Evolution of Archaeological Studies in India. History of Archaeology in Indian context.

1. DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY:
INDIAN CONTEXT
By:Dr. Ashwani Asthana

2. DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY:
INDIAN CONTEXT
DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL
RESEARCH IN INDIA CAN BE TRACED BACK TO
THE EARLY 16TH
CENTURY WHEN PORTUGESE
RESIDENTS OF GOA, OTHER EUROPEAN
SAILORS AND OCCASIONAL TRAVELERS FROM
THE WEST PAID THEIR ATTENTION TO WRITE
AND DOCUMENT THE ROCK CUT CAVES OF
WESTERN INDIA AND THE ELEGANT SOUTH
INDIAN TEMPLES

3. 2. AN ITALIAN NAMED PIETRO DELLA
VALLE BETWEEN 1623 AND 1625 DREW
THE GROUND PLANS OF S. INDIAN
TEMPLES, THE FIRST OF THEIR KIND
IN EUROPEAN LITERATURE
3. AMONGST THE MONUMENTS
ELEPHANTA ON THE WESTERN
COAST AND THE BLACK AND THE
WHITE PAGODAS (KONARAK AND
JAGAN NATH TEMPLE) WERE
FREQUENTLY DESCRIBED
4. DURING THE MIDDLE 18TH
CENTURY
UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPT WAS MADE

4. BY A FRENCH GEOGRAPHER J.B.B. D’
ANVILLE ON THE BASIS OF THE
ACCOUNTS OF GREEK AMBESSADOR
TO THE MAURYAN COURT,
MEGASTHANESE
• HE INCORRCETLY INDENTIFIED
PATALIPUTRA WITH PRAYAG
5. INCIDENTLY THE TRUE
IDENTIFICATION OF PATLIPUTRA
WITH PATNA WAS MADE BY AN
ENGLISH GEOGRAPHER IN 1788
6. IN 1783 SIR WILLIAM JONES JOINED
THE CALCUTTA HIGH COURT AS
JUSTICE

5. • HE ESTABLISHED THE ROYAL
ASIATIC SOCIETY ON 15TH
JANUARY
1784 WITH A VIEW TO PROMOTE
RESEARCH ON ANTIQUITIES, ARTS,
SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND
HISTORY
7. IN ORDER TO PUBLISH VARIOUS
RESEARCHES HE STARTED THE
PUBLICATION OF ASIATICK
RESEARCHES IN 1788
8. CONSEQUENTLY IN 1804 IN BOMBAY
AND IN MADRAS IN 1818 THE
LITERARY SOCIETIES WERE
ESTABLISHED

6. 9. WILLIAM JONES IS CREDITED WITH
THE FIRST CLEAR STATEMENT
ABOUT THE LINGUISTIC AFFINITY
BETWEEN LANGUAGES LIKE
SANSKRIT, GREEK AND LATIN
• HE ESTABLISHED THAT THE NAME
SANDROKOTTOS MENTIONED IN
GREEK LITERATURE WAS
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA AND THE
PALYBOTHRA CITY WAS NONE
OTHER THAN THE CITY OF
PATALIPUTRA SITUATED ON THE
CONFLUENCE OF GANGA AND SON

7. 10. BETWEEN 1834 AND 1837 JAMES
PRINCEP WHO WAS THE SECRETARY
OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY
SUCCESSFULLY DECIPHERED THE
BRAHMI SCRIPT AND THUS PAVED A
NEW WAY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
EPIGRAPHICAL RESEARCHES IN
INDIA
• AFTER THIS THE ASOKAN
INSCRIPTIONS COULD BE READ
• PRINCEP WAS ALSO AN SCHOLAR OF
NUMISMATICS
• HE DIED IN 1840

8. 13. AFTER HIM A NUMBER OF
SCHOLARS LIKE JAMES FERGUS
SON, MARKHAM KITTOE, EDWARD
THOMAS, A CUNNINGHAM, WALTER
ELLIOT, COL. MEAEDOWS TAYLOR,
ETC., WORKED IN THE DIFFERENT
PARTS OF INDIA
• THE YEAR 1861 IS SIGNIFICANT
FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF
ARCHAEOLOGY

9. 16. THE ASI WAS ESTABLISHED
17. AFTER ITS ESTABLISHMENT WITH
FEW INITIAL SET BACKS THE
PROGRESS IN INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGY
WAS IMMENSE
18. THERE WAS NO END TO ITS STEADY
GROWTH
19. MOST OF THE SCHOLARS FOR THE
PURPOSE OF STUDY DEVIDE THE
GROWTH OF INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGY
IN TO THE FOUR PHASES

