 5% may reduce feed
water stability
Source: Tan and Dominy (1997)
Sifting of finished shrimp feed in a screener

BAGGING
 Feeds are packed in 10 to 25 kg bags
(40-kg bags still used in Brazil)
 Bags made from polypropylene
laminated with or without inner bag
 Packaging, labeling and advertising:
need to comply with MAPA s
Regulatory Instruction # 22, Jun. 2,
2009
 Bags should be tagged with code
that identifies production run in
case quality issues are identified and
recalling is required
 Preferably adopt automatic
weighing of bags and semi-
automatic sewing

FEED STORAGE
Pallet
Front view
Top view
1.8 m
1.3m
8 bags stacked
8 bags in the base
 Use pallets to rest feed bags
 Avoid excessive stacking (maximum of
10 bags)
 Keep bags away from direct contact
with walls, floor, sunlight, humidity
 Adopt first-in-first out
 Never deliver feeds to the market near
expiration date or with the following
signs (Jauncey and Ross, 1982;
Goddard, 1996):
 Mustiness and staleness
 Discoloration and lumpiness
 An increase in moisture content and
temperature with resulting
“sweating”

CONCLUSIONS AND REMARKS
 Need to promote greatest awareness of GMP principles across all
feed mills in the country
 Industry should be proactive in defining higher standards for raw
material and feeds:
1. Work with suppliers to raise quality standards of rendered
animal byproducts and fishmeal made from fisheries offal and
by-catch through certification
2. Improve guarantee levels in labels and bags beyond
government regulation: methionine, lysine, protein digestibility,
fines, water stability, floatability
3. Formulate towards lowest phosphorus emission feeds possible
4. Maintain traceability records in production (ingredients,
medicated feeds and finished products)
5. Extend shelf-life of finished feeds

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
1. CNPq/MCT: Research Productivity fellowship - PQ - 2012 ,
Protocol #: 305513/2012-5

Good Feed Manufacturing Practices for the Brazilian Aquaculture Industry

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