10. 1ST
PHASE: FROM 1861 TO 1902
2ND
PHASE: FROM 1902 TO 1944
3RD
PHASE: FROM 1944 TO 1960
4TH
PHASE : FROM 1960 AND ONWARDS

11. FIRST PHASE
1. IN 1861 SIR A CUNNINGHAM WAS
APPOINTED AS SURVEY OF ASI FOR 5
YEARS
• HE MADE EXTENSIVE SURVEY
BETWEEN 1861 TO 1865 FROM GAYA
IN THE EAST TO SINDH IN THE WEST
AND FROM KALSI IN NORTH TO
NARMADA REGION IN CENTRAL
INDIA
• FOR HIS EXTENSIVE WORKS HE
FOLLOWED THE TRAVEL ACCOUNTS
OF THE CHINESE PILGRIM HIUEN
TSANG

12. • HE HAD TO STOP HIS WORKS
BECAUSE OF THE SUDDEN CLOSURE
OF THE ARCHAEOLOGY
DEPARTMENT
2. CUNNINGHAM WAS AGAIN
APPOINTED AS DG IN 1871 ON RS. 2000
MONTHLY PAY
• DURING HIS TENURE HE SURVEYED
DELHI AND AGRA, RAJPUTANA,
BUNDELKHAND MATHURA
BODHGAYA, GAUR (BENGAL), PUNJAB,
ETC.
3. IN 1878 TREASURE TROVE ACT WAS
PASSED

13. 4. CUNNINGHAM DISCOVERED HOARD
OF PUNCH MARKED COINS FROM PRE
GREEK LEVELS AT TAXILA,
• HE CONCENTRATED HIS SURVEY IN
BIHAR AND BENGAL DURING 1879 –80
• BETWEEN 1882 AND 1885 HE MADE HIS
SURVEY IN RAJPUTANA,
BUNDELKHAND, REVA ETC. AND
PREPARED OFFICIAL NOTES
5. CONSIDERABLE PROGRESS WERE
ALSO MADE IN EPIGRAPHICAL
RESEARCH

14. 6. THE FIRST VOLUME OF CORPUS
INSCRIPTIONUM INDICARUM WAS
PUBLISHED IN 1877
7. JOHN FAITHFUL FLEET WAS
APPOINTED AS GOVT. EPIGRAPHIST
IN 1883
8. CONSERVATION WORK OF
MONUMENTS WAS NOT THE
RESPONSIBILITY OF DG AND IT WAS
MOSTLY THE RESPONSIBILITY OF
STATES
9. AFTER THE 18 YEARS OF HIS SERVICE
CUNNINGHAM WAS RETIRED IN 1885

15. 10. AMONGST THE MANY WORKS HE IS
ALWAYS REEMEMBERED FOR HIS
MEMORABLE WORKS, I.E., HIS TOUR
REPORT OF 1861 TO 1865, 23 VOLS.
REPORTS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL
EXPLORATIONS, ANCIENT
GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA, THE STUPA
OF BHARHUT, ETC.
• MANY SCHOLARS BELIEVED THAT
HE WAS THE FATHER OF INDIAN
ARCHAEOLOGY

16. • BUT ACCORDING TO OTHERS HE
IGNORED THE IMPRTANCE OF
PHYSICAL REMAINS FOR THE
CONSTRUCTION OF HISTORY
• HE ALSO FAILED TO EMPLOY
PLANNED ARCHAEOLOGICAL
METHODOLOGY
11.IN 1856 A SEAL WAS DISCOVERED
FROM HARAPPA BUT CUNNIGHAM
FAILD TO GIVE DUE IMPOTANCE
• HE ALSO DID NOT PAY DUE
ATTEANTION IN PREHISTORIC
RESEARCHES

17. 12. ARCHITECT JAMES BURGES WAS
APPOINTED DG IN 1886
13. HE MADE HIS CONTRIBUTION IN THE
SURVEY AND DOCUMENTATION OF
MONUMENTS FROM WESTERN INDIA,
NIZAMS STATE, DECCAN AND SOUTH
INDIA
• HE STARTED A TRIMONTHLY
RESEARCH JOURNAL EPIGRAPHI
INDICA IN 1888
• AFTER HIS RETIREMENT IN 1889
THERE WAS A VACCUM AND SET
BACK IN THE PLANNED
DEVELOPMENT OF
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

18. SECOND PHASE
1. LORD CURZON CAME TO INDIA AS
VICEROY IN 1899
• HE WANTED TO REVIVE THE
ARCHAEOLOGY IN INDIA WITH A
VIEW TO EXPLORATION OF
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND
REMAINS AND THEIR SUBSEQUENT
EXCAVATION, DECIPHERMENT OF
ANCIENT SCRIPTS, AND PREPARATION
OF THEIR COPY, CONSERVATION AND
PRESERVATION OF ANCIENT
REMAINS, ETC.

19. • HE APPOINTED SIR JOHN MARSHALL
AS DG IN 1902
2. MARSHALL HAD A GREAT
FASCINATION FOR THE
CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION
OF MONUMENTS
• HE LAID DOWN PRINCIPLES AND
GUIDELINES FOR THE
CONSERVATION OF MONUMENTS
AND SITES
3. ANNUAL REP. OF THE ASI WAS GIVEN
A FACE LIFE

20. 4. ANCIENT MONUMENTS
PRESERVATION ACT WAS PASSED IN
1904
5. MARSHALL WAS ASSOCIATED WITH
INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGY UPTO 1934,
TILL 1928 AS DG AND LATER IN THE
CAPACITY OF OSD
6. AMONGST THE IMPORTANT
EXCAVATIONS CONDUCTED BY
MARSHALL MENTION MAY BE MADE
OF SANCHI, NALANDA, SARNATH,
BHITA, ETC. BECAUSE OF HIS
EFFORTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL
CHEMIST WAS APPOINTED FOR THE
FIRST TIME

21. • DURING HIS TENURE HAARAPPAN
CIVILIZATION WAS DISCOVERED
• HARAPPA AND MOHENJODARO WAS
EXCAVATED BY D.R. SAHANI AND R.D.
BANERJEE
• HE ALSO EXCAVATED
MOHANJODARO BETWEEN 1922 TO
1926 WITH H. HARGREEVS, K.N.
DIKSHIT AND M.S. VATS
7. THE REPUTATION OF ASI GOT
INTERNATIONAL RECOGNITION

22. 8. MARSHALL WAS SUCCEEDED BY H.
HARGREEVS IN 1928 WHO WAS
SUCCEEDED BY THE FIRST INDIAN
RAI BAHADUR D. R. SAHNI IN 1931
9. H. DE. TERRA & T.T. PATERSON
VISITED INDIA IN 1935 (YALE
COMBRIDGE EXPEDITION)
10. RAI BAHADUR K.N. DIXIT OCCUPIED
THE SEAT OF DG IN 1937
11. SIR LEONARD WOOLEY WAS INVITED
BY THE ASI TO SUGGEST VARIOUS
MEANS TO IMPROVE THE WORKS OF
ASI

23. • TERMS OF REFERENCE WERE :-
EXCAVATION OF IMPORTANT SITES,
BEST WAYS OF EXPLORATIONS AND
AGENCIES, TRAINING IN THE
EXPLORATION AND RECRUITMENT
PROCEDURE OF OFFICIALS AND THEIR
SELECTION AND OTHER ISSUES
PERTAINING TO EXPLORATION AND
EXCAVATION
• HE SUBMITTED HIS REPORT IN 1939
AND CRITICISED THE OVERALL WAY
OF FUNCTIONING OF THE ASI EXCEPT
FOR THE EFFORTS ON CONSERVATION
OF MONUMENTS AND DEVELOPMENT
IN PALAEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH

24. • HE RECOMMENDED THE
APPOINTMENT OF AN ADVISOR ON
ARCHAEOLOGY AND TWO PROTO
HIS TORIANS
• HE ALSO ADVOCATED FOR THE
PARTICIPATION OF FOREIGN AND
INDIAN INSTITUTIONS IN THE
FIELD OF ARCHAEOLOGY
• AFTER HIS ADVISE
AHICHCHHATRA WAS EXCAVATED
FROM 1940 TO 1944 UNDER K.N.
DIXIT

25. 12. CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY WAS THE
FIRST INDIAN UNIVERSITY TO
OBTAIN LICENCE FOR EXCAVATION
AT BANGARH IN DINAJPUR
13. MEANWHILE THE II WORLD WAR
HAD BROKEN IN 1939, RESULTING
INTO DECREASE IN THE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES

26. IIIrd Phase
1. IN 1944 SIR ROBERT ERICH
MORTIMER WHEELER TOOK THE
CHARGE OF DG FROM K.N. DIXIT
• HE WAS A GREAT PROMOTER OF
SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUES IN
ARCHAEOLOGICAL WORK
2. AT HIS INSTANCE A SEPARATE
BRANCH FOR CONDUCTING
EXCAVATION WAS ESTABLISHED IN
1945

27. 3. A POST OF JOINT DG WAS ALSO
CREATED IN THE SAME YEAR
4. THE YEAR ALSO SAW THE
FORMATION OF CABA (CENTRAL
ADVISORY BOARD ON
ARCHEOLOGY) WHICH IS STILL
FUNCTIONING TILL DATE WITH THE
PARTICIPATION OF SCHOLARS FROM
UNIVERSITIES, RESEARCH
INSTITUTIONS, EDUCATIONAL
SOCIETIES, BESIDES THE GOVT.,
OFFICIALS FORM STATES & CENTRE

28. 5. IN ORDER TO CREATE A GROUP OF
TRAINED SCHOLARS WHEELER
WROTE TO VARIOUS UNIVERSITIES
TO SEND THEIR STUDENTS IN
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS
• HE SENT THEM TO THE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL CAMPS OF
TAXILA, ARIKAMEDU, BRAHMAGIRI
AND HARAPPA AND EVEN ARRANGED
FOR THEIR SCHOLARSHIPS
• HE STRESSED FOR THE USE OF
SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUES IN
ARCHAEOLOGY AND USED THE 3D
RECORDING IN EXCAVATIONS

29. 6. BEFORE HIM THE MEGALITHIC
ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE EARLY
HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY WAS
NOT GIVEN DUE IMPORTANCE
• HE EXCAVATED THE SITE OF
BRAHMAGIRI IN 1947 WHICH THREW
NEW LIGHT ON THE NEOLITHIC
MEGALITHIC CULTURES OF S. INDIA
• HIS EXCAVATIONS AT ARIKAMEDU IN
PONDICHERY PROVED BEYOND
DOUBT THAT INDIA HAD TRADING
RELATIONS WITH ROME AND
ARIKAMEDU WAS A PORT SITE FOR
INDO – ROMAN TRADE

30. 7. AFTER PARTITION HERAPPAN SITES
WENT INTO PAK. BUT AT THE SAME
TIME WITH THE MAERGER OF
PRINCELY STATES 1 LAC. 60,000 SQ.
MILE ADDITIONAL AREA CAME
UNDER THE JURISDICTION OF ASI
8. WHEELER WAS SUCCEED BY N.P.
CHAKRAVARTI IN 1948
• HIS INITIATION TO ESTABLISH A
NATIONAL MUSEUM WAS FULFILLED
IN THE SAME YEAR

31. 9. WITH THE INDIA BECAME REPUBLIC
STATE IN 1950, ARCHAEOLOGICAL
RESPONSIBLITIES WERE ALSO
DIVIDED AMONGST CENTRE AND
STATE
10. A GHOSH JOINED AS DG IN 1953 AS A
RESULTS, EXPLORATION IN THE NW
PARTS OF INDIA GOT MOMENTUM
-KALIBANGAN, IN GANGANAGAR,
LOTHAL IN AHMEDABAD AND ROPAR
IN PUNJAB WERE DISCOVERED
11. HASTINAPUR WAS EXCAVATED
DURING 1950 –52 BY B.B. LAL

32. 12. VILLAGE TO VILLAGE SURVEY
WAS INSTITUTED IN 1957
13. AMASR 1958 WAS ENACTED ON 15TH
OCT. 1959

33. IV PHASE
1. AFTER INCEPTION ASI
CELEBRATED ITS 100YR. IN 1961
2. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
WAS ORGANISED
3. VARIOUS IMPORTANT HARAPPAN
SITES WERE DISCOVERED AND
EXCAVATED – GUJARAT,
HARYANA PUNJAB, KUTCH.
JAMMU (SURKOTDA
BHAGWANPURA, BANAWALI)

34. 4. NATIONAL PROJECT –
ARCHAEOLOGY OF RAMAYANA &
MAHABHARATA SITES
5. SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGY WAS
ESTABLISHED IN 1960
6. DIFFERENT UNIVERSITIES CAME
FORWARD WITH THEIR
ARCHAEOLOGICAL WORKS
7. FOREIGN COLLABORATION –
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY – BARODA
BERKLEY, CALIFORNIA -ALLAHABAD

35. BELAN VALLEY -
SONE VALLEY IN MP SIDHI DIST
8. 1967 – IAS IN VARANASI –
PURATTATVA
9. 1976 – ISPQS PUNE - ME
10. 1946-1953 – ANCIENT INDIA
1953 - IAR

36. A GHOSH – 1968; B.B. LAL – 1972; M.N.
DESHPANDE – 1979; BAL KRISHANA
THAPAR – 1981; DEBALA MITRA –
1982; M.S. NAGARAJA RAO 1983-1986,
JAGAT PATI JOSHI M.C. JOSHI, ETC.